and feminine action so plain as in that between husband and wife, father
and mother. It requires no very great effort of imagination to carry the
distinction beyond the bounds of animated nature, into the world at
large. To men for whom every portion or force of the universe was
endowed with a particle of the divine nature and power, many were the
things which seemed to be paired in a contrasting, yet joint action
similar to that of the sexes. If the great and distant Heaven appeared
to them as the universal ruler and lord, the source of all things--the
Father of the Gods, as they put it--surely the beautiful Earth, kind
nurse, nourisher and preserver of all things that have life, could be
called the universal Mother. If the fierce summer and noonday sun could
be looked on as the resistless conqueror, the dread King of the world,
holding death and disease in his hand, was not the quiet, lovely moon,
of mild and soothing light, bringing the rest of coolness and healing
dews, its gentle Queen? In short, there is not a power or a phenomenon
of nature which does not present to a poetical imagination a twofold
aspect, answering to the standard masculine and feminine qualities and
peculiarities. The ancient thinkers--priests--who framed the vague
guesses of the groping, dreaming mind into schemes and systems of
profound meaning, expressed this sense of the twofold nature of things
by worshipping a double divine being or principle, masculine and
feminine. Thus every god was supplied with a wife, through the entire
series of divine emanations and manifestations. And as all the gods were
in reality only different names and forms of the Supreme and
Unfathomable ONE, so all the goddesses represent only BELIT, the great
feminine principle of nature--productiveness, maternity,
tenderness--also contained, like everything else, in that ONE, and
emanating from it in endless succession. Hence it comes that the
goddesses of the Chaldeo-Babylonian religion, though different in name
and apparently in attributions, become wonderfully alike when looked at
closer. They are all more or less repetitions of BELIT, the wife of BEL.
Her name--which is only the feminine form of the god's, meaning "the
Lady," as Bel means "the Lord,"--sufficiently shows that the two are
really one. Of the other goddesses the most conspicuous are ANAT or NANA
(Earth), the wife of Anu (Heaven), ANUNIT (the Moon), wife of Shamash
(the Sun), and lastly ISHTAR, the ruler of the planet Venus in her own
right, and by far the most attractive and interesting of the list. She
was a great favorite, worshipped as the Queen of Love and Beauty, and
also as the Warrior-Queen, who rouses men to deeds of bravery, inspirits
and protects them in battle--perhaps because men have often fought and
made war for the love of women, and also probably because the planet
Venus, her own star, appears not only in the evening, close after
sunset, but also immediately before daybreak, and so seems to summon the
human race to renewed efforts and activity. Ishtar could not be an
exception to the general principle and remain unmated. But her husband,
DUMUZ (a name for the Sun), stands to her in an entirely subordinate
position, and, indeed, would be but little known were it not for a
beautiful story that was told of them in a very old poem, and which will
find its place among many more in one of the next chapters.
12. It would be tedious and unnecessary to recite here more names of gods
and goddesses, though there are quite a number, and more come to light
all the time as new tablets are discovered and read. Most of them are in
reality only different names for the same conceptions, and the
Chaldeo-Babylonian pantheon--or assembly of divine persons--is very
sufficiently represented by the so-called "twelve great gods," who were
universally acknowledged to be at its head, and of whom we will here
repeat the names: ANU, ÊA and BEL, SIN, SHAMASH and RAMÂN, NIN-DAR,
MARUDUK, NERGAL, NEBO, BELIT and ISHTAR. Each had numerous temples all
over the country. But every great city had its favorite whose temple was
the oldest, largest and most sumptuous, to whose worship it was
especially devoted from immemorial times. Êa, the most beloved god of old
Shumir, had his chief sanctuary, which he shared with his son Meridug, at
ERIDHU (now Abu-Shahrein), the most southern and almost the most ancient
city of Shumir, situated near the mouth of the Euphrates, since the
Persian Gulf reached quite as far inland in the year 4000 B.C., and this
was assuredly an appropriate station for the great "lord of the deep,"
the Fish-god Oannes, who emerged from the waters to instruct mankind. UR,
as we have seen, was the time-honored seat of the Moon-god. At ERECH Anu
and Anat or Nana--Heaven and Earth--were specially honored from the
remotest antiquity, being jointly worshipped in the temple called "the
House of Heaven." This may have been the reason of the particular
sacredness attributed to the ground all around Erech, as witnessed by the
exceeding persistency with which people strove for ages to bury their
dead in it, as though under the immediate protection of the goddess of
Earth[AT] (see Ch. III. of Introduction). Larsam paid especial homage to
Shamash and was famous for its very ancient "House of the Sun." The Sun
and Moon--Shamash and Anunit--had their rival sanctuaries at SIPPAR on
the "Royal Canal," which ran nearly parallel to the Euphrates, and AGADÊ,
the city of Sargon, situated just opposite on the other bank of the
canal. The name of Agadê was lost in the lapse of time, and both cities
became one, the two portions being distinguished only by the addition
"Sippar of the Sun" and "Sippar of Anunit." The Hebrews called the united
city "The two Sippars"--SEPHARVAIM, the name we find in the Bible.
13. The site of this important city was long doubtful; but in 1881 one
of the most skilful and indefatigable searchers, Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, a
gentleman who began his career as assistant to Layard, made a discovery
which set the question at rest. He was digging in a mound known to the
Arabs by the name of Abu-Habba, and had made his way into the apartments
of a vast structure which he knew to be a temple. From room to room he
passed until he came to a smaller chamber, paved with asphalt, which he
at once surmised to be the archive-room of the temple. "Heretofore,"
says Mr. Rassam in his report, "all Assyrian and Babylonian structures
were found to be paved generally either with stone or brick,
consequently this novel discovery led me to have the asphalt broken into
and examined. On doing so we found, buried in a corner of the chamber,
about three feet below the surface, an inscribed earthenware coffer,
inside which was deposited a stone tablet...." Rassam had indeed
stumbled on the archive of the famous Sun-temple, as was proved not only
by the tablet, but by the numerous documents which accompanied it, and
which gave the names of the builders and restorers of the temple. As to
the tablet, it is the finest and best preserved work of art of the kind
which has yet been found. It was deposited about the year 880 B.C. on
occasion of a restoration and represents the god himself, seated on a
throne, receiving the homage of worshippers, while above him the
sun-disc is held suspended from heaven on two strong cords, like a
gigantic lamp, by two ministering beings, who may very probably belong
to the host of Igigi or spirits of heaven. The inscription, in
beautifully clear and perfectly preserved characters, informs us that
this is "The image of Shamash, the great lord, who dwells in the 'House
of the Sun,' (_Ê-Babbara_) which is within the city of Sippar."[AU] (See
Frontispiece.) This was a truly magnificent find, and who knows but
something as unexpected and as conclusive may turn up to fix for us the
exact place of the temple of Anunit, and consequently of the venerable
city of Agadê. As to BABYLON, it was originally placed under divine
protection generally, as shown by its proper Semitic name, BAB-ILU,
which means, as we have already seen, "the Gate of God," and exactly
answers to the Shumiro-Accadian name of the city (KA-DINGIRRA, or
KA-DIMIRRA); but later on it elected a special protector in the person
of MARUDUK, the old favorite, Meridug. When Babylon became the capital
of the united monarchy of Shumir and Accad, its patron divinity, under
the name of BEL-MARUDUK, ("the Lord Maruduk") rose to a higher rank than
he had before occupied; his temple outshone all others and became a
wonder of the world for its wealth and splendor. He had another,
scarcely less splendid, and founded by Hammurabi himself in Borsip. In
this way religion was closely allied to politics. For in the days before
the reunion of the great cities under the rule of Hammurabi, whichever
of them was the most powerful at the time, its priests naturally claimed
the pre-eminence for their local deity even beyond their own boundaries.
So that the fact of the old Kings of Ur, Ur-êa and his descendants, not
limiting themselves to the worship of their national Moon-god, but
building temples in many places and to many gods, was perhaps a sign of
a conciliating general policy as much as of liberal religious feeling.
14. One would think that so very perfect a system of religion, based too
on so high and noble an order of ideas, should have entirely superseded
the coarse materialism and conjuring practices of the goblin-creed of
the primitive Turanian settlers. Such, however, was far from being the
case. We saw that the new religion made room, somewhat contemptuously
perhaps, for the spirits of the old creed, carelessly massing them
wholesale into a sort of regiment, composed of the three hundred IGIGI,
or spirits of heaven, and the six hundred ANUNNAKI, or spirits of earth.
The conjurers and sorcerers of old were even admitted into the
priesthood in an inferior capacity, as a sort of lower order, probably
more tolerated than encouraged--tolerated from necessity, because the
people clung to their ancient beliefs and practices. But if their
official position as a priestly class were subordinate, their real power
was not the less great, for the public favor and credulity were on their
side, and they were assuredly more generally popular than the learned
and solemn priests, the counsellors and almost the equals of the kings,
whose thoughts dwelt among the stars, who reverently searched the
heavens for revelations of the divine will and wisdom, and who, by
pursuing accurate observation and mathematical calculation together with
the wildest dreams, made astronomy and astrology the inextricable tangle
of scientific truth and fantastic speculation that we see it in the
great work (in seventy tablets) prepared for the library of Sargon II.
at Agadê. That the ancient system of conjuring and incantations remained
in full force and general use, is sufficiently proved by the contents of
the first two parts of the great collection in two hundred tablets
compiled in the reign of the same king, and from the care with which
the work was copied and recopied, commented on and translated in later
ages, as we see from the copy made for the Royal Library at Nineveh, the
one which has reached us.
15. There was still a third branch of so-called "science," which greatly
occupied the minds of the Chaldeo-Babylonians from their earliest times
down to the latest days of their existence: it was the art of
Divination, i.e., of divining and foretelling future events from signs
and omens, a superstition born of the old belief in every object of
inanimate nature being possessed or inhabited by a spirit, and the later
belief in a higher power ruling the world and human affairs to the
smallest detail, and constantly manifesting itself through all things in
nature as through secondary agents, so that nothing whatever could occur
without some deeper significance, which might be discovered and
expounded by specially trained and favored individuals. In the case of
atmospheric prophecies concerning weather and crops, as connected with
the appearance of clouds, sky and moon, the force and direction of
winds, etc., there may have been some real observation to found them on.
But it is very clear that such a conception, if carried out consistently
to extreme lengths and applied indiscriminately to _everything_, must
result in arrant folly. Such was assuredly the case with the
Chaldeo-Babylonians, who not only carefully noted and explained dreams,
drew lots in doubtful cases by means of inscribed arrows, interpreted
the rustle of trees, the plashing of fountains and murmur of streams,
the direction and form of lightnings, not only fancied that they could
see things in bowls of water and in the shifting forms assumed by the
flame which consumed sacrifices, and the smoke which rose therefrom, and
that they could raise and question the spirits of the dead, but drew
presages and omens, for good or evil, from the flight of birds, the
appearance of the liver, lungs, heart and bowels of the animals offered
in sacrifice and opened for inspection, from the natural defects or
monstrosities of babies or the young of animals--in short, from any and
everything that they could possibly subject to observation.
16. This idlest of all kinds of speculation was reduced to a most minute
and apparently scientific system quite as early as astrology and
incantation, and forms the subject of a third collection, in about one
hundred tablets, and probably compiled by those same indefatigable
priests of Agadê for Sargon, who was evidently of a most methodical turn
of mind, and determined to have all the traditions and the results of
centuries of observation and practical experiences connected with any
branch of religious science fixed forever in the shape of thoroughly
classified rules, for the guidance of priests for all coming ages. This
collection has come to us in an even more incomplete and mutilated
condition than the others; but enough has been preserved to show us that
a right-thinking and religiously-given Chaldeo-Babylonian must have
spent his life taking notes of the absurdest trifles, and questioning
the diviners and priests about them, in order not to get into scrapes by
misinterpreting the signs and taking that to be a favorable omen which
boded dire calamity--or the other way, and thus doing things or leaving
them undone at the wrong moment and in the wrong way. What excites,
perhaps, even greater wonder, is the utter absurdity of some of the
incidents gravely set down as affecting the welfare, not only of
individuals, but of the whole country. What shall we say, for instance,
of the importance attached to the proceedings of stray dogs? Here are
some of the items as given by Mr. Fr. Lenormant in his most valuable and
entertaining book on Chaldean Divination:--
"If a gray dog enter the palace, the latter will be consumed by
flames.--If a yellow dog enter the palace, the latter will perish in a
violent catastrophe.--If a tawny dog enter the palace, peace will be
concluded with the enemies.--If a dog enter the palace and be not
killed, the peace of the palace will be disturbed.--If a dog enter the
temple, the gods will have no mercy on the land.--If a white dog enter
the temple, its foundations will subsist.--If a black dog enter the
temple, its foundations will be shaken.--If a gray dog enter the temple,
the latter will lose its possessions.... If dogs assemble in troops and
enter the temple, no one will remain in authority.... If a dog vomits in
a house, the master of that house will die."
17. The chapter on monstrous births is extensive. Not only is every
possible anomaly registered, from an extra finger or toe to an ear
smaller than the other, with its corresponding presage of good or evil
to the country, the king, the army, but the most impossible
monstrosities are seriously enumerated, with the political conditions of
which they are supposed to be the signs. For instance:--"If a woman give
birth to a child with lion's ears, a mighty king will rule the land ...
with a bird's beak, there will be peace in the land.... If a queen give
birth to a child with a lion's face, the king will have no rival ... if
to a snake, the king will be mighty.... If a mare give birth to a foal
with a lion's mane, the lord of the land will annihilate his enemies ...
with a dog's paws, the land will be diminished ... with a lion's paws,
the land will be increased.... If a sheep give birth to a lion, there
will be war, the king will have no rival.... If a mare give birth to a
dog, there will be disaster and famine."
18. The three great branches of religious science--astrology,
incantation and divination--were represented by three corresponding
classes of "wise men," all belonging, in different degrees, to the
priesthood: the star-gazers or astrologers, the magicians or sorcerers,
and the soothsayers or fortune-tellers. The latter, again, were divided
into many smaller classes according to the particular kind of divination
which they practised. Some specially devoted themselves to the
interpretation of dreams, others to that of the flight of birds, or of
the signs of the atmosphere, or of casual signs and omens generally. All
were in continual demand, consulted alike by kings and private persons,
and all proceeded in strict accordance with the rules and principles
laid down in the three great works of King Sargon's time. When the
Babylonian empire ceased to exist and the Chaldeans were no longer a
nation, these secret arts continued to be practised by them, and the
name "Chaldean" became a by-word, a synonym for "a wise man of the
East,"--astrologer, magician or soothsayer. They dispersed all over the
world, carrying their delusive science with them, practising and
teaching it, welcomed everywhere by the credulous and superstitious,
often highly honored and always richly paid. Thus it is from the
Chaldeans and their predecessors the Shumiro-Accads that the belief in
astrology, witchcraft and every kind of fortune-telling has been handed
down to the nations of Europe, together with the practices belonging
thereto, many of which we find lingering even to our day among the less
educated classes. The very words "magic" and "magician" are probably an
inheritance of that remotest of antiquities. One of the words for
"priest" in the old Turanian tongue of Shumir was _imga_, which, in the
later Semitic language, became _mag_. The _Rab-mag_--"great priest," or
perhaps "chief conjurer," was a high functionary at the court of the
Assyrian kings. Hence "magus," "magic," "magician," in all the European
languages, from Latin downward.
19. There can be no doubt that we have little reason to be grateful for
such an heirloom as this mass of superstitions, which have produced so
much evil in the world and still occasionally do mischief enough. But we
must not forget to set off against it the many excellent things, most
important discoveries in the province of astronomy and mathematics
which have come to us from the same distant source. To the ancient
Chaldeo-Babylonians we owe not only our division of time, but the
invention of the sun-dial, and the week of seven days, dedicated in
succession to the Sun, the Moon, and the five planets--an arrangement
which is still maintained, the names of our days being merely
translations of the Chaldean ones. And more than that; there were days
set apart and kept holy, as days of rest, as far back as the time of
Sargon of Agadê; it was from the Semites of Babylonia--perhaps the
Chaldeans of Ur--that both the name and the observance passed to the
Hebrew branch of the race, the tribe of Abraham. George Smith found an
Assyrian calendar where the day called _Sabattu_ or _Sabattuv_ is
explained to mean "completion of work, a day of rest for the soul." On
this day, it appears it was not lawful to cook food, to change one's
dress, to offer a sacrifice; the king was forbidden to speak in public,
to ride in a chariot, to perform any kind of military or civil duty,
even to take medicine.[AV] This, surely, is a keeping of the Sabbath as
strict as the most orthodox Jew could well desire. There are, however,
essential differences between the two. In the first place, the
Babylonians kept _five_ Sabbath days every month, which made more than
one a week; in the second place, they came round on certain dates of
each month, independently of the day of the week: on the 7th, 14th,
19th, 21st and 28th. The custom appears to have passed to the Assyrians,
and there are indications which encourage the supposition that it was
shared by other nations connected with the Jews, the Babylonians and
Assyrians, for instance, by the Phoenicians.
FOOTNOTES:
[AR] See A. H. Sayce, "The Ancient Empires of the East" (1883), p. 389.
[AS] Rawlinson's "Five Monarchies," Vol. I., p. 164.
[AT] It was the statue of this very goddess Nana which was carried away
by the Elamite conqueror, Khudur-Nankhundi in 2280 B.C. and restored to
its place by Asshurbanipal in 645 B.C.
[AU] The three circles above the god represent the Moon-god, the
Sun-god, and Ishtar. So we are informed by the two lines of writing
which ran above the roof.
[AV] Friedrich Delitzsch, "Beigaben" to the German translat. of Smith's
"Chaldean Genesis" (1876), p. 300. A. H. Sayce, "The Ancient Empires of
the East" (1883), p. 402. W. Lotz, "Quæstiones de Historia Sabbati."
VI.
LEGENDS AND STORIES.