catastrophe seems to have overtaken Chaldea. He is succeeded by a line
of foreign kings, who must have obtained possession of the country by
conquest. They were princes of a fierce and warlike mountain race, the
KASSHI, who lived in the highlands that occupy the whole north-western
portion of Elam, where they probably began to feel cramped for room.
This same people has been called by the later Greek geographers COSSÆANS
or CISSIANS, and is better known under either of these names. Their
language, of which very few specimens have survived, is not yet
understood; but so much is plain, that it is very different both from
the Semitic language of Babylon and that of Shumir and Accad, so that
the names of the Kasshi princes are easily distinguishable from all
others. No dismemberment of the empire followed this conquest, however,
if conquest there was. The kings of the new dynasty seem to have
succeeded each other peacefully enough in Babylon. But the conquering
days of Chaldea were over. We read no more of expeditions into the
plains of Syria and to the "Sea of the Setting Sun." For a power was
rising in the North-West, which quickly grew into a formidable rival:
through many centuries Assyria kept the rulers of the Southern kingdom
too busy guarding their frontiers and repelling inroads to allow them to
think of foreign conquests.
FOOTNOTES:
[AH] Names are often deceptive. That of the Hindu-Cush is now thought to
mean "Killers of Hindus," probably in allusion to robber tribes of the
mountains, and to have nothing to do with the Cushite race.
[AI] "Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient," 1878, p. 160.
[AJ] Translation of Professor A. H. Sayce.
[AK] A. H. Sayce.
[AL] Translated by A. H. Sayce, in his paper "Babylonian Folk-lore" in
the "Folk-lore Journal," Vol. I., Jan., 1883.
[AM] See Figs. 44 and 45, p. 101.
[AN] This name was at first read Urukh, then Likbabi, then Likbagash,
then Urbagash, then Urba'u, and now Professor Friedr. Delitzsch
announces that the final and correct reading is in all probability
either Ur-ea or Arad-ea.
[AO] Geo. Rawlinson, "Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern
World" (1862), Vol. I., pp. 198 and ff.
[AP] Geo. Smith, in "Records of the Past," Vol. V., p. 75. Fritz Hommel,
"Die Semiten," p. 210 and note 101.
[AQ] It should be mentioned, however, that scholars have of late been
inclined to see in this name an allusion to the passage of the Jordan at
the time of the conquest of Canaan by Israel, after the Egyptian
bondage.
V.
BABYLONIAN RELIGION.
1. In relating the legend of the Divine Man-Fish, who came out of the
Gulf, and was followed, at intervals, by several more similar beings,
Berosus assures us, that he "taught the people all the things that make
up civilization," so that "nothing new was invented after that any
more." But if, as is suggested, "this monstrous Oannes" is really a
personification of the strangers who came into the land, and, being
possessed of a higher culture, began to teach the Turanian population,
the first part of this statement is as manifestly an exaggeration as the
second. A people who had invented writing, who knew how to build, to
make canals, to work metals, and who had passed out of the first and
grossest stage of religious conceptions, might have much to learn, but
certainly not _everything_. What the newcomers--whether Cushites or
Semites--did teach them, was a more orderly way of organizing society
and ruling it by means of laws and an established government, and, above
all, astronomy and mathematics--sciences in which the Shumiro-Accads
were little proficient, while the later and mixed nation, the Chaldeans,
attained in them a very high perfection, so that many of their
discoveries and the first principles laid down by them have come down to
us as finally adopted facts, confirmed by later science. Thus, the
division of the year into twelve months corresponding to as many
constellations, known as "the twelve signs of the Zodiac," was familiar
to them. They had also found out the division of the year into twelve
months, only all their months had thirty days. So they were obliged to
add an extra month--an intercalary month, as the scientific term
is--every six years, to start even with the sun again, for they knew
where the error in their reckoning lay. These things the strangers
probably taught the Shumiro-Accads, but at the same time borrowed from
them their way of counting. The Turanian races to this day have this
peculiarity, that they do not care for the decimal system in arithmetic,
but count by dozens and sixties, preferring numbers that can be divided
by twelve and sixty. The Chinese even now do not measure time by
centuries or periods of a hundred years, but by a cycle or period of
sixty years. This was probably the origin of the division, adopted in
Babylonia, of the sun's course into 360 equal parts or degrees, and of
the day into twelve "_kasbus_" or double hours, since the kasbu answered
to two of our hours, and was divided into sixty parts, which we might
thus call "double minutes," while these again were composed of sixty
"double seconds." The natural division of the year into twelve months
made this so-called "docenal" and "sexagesimal" system of calculation
particularly convenient, and it was applied to everything--measures of
weight, distance, capacity and size as well as time.
2. Astronomy is a strangely fascinating science, with two widely
different and seemingly contradictory aspects, equally apt to develop
habits of hard thinking and of dreamy speculation. For, if on one hand
the study of mathematics, without which astronomy cannot subsist,
disciplines the mind and trains it to exact and complicated operations,
on the other hand, star-gazing, in the solitude and silence of a
southern night, irresistibly draws it into a higher world, where
poetical aspirations, guesses and dreams take the place of figures with
their demonstrations and proofs. It is probably to these habitual
contemplations that the later Chaldeans owed the higher tone of
religious thought which distinguished them from their Turanian
predecessors. They looked for the deity in heaven, not on earth. They
did not cower and tremble before a host of wicked goblins, the creation
of a terrified fancy. The spirits whom they worshipped inhabited and
ruled those beautiful bright worlds, whose harmonious, concerted
movements they watched admiringly, reverently, and could calculate
correctly, but without understanding them. The stars generally became to
them the visible manifestations and agents of divine power, especially
the seven most conspicuous heavenly bodies: the Moon, whom they
particularly honored, as the ruler of night and the measurer of time,
the Sun and the five planets then known, those which we call Saturn,
Jupiter, Mars, Venus and Mercury. It is but just to the Shumiro-Accads
to say that the perception of the divine in the beauty of the stars was
not foreign to them. This is amply proved by the fact that in their
oldest writing the sign of a star is used to express the idea not of any
particular god or goddess, but of the divine principle, the deity
generally. The name of every divinity is preceded by the star, meaning
"the god so-and-so." When used in this manner, the sign was read in the
old language "Dingir"--"god, deity." The Semitic language of Babylonia
which we call "Assyrian," while adapting the ancient writing to its own
needs, retained this use of the sign "star," and read it _îlu_, "god."
This word--ILU or EL--we find in all Semitic languages, either ancient
or modern, in the names they give to God, in the Arabic ALLAH as well as
in the Hebrew ELOHIM.
3. This religion, based and centred on the worship of the heavenly
bodies, has been called _Sabeism_, and was common to most Semitic races,
whose primitive nomadic life in the desert and wide, flat
pasture-tracts, with the nightly watches required by the tending of vast
flocks, inclined them to contemplation and star-gazing. It is to be
noticed that the Semites gave the first place to the Sun, and not, like
the Shumiro-Accads, to the Moon, possibly from a feeling akin to terror,
experiencing as they did his destructive power, in the frequent droughts
and consuming heat of the desert.[AR]
4. A very prominent feature of the new order of things was the great
power and importance of the priesthood. A successful pursuit of science
requires two things: intellectual superiority and leisure to study,
i.e., freedom from the daily care how to procure the necessaries of
life. In very ancient times people in general were quite willing to
acknowledge the superiority of those men who knew more than they did,
who could teach them and help them with wise advice; they were willing
also to support such men by voluntary contributions, in order to give
them the necessary leisure. That a race with whom science and religion
were one should honor the men thus set apart and learned in heavenly
things and allow them great influence in private and public affairs,
believing them, as they did, to stand in direct communion with the
divine powers, was but natural; and from this to letting them take to
themselves the entire government of the country as the established
rulers thereof, was but one step. There was another circumstance which
helped to bring about this result. The Chaldeans were devout believers
in astrology, a form of superstition into which an astronomical religion
like Sabeism is very apt to degenerate. For once it is taken for granted
that the stars are divine beings, possessed of intelligence, and will,
and power, what more natural than to imagine that they can rule and
shape the destinies of men by a mysterious influence? This influence was
supposed to depend on their movements, their position in the sky, their
ever changing combinations and relations to each other; under this
supposition every movement of a star--its rising, its setting, or
crossing the path of another--every slightest change in the aspect of
the heavens, every unusual phenomenon--an eclipse, for instance--must be
possessed of some weighty sense, boding good or evil to men, whose
destiny must constantly be as clearly written in the blue sky as in a
book. If only one could learn the language, read the characters! Such
knowledge was thought to be within the reach of men, but only to be
acquired by the exceptionally gifted and learned few, and those whom
they might think worthy of having it imparted to them. That these few
must be priests was self-evident. They were themselves fervent believers
in astrology, which they considered quite as much a real science as
astronomy, and to which they devoted themselves as assiduously. They
thus became the acknowledged interpreters of the divine will, partakers,
so to speak, of the secret councils of heaven. Of course such a position
added greatly to their power, and that they should never abuse it to
strengthen their hold on the public mind and to favor their own
ambitious views, was not in human nature. Moreover, being the clever and
learned ones of the nation, they really were at the time the fittest to
rule it--and rule it they did. When the Semitic culture spread over
Shumir, whither it gradually extended from the North, i.e., the land
of Accad, there arose in each great city--Ur, Eridhu, Larsam, Erech,--a
mighty temple, with its priests, its library, its _Ziggurat_ or
observatory. The cities and the tracts of country belonging to them
were governed by their respective colleges. And when in progress of
time, the power became centred in the hands of single men, they still
were priest-kings, _patesis_, whose royalty must have been greatly
hampered and limited by the authority of their priestly colleagues. Such
a form of government is known under the name of _theocracy_, composed of
two Greek words and meaning "divine government."
5. This religious reform represents a complete though probably peaceable
revolution in the condition of the "Land between the Rivers." The new
and higher culture had thoroughly asserted itself as predominant in both
its great provinces, and in nothing as much as in the national religion,
which, coming in contact with the conceptions of the Semites, was
affected by a certain nobler spiritual strain, a purer moral feeling,
which seems to have been more peculiarly Semitic, though destined to be
carried to its highest perfection only in the Hebrew branch of the race.
Moral tone is a subtle influence, and will work its way into men's
hearts and thoughts far more surely and irresistibly than any amount of
preaching and commanding, for men are naturally drawn to what is good
and beautiful when it is placed before them. Thus the old settlers of
the land, the Shumiro-Accads, to whom their gross and dismal goblin
creed could not be of much comfort, were not slow in feeling this
ennobling and beneficent influence, and it is assuredly to that we owe
the beautiful prayers and hymns which mark the higher stage of their
religion. The consciousness of sin, the feeling of contrition, of
dependence on an offended yet merciful divine power, so strikingly
conspicuous in the so-called "Penitential Psalms" (see p. 178), the fine
poetry in some of the later hymns, for instance those to the Sun (see p.
171), are features so distinctively Semitic, that they startle us by
their resemblance to certain portions of the Bible. On the other hand, a
nation never forgets or quite gives up its own native creed and
religious practices. The wise priestly rulers of Shumir and Accad did
not attempt to compel the people to do so, but even while introducing
and propagating the new religion, suffered them to go on believing in
their hosts of evil spirits and their few beneficent ones, in their
conjuring, soothsaying, casting and breaking of spells and charms. Nay,
more. As time went on and the learned priests studied more closely the
older creed and ideas, they were struck with the beauty of some few of
their conceptions--especially that of the ever benevolent, ever watchful
Spirit of Earth, Êa, and his son Meridug, the mediator, the friend of
men. These conceptions, these and some other favorite national
divinities, they thought worthy of being adopted by them and worked into
their own religious system, which was growing more complicated, more
elaborate every day, while the large bulk of spirits and demons they
also allowed a place in it, in the rank of inferior "Spirits of heaven"
and "Spirits of earth," which were lightly classed together and counted
by hundreds. By the time a thousand years had passed, the fusion had
become so complete that there really was both a new religion and a new
nation, the result of a long work of amalgamation. The Shumiro-Accads of
pure yet low race were no longer, nor did the Semites preserve a
separate existence; they had become merged into one nation of mixed
races, which at a later period became known under the general name of
Chaldeans, whose religion, regarded with awe for its prodigious
antiquity, yet was comparatively recent, being the outcome of the
combination of two infinitely older creeds, as we have just seen. When
Hammurabi established his residence at Babel, a city which had but
lately risen to importance, he made it the capital of the empire first
completely united under his rule (see p. 226), hence the name of
Babylonia is given by ancient writers to the old land of Shumir and
Accad, even more frequently than that of Chaldea, and the state religion
is called indifferently the Babylonian or Chaldean, and not unfrequently
Chaldeo-Babylonian.
6. This religion, as it was definitely established and handed down
unchanged through a succession of twenty centuries and more, had a
twofold character, which must be well grasped in order to understand its
general drift and sense. On the one hand, as it admitted the existence
of many divine powers, who shared between them the government of the
world, it was decidedly POLYTHEISTIC--"a religion of many gods." On the
other hand, a dim perception had already been arrived at, perhaps
through observation of the strictly regulated movements of the stars, of
the presence of One supreme ruling and directing Power. For a class of
men given to the study of astronomy could not but perceive that all
those bright Beings which they thought so divine and powerful, were not
absolutely independent; that their movements and combinations were too
regular, too strictly timed, too identical in their ever recurring
repetition, to be entirely voluntary; that, consequently, they
_obeyed_--obeyed a Law, a Power above and beyond them, beyond heaven
itself, invisible, unfathomable, unattainable by human thought or eyes.
Such a perception was, of course, a step in the right direction, towards
MONOTHEISM, i.e., the belief in only one God. But the perception was too
vague and remote to be fully realized and consistently carried out. The
priests who, from long training in abstract thought and contemplation,
probably could look deeper and come nearer the truth than other people,
strove to express their meaning in language and images which, in the
end, obscured the original idea and almost hid it out of sight, instead
of making it clearer. Besides, they did not imagine the world as
_created_ by God, made by an act of his will, but as being a form of
him, a manifestation, part of himself, of his own substance. Therefore,
in the great all of the universe, and in each of its portions, in the
mysterious forces at work in it--light and heat and life and
growth--they admired and adored not the power of God, but his very
presence; one of the innumerable and infinitely varied forms in which he
makes himself known and visible to men, manifests himself to them--in
short, _an emanation of God_. The word "emanation" has been adopted as
the only one which to a certain extent conveys this very subtle and
complicated idea. An emanation is not quite a thing itself, but it is a
portion of it, which comes out of it and separates itself from it, yet
cannot exist without it. So the fragrance of a flower is not the flower,
nor is it a growth or development of it, yet the flower gives it forth
and it cannot exist by itself without the flower--it is an emanation of
the flower. The same can be said of the mist which visibly rises from
the warm earth in low and moist places on a summer evening--it is an
emanation of the earth.
7. The Chaldeo-Babylonian priests knew of many such divine emanations,
which, by giving them names and attributing to them definite functions,
they made into so many separate divine persons. Of these some ranked
higher and some lower, a relation which was sometimes expressed by the
human one of "father and son." They were ordered in groups, very
scientifically arranged. Above the rest were placed two TRIADS or
"groups of three." The first triad comprised ANU, ÊA and BEL, the
supreme gods of all--all three retained from the old Shumiro-Accadian
list of divinities. ANU is ANA, "Heaven," and the surnames or epithets,
which are given him in different texts, sufficiently show what
conception had been formed of him: he is called "the Lord of the starry
heavens," "the Lord of Darkness," "the first-born, the oldest, the
Father of the Gods." ÊA, retaining his ancient attributions as "Lord of
the Deep," the pre-eminently wise and beneficent spirit, represents the
Divine Intelligence, the founder and maintainer of order and harmony,
while the actual task of separating the elements of chaos and shaping
them into the forms which make up the world as we know it, as well as
that of ordering the heavenly bodies, appointing them their path and
directing them thereon, was devolved on the third person of the triad,
BEL, the son of ÊA. Bel is a Semitic name, which means simply "the
lord."
8. From its nature and attributions, it is clear that to this triad must
have attached a certain vagueness and remoteness. Not so the second
triad, in which the Deity manifested itself as standing in the nearest
and most direct relation to man as most immediately influencing him in
his daily life. The persons of this triad were the Moon, the Sun, and
the Power of the Atmosphere,--SIN, SHAMASH, and RAMÂN, the Semitic names
for the Shumiro-Accadian URU-KI or NANNAR, UD or BABBAR, and IM or
MERMER. Very characteristically, Sin is frequently called "the god
Thirty," in allusion to his functions as the measurer of time presiding
over the month. Of the feelings with which the Sun was regarded and the
beneficent and splendid qualities attributed to him, we know enough from
the beautiful hymns quoted in Chap. III. (see p. 172). As to the god
RAMÂN, frequently represented on tablets and cylinders by his
characteristic sign, the double or triple-forked lightning-bolt--his
importance as the dispenser of rain, the lord of the whirlwind and
tempest, made him very popular, an object as much of dread as of
gratitude; and as the crops depended on the supply of water from the
canals, and these again could not be full without abundant rains, it is
not astonishing that he should have been particularly entitled
"protector or lord of canals," giver of abundance and "lord of
fruitfulness." In his more terrible capacity, he is thus described: "His
standard titles are the minister of heaven and earth," "the lord of the
air," "he who makes the tempest to rage." He is regarded as the
destroyer of crops, the rooter-up of trees, the scatterer of the
harvest. Famine, scarcity, and even their consequence, pestilence, are
assigned to him. He is said to have in his hand a "flaming sword" with
which he effects his works of destruction, and this "flaming sword,
which probably represents lightning, becomes his emblem upon the tablets
and cylinders."[AS]
9. The astronomical tendencies of the new religion fully assert
themselves in the third group of divinities. They are simply the five
planets then known and identified with various deities of the old creed,
to whom they are, so to speak, assigned as their own particular
provinces. Thus NIN-DAR (also called NINIP or NINÊB), originally another
name or form of the Sun (see p. 172), becomes the ruler of the most
distant planet, the one we now call Saturn; the old favorite, Meridug,
under the Semitized name of MARDUK, rules the planet Jupiter. It is he
whom later Hebrew writers have called MERODACH, the name we find in the
Bible. The planet Mars belongs to NERGAL, the warrior-god, and Mercury
to NEBO, more properly NABU, the "messenger of the gods" and the special
patron of astronomy, while the planet Venus is under the sway of a
feminine deity, the goddess ISHTAR, one of the most important and
popular on the list. But of her more anon. She leads us to the
consideration of a very essential and characteristic feature of the
Chaldeo-Babylonian religion, common, moreover, to all Oriental heathen
religions, especially the Semitic ones.
10. There is a distinction--the distinction of sex--which runs through
the whole of animated nature, dividing all things that have life into
two separate halves--male and female--halves most different in their
qualities, often opposite, almost hostile, yet eternally dependent on
each other, neither being complete or perfect, or indeed able to exist
without the other. Separated by contrast, yet drawn together by an
irresistible sympathy which results in the closest union, that of love
and affection, the two sexes still go through life together, together do
the work of the world. What the one has not or has in an insufficient
degree it finds in its counterpart, and it is only their union which
makes of the world a whole thing, full, rounded, harmonious. The
masculine nature, active, strong, and somewhat stern, even when merciful
and bounteous, inclined to boisterousness and violence and often to
cruelty, is well set off, or rather completed and moderated, by the
feminine nature, not less active, but more quietly so, dispensing
gentle influences, open to milder moods, more uniformly soft in feeling
and manner.
[Illustration: 60.--A BUST INSCRIBED WITH THE NAME OF NEBO. (British
Museum.)]