GARHWAL, or GURWAL. 1. A district of British India, in the Kumaon

division of the United Provinces. It has an area of 5629 sq. m., and

consists almost entirely of rugged mountain ranges running in all

directions, and separated by narrow valleys which in some cases become

deep gorges or ravines. The only level portion of the district is a

narrow strip of waterless forest between the southern slopes of the

hills and the fertile plains of Rohilkhand. The highest mountains are in

the north, the principal peaks being Nanda Devi (25,661 ft.), Kamet

(25,413), Trisul (23,382), Badrinath (23,210), Dunagiri (23,181) and

Kedarnath (22,853). The Alaknanda, one of the main sources of the

Ganges, receives with its affluents the whole drainage of the district.

At Devaprayag the Alaknanda joins the Bhagirathi, and thenceforward the

united streams bear the name of the Ganges. Cultivation is principally

confined to the immediate vicinity of the rivers, which are employed for

purposes of irrigation. Garhwal originally consisted of 52 petty

chieftainships, each chief with his own independent fortress (_garh_).

Nearly 500 years ago, one of these chiefs, Ajai Pal, reduced all the

minor principalities under his own sway, and founded the Garhwal

kingdom. He and his ancestors ruled over Garhwal and the adjacent state

of Tehri, in an uninterrupted line till 1803, when the Gurkhas invaded

Kumaon and Garhwal, driving the Garhwal chief into the plains. For

twelve years the Gurkhas ruled the country with a rod of iron, until a

series of encroachments by them on British territory led to the war with

Nepal in 1814. At the termination of the campaign, Garhwal and Kumaon

were converted into British districts, while the Tehri principality was

restored to a son of the former chief. Since annexation, Garhwal has

rapidly advanced in material prosperity. Pop. (1901) 429,900. Two

battalions of the Indian army (the 39th Garhwal Rifles) are recruited in

the district, which also contains the military cantonment of Lansdowne.

Grain and coarse cloth are exported, and salt, borax, live-stock and

wool are imported, the trade with Tibet being considerable. The

administrative headquarters are at the village of Pauri, but Srinagar is

the largest place. This is an important mart, as is also Kotdwara, the

terminus of a branch of the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway from Najibabad.

2. A native state, also known as Tehri, after its capital; area 4180 sq.

m.; pop. (1901) 268,885. It adjoins the district mentioned above, and

its topographical features are similar. It contains the sources of both

the Ganges and the Jumna, which are visited by thousands of Hindu

pilgrims. The gross revenue is about L28,000, of which nearly half is

derived from forests. No tribute is paid to the British government.

GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE (1807-1882), Italian patriot, was born at Nice on

the 4th of July 1807. As a youth he fled from home to escape a clerical

education, but afterwards joined his father in the coasting trade. After

joining the "Giovine Italia" he entered the Sardinian navy, and, with a

number of companions on board the frigate "Euridice," plotted to seize

the vessel and occupy the arsenal of Genoa at the moment when Mazzini's

Savoy expedition should enter Piedmont. The plot being discovered,

Garibaldi fled, but was condemned to death by default on the 3rd of June

1834. Escaping to South America in 1836, he was given letters of marque

by the state of Rio Grande do Sul, which had revolted against Brazil.

After a series of victorious engagements he was taken prisoner and

subjected to severe torture, which dislocated his limbs. Regaining

liberty, he renewed the war against Brazil, and took Porto Allegro.

During the campaign he met his wife, Anita, who became his inseparable

companion and mother of three children, Anita, Ricciotti and Menotti.

Passing into the service of Uruguay, he was sent to Corrientes with a

small flotilla to oppose Rosas's forces, but was overtaken by Admiral

Brown, against whose fleet he fought for three days. When his ammunition

was exhausted he burned his ships and escaped. Returning to Montevideo,

he formed the Italian Legion, with which he won the battles of Cerro and

Sant' Antonio in the spring of 1846, and assured the freedom of Uruguay.

Refusing all honours and recompense, he prepared to return to Italy upon

receiving news of the incipient revolutionary movement. In October 1847

he wrote to Pius IX., offering his services to the Church, whose cause

he for a moment believed to be that of national liberty.

Landing at Nice on the 24th of June 1848, he placed his sword at the

disposal of Charles Albert, and, after various difficulties with the

Piedmontese war office, formed a volunteer army 3000 strong, but shortly

after taking the field was obliged, by the defeat of Custozza, to flee

to Switzerland. Proceeding thence to Rome, he was entrusted by the Roman

republic with the defence of San Pancrazio against the French, where he

gained the victory of the 30th of April 1849, remaining all day in the

saddle, although wounded in the side at the beginning of the fight. From

the 3rd of May until the 30th of May he was continuously engaged against

the Bourbon troops at Palestrina, Velletri and elsewhere, dispersing an

army of 20,000 men with 3000 volunteers. After the fall of Rome he left

the city at the head of 4000 volunteers, with the idea of joining the

defenders of Venice, and started on that wonderful retreat through

central Italy pursued by the armies of France, Austria, Spain and

Naples. By his consummate generalship and the matchless endurance of his

men the pursuers were evaded and San Marino reached, though with a sadly

diminished force. Garibaldi and a few followers, including his devoted

wife Anita, after vainly attempting to reach Venice, where the tricolor

still floated, took refuge in the pine forests of Ravenna; the Austrians

were seeking him in all directions, and most of his legionaries were

captured and shot. Anita died near Comacchio, and he himself fled across

the peninsula, being assisted by all classes of the people, to Tuscany,

whence he escaped to Piedmont and ultimately to America. At New York, in

order to earn a living, he became first a chandler, and afterwards a

trading skipper, returning to Italy in 1854 with a small fortune, and

purchasing the island of Caprera, on which he built the house

thenceforth his home. On the outbreak of war in 1859 he was placed in

command of the Alpine infantry, defeating the Austrians at Casale on the

8th of May, crossing the Ticino on the 23rd of May, and, after a series

of victorious fights, liberating Alpine territory as far as the frontier

of Tirol. When about to enter Austrian territory proper his advance was,

however, checked by the armistice of Villafranca.

Returning to Como to wed the countess Raimondi, by whom he had been

aided during the campaign, he was apprised, immediately after the

wedding, of certain circumstances which caused him at once to abandon

that lady and to start for central Italy. Forbidden to invade the

Romagna, he returned indignantly to Caprera, where with Crispi and

Bertani he planned the invasion of Sicily. Assured by Sir James Hudson

of the sympathy of England, he began active preparations for the

expedition to Marsala. At the last moment he hesitated, but Crispi

succeeded in persuading him to sail from Genoa on the 5th of May 1860

with two vessels carrying a volunteer corps of 1070 strong. Calling at

Talamone to embark arms and money, he reached Marsala on the 11th of

May, and landed under the protection of the British vessels "Intrepid"

and "Argus." On the 12th of May the dictatorship of Garibaldi was

proclaimed at Salemi, on the 15th of May the Neapolitan troops were

routed at Calatafimi, on the 25th of May Palermo was taken, and on the

6th of June 20,000 Neapolitan regulars, supported by nine frigates and

protected by two forts, were compelled to capitulate. Once established

at Palermo, Garibaldi organized an army to liberate Naples and march

upon Rome, a plan opposed by the emissaries of Cavour, who desired the

immediate annexation of Sicily to the Italian kingdom. Expelling

Lafarina and driving out Depretis, who represented Cavour, Garibaldi

routed the Neapolitans at Milazzo on the 20th of July. Messina fell on

the 20th of July, but Garibaldi, instead of crossing to Calabria,

secretly departed for Aranci Bay in Sardinia, where Bertani was fitting

out an expedition against the papal states. Cavour, however, obliged the

expedition to sail for Palermo. Returning to Messina, Garibaldi found a

letter from Victor Emmanuel II. dissuading him from invading the kingdom

of Naples. Garibaldi replied asking "permission to disobey." Next day he

crossed the Strait, won the battle of Reggio on the 21st of August,

accepted the capitulation of 9000 Neapolitan troops at San Giovanni and

of 11,000 more at Soveria. The march upon Naples became a triumphal

progress, which the wiles of Francesco II. were powerless to arrest. On

the 7th of September Garibaldi entered Naples, while Francesco fled to

Gaeta. On the 1st of October he routed the remnant of the Bourbon army

40,000 strong on the Volturno. Meanwhile the Italian troops had occupied

the Marches, Umbria and the Abruzzi, a battalion of Bersaglieri reaching

the Volturno in time to take part in the battle. Their presence put an

end to the plan for the invasion of the papal states, and Garibaldi

unwillingly issued a decree for the _plebiscite_ which was to sanction

the incorporation of the Two Sicilies in the Italian realm. On the 7th

of November Garibaldi accompanied Victor Emmanuel during his solemn

entry into Naples, and on the morrow returned to Caprera, after

disbanding his volunteers and recommending their enrolment in the

regular army.

Indignation at the cession of Nice to France and at the neglect of his

followers by the Italian government induced him to return to political

life. Elected deputy in 1861, his anger against Cavour found violent

expression. Bixio attempted to reconcile them, but the publication by

Cialdini of a letter against Garibaldi provoked a hostility which, but

for the intervention of the king, would have led to a duel between

Cialdini and Garibaldi. Returning to Caprera, Garibaldi awaited events.

Cavour's successor, Ricasoli, enrolled the Garibaldians in the regular

army; Rattazzi, who succeeded Ricasoli, urged Garibaldi to undertake an

expedition in aid of the Hungarians, but Garibaldi, finding his

followers ill-disposed towards the idea, decided to turn his arms

against Rome. On the 29th of June 1862 he landed at Palermo and gathered

an army under the banner "Roma o morte." Rattazzi, frightened at the

prospect of an attack upon Rome, proclaimed a state of siege in Sicily,

sent the fleet to Messina, and instructed Cialdini to oppose Garibaldi.

Circumventing the Italian troops, Garibaldi entered Catania, crossed to

Melito with 3000 men on the 25th of August, but was taken prisoner and

wounded by Cialdini's forces at Aspromonte on the 27th of August.

Liberated by an amnesty, Garibaldi returned once more to Caprera amidst

general sympathy.

In the spring of 1864 he went to London, where he was accorded an

enthusiastic reception and given the freedom of the city. From England

he returned again to Caprera. On the outbreak of war in 1866 he assumed

command of a volunteer army and, after the defeat of the Italian troops

at Custozza, took the offensive in order to cover Brescia. On the 3rd of

July he defeated the Austrians at Monte Saello, on the 7th at Lodrone,

on the 10th at Darso, on the 16th at Condino, on the 19th at Ampola, on

the 21st at Bezzecca, but, when on the point of attacking Trent, he was

ordered by General Lamarmora to retire. His famous reply "Obbedisco" ("I

obey") has often been cited as a classical example of military obedience

to a command destructive of a successful leader's hopes, but documents

now published (cf. _Corriere della sera_, 9th of August 1906) prove

beyond doubt that Garibaldi had for some days known that the order to

evacuate the Trentino would shortly reach him. The order arrived on the

9th of August, whereas Crispi had been sent as early as the 16th of July

to warn Garibaldi that, owing to Prussian opposition, Austria would not

cede the Trentino to Italy, and that the evacuation was inevitable.

Hence Garibaldi's laconic reply. From the Trentino he returned to

Caprera to mature his designs against Rome, which had been evacuated by

the French in pursuance of the Franco-Italian convention of the 15th of

September 1864. Gathering volunteers in the autumn of 1867, he prepared

to enter papal territory, but was arrested at Sinalunga by the Italian

government and conducted to Caprera. Eluding the surveillance of the

Italian cruisers, he returned to Florence, and, with the complicity of

the second Rattazzi cabinet, entered Roman territory at Passo Corese on

the 23rd of October. Two days later he took Monterotondo, but on the 2nd

of November his forces were dispersed at Mentana by French and papal

troops. Recrossing the Italian frontier, he was arrested at Figline and

taken back to Caprera, where he eked out his slender resources by

writing several romances. In 1870 he formed a fresh volunteer corps and

went to the aid of France, defeating the German troops at Chatillon,

Autun and Dijon. Elected a member of the Versailles assembly, he

resigned his mandate in anger at French insults, and withdrew to Caprera

until, in 1874, he was elected deputy for Rome. Popular enthusiasm

induced the Conservative Minghetti cabinet to propose that a sum of

L40,000 with an annual pension of L2000 be conferred upon him as a

recompense for his services, but the proposal, though adopted by

parliament (27th May 1875), was indignantly refused by Garibaldi. Upon

the advent of the Left to power, however, he accepted both gift and

pension, and worked energetically upon the scheme for the Tiber

embankment to prevent the flooding of Rome. At the same time he

succeeded in obtaining the annulment of his marriage with the countess

Raimondi (with whom he had never lived) and contracted another marriage

with the mother of his children, Clelia and Manlio. In 1880 he went to

Milan for the inauguration of the Mentana monument, and in 1882 visited

Naples and Palermo, but was prevented by illness from being present at

the 600th anniversary of the Sicilian Vespers. On the 2nd of June 1882

his death at Caprera plunged Italy into mourning.

See Garibaldi, _Epistolario_, ed. E.E. Ximenes (2 vols., Milan, 1885),

and _Memorie autografiche_ (11th ed., Florence, 1902; Eng. translation

by A. Werner, with supplement by J.W. Mario in vol. iii. of 1888 ed.);

Giuseppe Guerzoni, _Garibaldi_ (2 vols., Florence, 1882); Jessie White

Mario, _Garibaldi e i suoi tempi_ (Milan, 1884); G.M. Trevelyan,

_Garibaldi's Defence of the Roman Republic_ (London, 1907), which

contains an excellent sketch of Garibaldi's early career, of the

events leading up to the proclamation of the Roman Republic, and a

picturesque, detailed and authoritative account of the defence of Rome

and of Garibaldi's flight, with a very full bibliography; also

Trevelyan's _Garibaldi and the Thousand_ (1909). (H. W. S.)

GARIN LE LOHERAIN, French epic hero. The 12th century _chanson de geste_

of Garin le Loherain is one of the fiercest and most sanguinary

narratives left by the _trouveres_. This local cycle of Lorraine, which

is completed by Hervis de Metz, Girbers de Metz, Anseis, fils de Girbert

and Yon, is obviously based on history, and the failure absolutely to

identify the events recorded does not deprive the poems of their value

as a picture of the savage feudal wars of the 11th and 12th centuries.

The episodes are evolved naturally and the usual devices adopted by the

_trouveres_ to reconcile their inconsistencies are absent. Nevertheless

no satisfactory historical explanation of the story has yet been

offered. It has been suggested by a recent critic (F. Settegast,

_Quellenstudien zur gallo-romanischen Epik_, 1904) that these poems

resume historical traditions going back to the Vandal irruption of 408

and the battle fought by the Romans and the West Goths against the Huns

in 451. The cycle relates three wars against hosts of heathen invaders.

In the first of these Charles Martel and his faithful vassal Hervis of

Metz fight by an extraordinary anachronism against the Vandals, who have

destroyed Reims and besieged other cities. They are defeated in a great

battle near Troyes. In the second Hervis is besieged in Metz by the

"Hongres." He sends first for help to Pippin, who defers his assistance

by the advice of the traitor Hardre. Hervis then transfers his

allegiance to Anseis of Cologne, by whose help the invaders are

repulsed, though Hervis himself is slain. In the third Thierry, king of

Moriane[1] sends to Pippin for help against four Saracen kings. He is

delivered by a Frankish host, but falls in the battle. Hervis of Metz

was the son of a citizen to whom the duke of Lorraine had married his

daughter Aelis, and his sons Garin and Begue are the heroes of the

_chanson_ which gives its name to the cycle. The dying king Thierry had

desired that his daughter Blanchefleur should marry Garin, but when

Garin prefers his suit at the court of Pippin, Fromont of Bordeaux puts

himself forward as his rival and Hardre, Fromont's father, is slain by

Garin. The rest of the poem is taken up with the war that ensues between

the Lorrainers and the men of Bordeaux. They finally submit their

differences to the king, only to begin their disputes once more.

Blanchefleur becomes the wife of Pippin, while Garin remains her

faithful servant. One of the most famous passages of the poem is the

assassination of Begue by a nephew of Fromont, and Garin, after laying

waste his enemy's territory, is himself slain. The remaining songs

continue the feud between the two families. According to Paulin Paris,

the family of Bordeaux represents the early dukes of Aquitaine, the last

of whom, Waifar (745-768) was dispossessed and slain by Pippin the

Short, king of the Franks; but the _trouveres_ had in mind no doubt the

wars which marked the end of the Carolingian dynasty.

See _Li Romans de Garin le Loherain_, ed. P. Paris (Paris, 1833);

_Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. xxii. (1852); J.M. Ludlow, _Popular

Epics of the Middle Ages_ (London and Cambridge, 1865); F. Lot,

_Etudes d'histoire du moyen age_ (Paris, 1896); F. Settegast,

_Quellenstudien zur gallo-romanischen Epik_ (Leipzig, 1904). A

complete edition of the cycle was undertaken by E. Stengel, the first

volume of which, _Hervis de Mes_ (Gesellschaft fur roman. Lit.,

Dresden), appeared in 1903.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] i.e. Maurienne, now a district and diocese (St Jean de Maurienne)

of Savoy.

GARLAND, JOHN (fl. 1202-1252), Latin grammarian, known as Johannes

Garlandius, or, more commonly, Johannes de Garlandia, was born in

England, though most of his life was spent in France. John Bale in his

_Catalogus_, and John Pits, following Bale, placed him among the writers

of the 11th century. The main facts of his life, however, are stated in

a long poem _De triumphis ecclesiae_ contained in Cotton MS. Claudius A

x in the British Museum, and edited by Thomas Wright for the Roxburghe

Club in 1856. Garland narrates the history of his time from the point of

view of the victories gained by the church over heretics at home and

infidels abroad. He studied at Oxford under a certain John of London,

whom it is difficult to distinguish from others of the same name; but he

must have been in Paris in or before 1202, for he mentions as one of his

teachers Alain de Lisle, who died in that year or the next. Garland was

one of the professors chosen in 1229 for the new university of Toulouse,

and remained in the south during the Albigensian crusade, of which he

gives a detailed account in books iv.-vi. In 1232 or 1233 the hatred of

the people made further residence in Toulouse unsafe for the professors

of the university, who had been installed by the Catholic party. Garland

was one of the first to fly, and the rest of his life was spent in

Paris, where he finished his poem in 1252. Garland's grammatical works

were much used in England, and were often printed by Richard Pynson and

Wynkyn de Worde. He was also a voluminous Latin poet. Works on

mathematics and music have also been assigned to him, but the ascription

may have arisen from confusion of his works with those of Gerlandus, a

canon of Besancon in the 12th century. The treatise on alchemy,

_Compendium alchimiae_, often printed under his name, was by a

14th-century writer named Martin Ortolan, or Lortholain.

The best known of his poems beside the "De Triumphis Ecclesiae" is

"Epithalamium beatae Mariae Virginis," contained in the same MS. Among

his other works are his "Dictionarius," a Latin vocabulary, printed by

T. Wright in the _Library of National Antiquities_ (vol. i., 1857);

_Compendium totius grammatices ..._, printed at Deventer, 1489; two

metrical treatises, entitled _Synonyma_ and _Equivoca_, frequently

printed at the close of the 15th century.

For further bibliographical information see the British Museum

catalogue; J.A. Fabricius, _Bibliotheca Latina mediae et infimae

aetatis ..._, vol. iii. (1754); G. Brunet, _Manuel du libraire, &c._

See also _Histoire litt. de la France_, vols. viii., xxi., xxiii. and

xxx.; the prefaces to the editions by T. Wright mentioned above; P.

Meyer, _La Chanson de la croisade contre les Albigeois_, vol. ii. pp.

xxi-xxiii. (Paris, 1875); Dr A. Scheler, _Lexicographie latine du

XII^e et du XIII^e siecles_ (Leipzig, 1867); the article by C.L.

Kingsford in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._, giving a list also of the works

on alchemy, mathematics and music, rightly or wrongly ascribed to him;

J.E. Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ i. (1906) 549. (E. G.)

GARLIC (O. Eng. _garleac_, i.e. "spear-leek"; Gr. [Greek: skorodon];

Lat. _allium_; Ital. _aglio_; Fr. _ail_; Ger. _Knoblauch_), _Allium

sativum_, a bulbous perennial plant of the natural order Liliaceae,

indigenous apparently to south-west Siberia. It has long, narrow, flat,

obscurely keeled leaves, a deciduous spathe, and a globose umbel of

whitish flowers, among which are small bulbils. The bulb, which is the

only part eaten, has membranous scales, in the axils of which are 10 or

12 cloves, or smaller bulbs. From these new bulbs can be procured by

planting out in February or March. The bulbs are best preserved hung in

a dry place. If of fair size, twenty of them weigh about 1 lb. To

prevent the plant from running to leaf, Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xix. 34)

advises to bend the stalk downward and cover with earth; seeding, he

observes, may be prevented by twisting the stalk.

Garlic is cultivated in the same manner as the shallot (q.v.). It is

stated to have been grown in England before the year 1548. The

percentage composition of the bulbs is given by E. Solly (_Trans. Hort.

Soc. Lond._, new ser., iii. p. 60) as water 84.09, organic matter 13.38,

and inorganic matter 1.53--that of the leaves being water 87.14, organic

matter 11.27 and inorganic matter 1.59. The bulb has a strong and

characteristic odour and an acrid taste, and yields an offensively

smelling oil, essence of garlic, identical with allyl sulphide (C3H5)2S

(see Hofmann and Cahours, _Journ. Chem. Soc._ x. p. 320). This, when

garlic has been eaten, is evolved by the excretory organs, the activity

of which it promotes. From the earliest times garlic has been used as an

article of diet. It formed part of the food of the Israelites in Egypt

(Numb. xi. 5) and of the labourers employed by Cheops in the

construction of his pyramid, and is still grown in Egypt, where,

however, the Syrian is the kind most esteemed (see Rawlinson's

_Herodotus_, ii. 125). It was largely consumed by the ancient Greek and

Roman soldiers, sailors and rural classes (cf. Virg. _Ecl_. ii. 11),

and, as Pliny tells us (_N.H._ xix. 32), by the African peasantry. Galen

eulogizes it as the rustic's _theriac_ (see F. Adams's _Paulus

Aegineta_, p. 99), and Alexander Neckam, a writer of the 12th century

(see Wright's edition of his works, p. 473, 1863), recommends it as a

palliative of the heat of the sun in field labour. "The people in places

where the simoon is frequent," says Mountstuart Elphinstone (_An Account

of the Kingdom of Caubul_, p. 140, 1815), "eat garlic, and rub their

lips and noses with it, when they go out in the heat of the summer, to

prevent their suffering by the simoon." "O dura messorum ilia," exclaims

Horace (_Epod_. iii.), as he records his detestation of the popular

esculent, to smell of which was accounted a sign of vulgarity (cf.

Shakespeare, _Coriol_. iv. 6, and _Meas. for Meas._ iii. 2). In England

garlic is seldom used except as a seasoning, but in the southern

countries of Europe it is a common ingredient in dishes, and is largely

consumed by the agricultural population. Garlic was placed by the

ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at cross-roads, as a supper for

Hecate (Theophrastus, _Characters_, [Greek: Deisidaimonias]); and

according to Pliny garlic and onions were invocated as deities by the

Egyptians at the taking of oaths. The inhabitants of Pelusium in lower

Egypt, who worshipped the onion, are said to have held both it and

garlic in aversion as food. Garlic possesses stimulant and stomachic

properties, and was of old, as still sometimes now, employed as a

medicinal remedy. Pliny (_N.H._ xx. 23) gives an exceedingly long list

of complaints in which it was considered beneficial. Dr T. Sydenham

valued it as an application in confluent smallpox, and, says Cullen

(_Mat. Med._ ii. p. 174, 1789), found some dropsies cured by it alone.

In the United States the bulb is given in doses of 1/2-2 drachms in

cases of bronchiectasis and phthisis pulmonalis. Garlic may also be

prescribed as an extract consisting of the inspissated juice, in doses

of 5-10 grains, and as the _syrupus allii aceticus_, in doses of 1-4

drachms. This last preparation has recently been much extolled in the

treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis or phthisis.

The wild "crow garlic" and "field garlic" of Britain are the species

_Allium vineale_ and _A. oleraceum_ respectively.

GARNET, or GARNETT, HENRY (1555-1606), English Jesuit, son of Brian

Garnett, a schoolmaster at Nottingham, was educated at Winchester and

afterwards studied law in London. Having become a Roman Catholic, he

went to Italy, joined the Society of Jesus in 1575, and acquired under

Bellarmine and others a reputation for varied learning. In 1586 he

joined the mission in England, becoming superior of the province on the

imprisonment of William Weston in the following year. In the dispute

between the Jesuits and the secular clergy known as the "Wisbech Stirs"

(1595-1596) he zealously supported Weston in his resistance to any

compromise with the civil government. His antagonism to the secular

clergy was also shown later, when in 1603 he, with other Jesuits, was

the means of betraying to the government the "Bye Plot," contrived by

William Watson, a secular priest. In 1598 he was professed of the four

vows.

Garnet supervised the Jesuit mission for eighteen years with conspicuous

success. His life was one of concealment and disguises; a price was put

on his head; but he was fearless and indefatigable in carrying on his

propaganda and in ministering to the scattered Catholics, even in their

prisons. The result was that he gained many converts, while the number

of Jesuits in England increased during his tenure of office from three

to forty. It is, however, in connexion with the Gunpowder Plot that he

is best remembered. His part in this, for which he suffered death, needs

discussion in greater detail.

In 1602 Garnet received briefs from Pope Clement VIII. directing that no

person unfavourable to the Catholic religion should be allowed to

succeed to the throne. About the same time he was consulted by Catesby,

Tresham and Winter, all afterwards involved in the Gunpowder Plot, on

the subject of the mission to be sent to Spain to induce Philip III. to

invade England. According to his own statement he disapproved, but he

gave Winter a recommendation to Father Creswell, an influential person

at Madrid. Moreover, in May 1605 he gave introductions to Guy Fawkes

when he went to Flanders, and to Sir Edmund Baynham when he went to Rome

(see GUNPOWDER PLOT). The preparations for the plot had now been

actively going forward since the beginning of 1604, and on the 9th of

June 1605 Garnet was asked by Catesby whether it was lawful to enter

upon any undertaking which should involve the destruction of the

innocent together with the guilty, to which Garnet answered in the

affirmative, giving as an illustration the fate of persons besieged in a

town in time of war. Afterwards, feeling alarmed, according to his own

accounts, he admonished Catesby against intending the death of "not only

innocents but friends and necessary persons for a commonwealth," and

showed him a letter from the pope forbidding rebellion. According to Sir

Everard Digby, however, Garnet, when asked the meaning of the brief,

replied "that they were not (meaning the priests) to undertake or

procure stirs, but yet they would not hinder any, neither was it the

pope's mind they should, that should be undertaken for Catholic good....

This answer, with Mr Catesby's proceedings with him and me, gave me

absolute belief that the matter in general was approved, though every

particular was not known." Both men were endeavouring to exculpate

themselves, and therefore both statements are subject to suspicion. A

few days later, according to Garnet, the Jesuit, Oswald Tesemond, known

as Greenway, informed him of the whole plot "by way of confession,"

when, as he declares, he expressed horror at the design and urged

Greenway to do his utmost to prevent its execution. Subsequently, after

his trial, Garnet said he "could not certainly affirm" that Greenway

intended to relate the matter to him in confession.

Garnet's conduct in now keeping the plot a secret has been a matter of

considerable controversy not only between Roman Catholics and

Protestants, but amongst Roman Catholic writers themselves. Father

Martin del Rio, a Jesuit, writing in 1600, discusses the exact case of

the revelation of a plot in confession. Almost all the learned doctors,

he says, declare that the confessor may reveal it, but he adds, "the

contrary opinion is the safer and better doctrine, and more consistent

with religion and with the reverence due to the holy rite of

confession." According to Bellarmine, Garnet's zealous friend and

defender, "If the person confessing be concealed, it is lawful for a

priest to break the seal of confession in order to avert a great

calamity"; but he justifies Garnet's silence by insisting that it was

not lawful to disclose a treasonable secret to a heretical king.

According to Garnet's own opinion a priest cognizant of treason against

the state "is bound to find all lawful means to discover it _salvo

sigillo confessionis_." In this connexion it is worth pointing out that

Garnet had not thought it his duty to disclose the treasonable intrigue

with the king of Spain in 1602, though there was no pretence in this

case that he was restricted by the seal of confession, and his

inactivity now tells greatly in his disfavour; for, allowing even that

he was bound by confessional secrecy from taking action on Greenway's

information, he had still Catesby's earlier revelations to act upon. He

appears to have taken no steps whatever to prevent the crime, beyond

writing to Rome in vague terms that "he feared some particular desperate

courses," which aroused no suspicions in that quarter. At the same time

he wrote to Father Parsons on the 4th of September that "as far as he

could now see the minds of the Catholics were quieted."

His movements immediately prior to the attempt were certainly

suspicious. In September, shortly before the expected meeting of

parliament on the 3rd of October, Garnet organized a pilgrimage to St

Winifred's Well in Flintshire, which started from Gothurst (now

Gayhurst), Sir Everard Digby's house in Buckinghamshire, included

Rokewood, and stopped at the houses of John Grant and Robert Winter,

three others of the conspirators. During the pilgrimage Garnet asked for

the prayers of the company "for some good success for the Catholic cause

at the beginning of parliament." After his return he went on the 29th of

October to Coughton in Warwickshire, near which place it had been

settled the conspirators were to assemble after the explosion. On the

6th of November, Bates, Catesby's servant and one of the conspirators,

brought him a letter with the news of the failure of the plot and

desiring advice. On the 30th Garnet addressed a letter to the government

in which he protested his innocence with the most solemn oaths, "as one

who hopeth for everlasting salvation."

It was not till the 4th of December, however, that Garnet and Greenway

were, by the confession of Bates, implicated in the plot; and on the

same day Garnet removed from Coughton to Hindlip Hall, near Worcester, a

house furnished with cleverly-contrived hiding-places for the use of the

proscribed priests. Here he remained some time in concealment in company

with another priest, Oldcorne _alias_ Hall, but at last on the 30th of

January 1606, unable to bear the close confinement any longer, they

surrendered and were taken up to London, being well treated during the

journey by Salisbury's express orders. He was examined by the council on

the 13th of February and frequently questioned during the following

days, but refused to incriminate himself, and a threat to inflict

torture had no effect upon his resolution. Subsequently Garnet and

Oldcorne having been placed in adjoining rooms and enabled to

communicate with one another, their conversations were overheard on

several separate occasions and considerable information obtained. Garnet

at first denied all speech with Oldcorne, but subsequently on the 8th of

March confessed his connexion with the plot. He was tried at the

Guildhall on the 28th.

Garnet was clearly guilty of misprision of treason, i.e. of having

concealed his knowledge of the crime, an offence which exposed him to

perpetual imprisonment and forfeiture of his property; for the law of

England took no account of religious scruples or professional etiquette

when they permit the execution of a preventable crime. Strangely enough,

however, the government passed over the incriminating conversation with

Greenway, and relied entirely on the strong circumstantial evidence to

support the charge of high treason against the prisoner. The trial was

not conducted in a manner which would be permitted in more modern days.

The rules of evidence which now govern the procedure in criminal cases

did not then exist, and Garnet's trial, like many others, was influenced

by the political situation, the case against him being supported by

general political accusations against the Jesuits as a body, and with

evidence of their complicity in former plots against the government. The

prisoner himself deeply prejudiced his cause by his numerous false

statements, and still more by his adherence to the doctrine of

equivocation. Garnet, it is true, claimed to limit the justification of

equivocation to cases "of necessary defence from injustice and wrong or

of the obtaining some good of great importance when there is no danger

of harm to others," and he could justify his conduct in lying to the

council by their own conduct towards him, which included treacherous

eavesdropping and fraud, and also threats of torture. Moreover, the

attempt of the counsel for the crown to force the prisoner to

incriminate himself was opposed to the whole spirit and tradition of the

law of England. He was declared guilty, and it is probable, in spite of

the irregularity and unjudicial character of his trial, that substantial

justice was done by his conviction. His execution took place on the 3rd

of May 1606, Garnet acknowledging himself justly condemned for his

concealment of the plot, but maintaining to the last that he had never

approved it. The king, who had shown him favour throughout and who had

forbidden his being tortured, directed that he should be hanged till he

was quite dead and that the usual frightful cruelties should be omitted.

Soon after his death the story of the miracle of "Garnet's Straw" was

circulated all over Europe, according to which a blood-stained straw

from the scene of execution which came into the hands of one John

Wilkinson, a young and fervent Roman Catholic, who was present,

developed Garnet's likeness. In consequence of the credence which the

story obtained, Archbishop Bancroft was commissioned by the privy

council to discover and punish the impostors. Garnet's name was included

in the list of the 353 Roman Catholic martyrs sent to Rome from England

in 1880, and in the 2nd appendix of the Menology of England and Wales

compiled by order of the cardinal archbishop and the bishops of the

province of Westminster by R. Stanton in 1887, where he is styled "a

martyr whose cause is deferred for future investigation." The passage in

_Macbeth_ (Act II. Scene iii.) on equivocators no doubt refers

especially to Garnet. His _aliases_ were Farmer, Marchant, Whalley,

Darcey Meaze, Phillips, Humphreys, Roberts, Fulgeham, Allen. Garnet was

the author of a letter on the Martyrdom of Godfrey Maurice, _alias_ John

Jones, in Diego Yepres's _Historia particular de la persecucion de

Inglaterra_ (1599); a _Treatise of Schism_, a MS. treatise in reply to

_A Protestant Dialogue between a Gentleman and a Physician_; a

translation of the _Stemma Christi_ with supplements (1622); a treatise

on the Rosary; a Treatise of Christian Renovation or Birth (1616).

AUTHORITIES.--Of the great number of works embodying the controversy

on the question of Garnet's guilt the following may be mentioned, in

order of date: _A True and Perfect Relation of the whole Proceedings

against ... Garnet a Jesuit and his Confederates_ (1606, repr. 1679),

the official account, but incomplete and inaccurate; _Apologia pro

Henrico Garneto_ (1610), by the Jesuit L'Heureux, under the pseudonym

Eudaemon-Joannes, and Dr Robert Abbot's reply, _Antilogia versus

Apologiam Eudaemon-Joannes_, in which the whole subject is well

treated; Henry More, _Hist. Provinciae Anglicanae Societatis_ (1660);

D. Jardine, _Gunpowder Plot_ (1857); J. Morris, S.J., _Condition of

the Catholics under James I._ (1872), containing Father Gerard's

narrative; J.H. Pollen, _Father Henry Garnet and the Gunpowder Plot_

(1888); S.R. Gardiner, _What Gunpowder Plot was_ (1897), in reply to

John Gerard, S.J., _What was the Gunpowder Plot?_ (1897); J. Gerard,

_Contributions towards a Life of Father Henry Garnet_ (1898). See also

_State Trials II._, and _Cal. of State Papers Dom._, (1603-1610). The

original documents are preserved in the _Gunpowder Plot Book_ at the

Record Office.

GARNET, a name applied to a group of closely-related minerals, many of

which are used as gem-stones. The name probably comes from the Lat.

_granaticus_, a stone so named from its resemblance to the pulp of the

pomegranate in colour, or to its seeds in shape; or possibly from

_granum_, "cochineal," in allusion to the colour of the stone. The

garnet was included, with other red stones, by Theophrastus, under the

name of [Greek: anthrax], while the common garnet seems to have been his

[Greek: anthrakion]. Pliny groups several stones, including garnet,

under the term _carbunculus_. The modern carbuncle is a deep red garnet

(almandine) cut _en cabochon_, or with a smooth convex surface,

frequently hollowed out at the back, in consequence of the depth of

colour, and sometimes enlivened with a foil (see ALMANDINE). The Hebrew

word _nophek_, translated [Greek: anthrax] in the Septuagint, seems to

have been the garnet or carbuncle, whilst _bareketh_ ([Greek: smaragdos]

of the Septuagint), though also rendered "carbuncle," was probably

either beryl or, in the opinion of Professor Flinders Petrie,

rock-crystal. Garnets were used as beads in ancient Egypt. Though not

extensively employed by the Greeks as a material for engraved gems, it

was much used for this purpose by the Romans of the Empire. Flat

polished slabs of garnet are found inlaid in mosaic work in Anglo-Saxon

and Merovingian jewelry, the material used being almandine, or "precious

garnet."

Garnets vary considerably in chemical composition, but the variation is

limited within a certain range. All are orthosilicates, conformable to

the general formula R''3R'''2(SiO4)3, where R'' = Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, and

R''' = Al, Fe, Cr. Although there are many kinds of garnet they may be

reduced to the following six types, which may occur intermixed

isomorphously:--

1. Calcium-aluminium garnet (_Grossularite_), Ca3Al2Si3O12.

2. Calcium-ferric garnet (_Andradite_), Ca3Fe2Si3O12.

3. Calcium-chromium garnet (_Uvarovite_), Ca3Cr2Si3O12.

4. Magnesium-aluminium garnet (_Pyrope_), Mg3Al2Si3O12.

5. Ferrous-aluminium garnet (_Almandine_), Fe3Al2Si3O12.

6. Manganous-aluminium garnet (_Spessartine_), Mn3Al2Si3O12.

These are frequently called respectively:--(1) Lime-alumina garnet; (2)

lime-iron garnet; (3) lime-chrome garnet; (4) magnesia-alumina garnet;

(5) iron-alumina garnet; (6) manganese-alumina garnet.

The types are usually modified by isomorphous replacement of some of

their elements.

[Illustration]

All garnets crystallize in the cubic system, usually in rhombic

dodecahedra or in icositetrahedra, or in a combination of the two forms

(see fig.). Octahedra and cubes are rare, but the six-faced octahedron

occurs in some of the combinations. Cleavage obtains parallel to the

dodecahedron, but is imperfect. The hardness varies according to

composition from 6.5 to 7.5, and the specific gravity in like manner has

a wide range, varying from 3.4 in the calcium-aluminium garnets to 4.3

in the ferrous-aluminium species. Sir Arthur H. Church found that many

garnets when fused yielded a product of lower density than the original

mineral. The colour is typically red, but may be brown, yellow, green or

even black, while some garnets are colourless. Being cubic the garnets

are normally singly refracting, but anomalies frequently occur, leading

some authorities to doubt whether the mineral is really cubic. The

refractive power of garnet is high, so that in microscopic sections,

viewed by transmitted light, the mineral stands out in relief.

Garnets are very widely distributed, occurring in crystalline schists,

gneiss, granite, metamorphic limestone, serpentine, and occasionally

in volcanic rocks. With omphacite and smaragdite, garnet forms the

peculiar rock called eclogite. The garnets used for industrial

purposes are usually found loose in detrital deposits, weathered from

the parent rock, though in some important workings the rock is

quarried. The garnets employed as gem-stones are described under their

respective headings (see ALMANDINE, CINNAMON STONE, DEMANTOID and

PYROPE). Most of the minerals noticed in this article are of

scientific rather than commercial interest.

Grossularite or "gooseberry-stone," is typically a brownish-green

garnet from Siberia, known also as wiluite (a name applied also to

vesuvianite, q.v.), from the river Wilui where it occurs. It is

related to hessonite, or cinnamon-stone. A Mexican variety occurs in

rose-pink dodecahedra. Romanzovite is a brown garnet, of

grossularia-type, from Finland, taking its name from Count Romanzov.

Andradite was named by J.D. Dana after B.J. d'Andrada e Silva, who

described, in 1800, one of its varieties allochroite, a Norwegian

garnet, so named from its variable colour. This species includes most

of the common garnet occurring in granular and compact masses,

sometimes forming garnet rock. To andradite may be referred melanite,

a black garnet well known from the volcanic tuffs near Rome, used

occasionally in the 18th century for mourning jewelry. Another black

garnet, in small crystals from the Pyrenees, is called pyreneite.

Under andradite may also be placed topazolite, a honey-yellow garnet,

rather like topaz, from Piedmont; colophonite, a brown resin-like

garnet, with which certain kinds of idocrase have been confused;

aplome, a green garnet from Saxony and Siberia; and jelletite, a green

Swiss garnet named after the Rev. J.H. Jellet. Here also may be placed

the green Siberian mineral termed demantoid (q.v.), sometimes

improperly called olivine by jewellers. Uvarovite, named after a

Russian minister, Count S.S. Uvarov, is a rare green garnet from

Siberia and Canada, but though of fine colour is never found in

crystals large enough for gem-stones. Spessartite, or spessartine,

named after Spessart, a German locality, is a fine aurora-red garnet,

cut for jewelry when sufficiently clear, and rather resembling

cinnamon-stone. It is found in Ceylon, and notably in the mica-mines

in Amelia county, Virginia, United States. A beautiful rose-red

garnet, forming a fine gem-stone, occurs in gravels in Macon county,

N.C., and has been described by W.E. Hidden and Dr J.H. Pratt under

the name of rhodolite. It seems related to both almandine and pyrope,

and shows the absorption-spectrum of almandine. The Bohemian garnets

largely used in jewelry belong to the species pyrope (q.v.).

Garnets are not only cut as gems, but are used for the bearings of

pivots in watches, and are in much request for abrasive purposes.

Garnet paper is largely used, especially in America, in place of

sandpaper for smoothing woodwork and for scouring leather in the

boot-trade. As an abrasive agent it is worked at several localities in

the United States, especially in New York State, along the borders of

the Adirondacks, where it occurs in limestone and in gneiss. Much of

the garnet used as an abrasive is coarse almandine. Common garnet,

where abundant, has sometimes been used as a fluxing agent in

metallurgical operations. Garnet has been formed artificially, and is

known as a furnace-product.

It may be noted that the name of white garnet has been given to the

mineral leucite, which occurs, like garnet, crystallized in

icositetrahedra. (F. W. R.*)

GARNETT, RICHARD (1835-1906), English librarian and author, son of the

learned philologist Rev. Richard Garnett (1789-1850), priest-vicar of

Lichfield cathedral and afterwards keeper of printed books at the

British Museum, who came of a Yorkshire family, was born at Lichfield on

the 27th of February 1835. His father was really the pioneer of modern

philological research in England; his articles in the _Quarterly Review_

(1835, 1836) on English lexicography and dialects, and on the Celtic

question, and his essays in the _Transactions_ of the Philological

Society (reprinted 1859), were invaluable to the later study of the

English language. The son, who thus owed much to his parentage, was

educated at home and at a private school, and in 1851, just after his

father's death, entered the British Museum as an assistant in the

library. In 1875 he rose to be superintendent of the reading-room, and

from 1890 to 1899, when he retired, he was keeper of the printed books.

In 1883 he was given the degree of LL.D. at Edinburgh, an honour

repeated by other universities, and in 1895 he was made a C.B.

His long connexion with the British Museum library, and the value of his

services there, made him a well-known figure in the literary world, and

he published much original work in both prose and verse. His chief

publications in book-form were: in verse, _Primula_ (1858), _Io in

Egypt_ (1859), _Idylls and Epigrams_ (1869, republished in 1892 as _A

Chaplet from the Greek Anthology_), _The Queen and other Poems_ (1902),

_Collected Poems_ (1893); in prose, biographies of Carlyle (1887),

Emerson (1887), Milton (1890), Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1898); a volume

of remarkably original and fanciful tales, _The Twilight of the Gods_

(1888); a tragedy, _Iphigenia in Delphi_ (1890); _A Short History of

Italian Literature_ (1898); _Essays in Librarianship and Bibliophily_

(1899); _Essays of an Ex-librarian_ (1901). He was an extensive

contributor to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ and the _Dictionary of

National Biography_, editor of the _International Library of Famous

Literature_, and co-editor, with E. Gosse, of the elaborate _English

Literature: an illustrated Record_. So multifarious was his output,

however, in contributions to reviews, &c., and as translator or editor,

that this list represents only a small part of his published work. He

was a member of numerous learned literary societies, British and

foreign. His facility as an expositor, and his gift for lucid and acute

generalization, together with his eminence as a bibliophile, gave his

work an authority which was universally recognized, though it sometimes

suffered from his relying too much on his memory and his power of

generalizing--remarkable as both usually were--in cases requiring

greater precision of statement in matters of detail. But as an

interpreter, whether of biography or _belles lettres_, who brought an

unusually wide range of book-learning, in its best sense, interestingly

and comprehensibly before a large public, and at the same time

acceptably to the canons of careful scholarship, Dr Garnett's writing

was always characterized by clearness, common sense and sympathetic

appreciation. His official career at the British Museum marked an epoch

in the management of the library, in the history of which his place is

second only to that of Panizzi. Besides introducing the "sliding press"

in 1887 he was responsible for reviving the publication of the general

catalogue, the printing of which, interrupted in 1841, was resumed under

him in 1880, and gradually completed. The antipodes of a Dryasdust, his

human interest in books made him an ideal librarian, and his courtesy

and helpfulness were outstanding features in a personality of singular

charm. The whole bookish world looked on him as a friend. Among his

"hobbies" was a study of astrology, to which, without associating his

name with it in public, he devoted prolonged inquiry. Under the

pseudonym of "A.G. Trent" he published in 1880 an article (in the

_University Magazine_) on "The Soul and the Stars"--quoted in Wilde and

Dodson's _Natal Astrology_. He satisfied himself that there was more

truth in the old astrology than modern criticism supposed, and he had

intended to publish a further monograph on the subject, but the

intention was frustrated by the ill-health which led up to his death on

the 13th of April 1906. He married (1863) an Irish wife, Olivia Narney

Singleton (d. 1903), and had a family of six children; his son Edward

(b. 1868) being a well-known literary man, whose wife translated

Turgeneff's works into English. (H. Ch.)

GARNIER, CLEMENT JOSEPH (1813-1881), French economist, was born at Beuil

(Alpes maritimes) on the 3rd of October 1813. Coming to Paris he studied

at the Ecole de Commerce, of which he eventually became secretary and

finally a professor. In 1842 he founded with Gilbert-Urbain Guillaumin

(1801-1864) the Societe d'Economie politique, becoming its secretary, a

post which he held till his death; and in 1846 he organized the

Association pour la Liberte des Echanges. He also helped to establish

and edited for many years the _Journal des economistes_ and the

_Annuaire de l'economie politique_. Of the school of _laissez faire_, he

was engaged during his whole life in the advancement of the science of

political economy, and in the improvement of French commercial

education. In 1873 he became a member of the Institute, and in 1876 a

senator for the department in which he was born. He died at Paris on the

25th of September 1881. Of his writings, the following are the more

important: _Traite d'economie politique_ (1845), _Richard Cobden et la

Ligue_ (1846), _Traite des finances_ (1862), and _Principes du

population_ (1857).

GARNIER, GERMAIN, MARQUIS (1754-1821), French politician and economist,

was born at Auxerre on the 8th of November 1754. He was educated for the

law, and obtained when young the office of _procureur_ to the Chatelet

in Paris. On the calling of the states-general he was elected as one of

the _deputes suppleants_ of the city of Paris, and in 1791 administrator

of the department of Paris. After the 10th of August 1792 he withdrew to

the Pays de Vaud, and did not return to France till 1795. In public

life, however, he seems to have been singularly fortunate. In 1797 he

was on the list of candidates for the Directory; in 1800 he was prefect

of Seine-et-Oise; and in 1804 he was made senator and in 1808 a count.

After the Restoration he obtained a peerage, and on the return of Louis

XVIII., after the Hundred Days, he became minister of state and member

of privy council, and in 1817 was created a marquis. He died at Paris on

the 4th of October 1821. At court he was, when young, noted for his

facile power of writing society verse, but his literary reputation

depends rather on his later works on political economy, especially his

admirable translation, with notes and introduction, of Smith's _Wealth

of Nations_ (1805) and his _Histoire de la monnaie_ (2 vols., 1819),

which contains much sound and well-arranged material. His _Abrege des

principes de l'econ. polit._ (1796) is a very clear and instructive

manual. The valuable _Description geographique, physique, et politique

du departement de Seine-et-Oise_ (1802) was drawn up from his

instructions. Other works are _De la propriete_ (1792) and _Histoire des

banques d'escompte_ (1806).

GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES (1825-1898), French architect, was born in

Paris on the 6th of November 1825. He was educated in a primary school,

and it was intended that he should pursue his father's craft, that of a

wheelwright. His mother, however, having heard that with a little

previous study he might enter an architect's office and eventually

become a measuring surveyor (_verificateur_), and earn as much as six

francs a day, and foreseeing that in consequence of his delicate health

he would be unfit to work at the forge, sent him to learn drawing and

mathematics at the Petite Ecole de Dessin, in the rue de Medecine, the

cradle of so many of the great artists of France. His progress was such

as to justify his being sent first into an architect's office and then

to the well-known atelier of Lebas, where he began his studies in

preparation for the examination of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, which he

passed in 1842, at the age of seventeen. Shortly after his admission it

became necessary that he should support himself, and accordingly he

worked during the day in various architects' offices, among them in that

of M. Viollet-le-Duc, and confined his studies for the Ecole to the

evening. In 1848 he carried off, at the early age of twenty-three, the

Grand Prix de Rome, and with his comrades in sculpture, engraving and

music, set off for the Villa de Medicis. His principal works were the

measured drawings of the Forum of Trajan and the temple of Vesta in

Rome, and the temple of Serapis at Pozzuoli. In the fifth year of his

travelling studentship he went to Athens and measured the temple at

Aegina, subsequently working out a complete restoration of it, with its

polychromatic decoration, which was published as a monograph in 1877.

The elaborate set of drawings which he was commissioned by the duc de

Luynes to make of the tombs of the house of Anjou were not published,

owing to the death of his patron; and since Garnier's death they have

been given to the library of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, along with other

drawings he made in Italy. On his return to Paris in 1853 he was

appointed surveyor to one or two government buildings, with a very

moderate salary, so that the commission given him by M. Victor Baltard

to make two water-colour drawings of the Hotel de Ville, to be placed in

the album presented to Queen Victoria in 1855, on the occasion of her

visit to Paris, proved very acceptable. These two drawings are now in

the library at Windsor.

In 1860 came, at last, Garnier's chance: a competition was announced for

a design for a new imperial academy of music, and out of 163 competitors

Garnier was one of five selected for a second competition, in which, by

unanimous vote, he carried off the first prize, and the execution of the

design was placed in his hands. Begun in 1861, but delayed in its

completion by the Franco-German War, it was not till 1875 that the

structure of the present Grand Opera House of Paris was finished, at a

cost of about 35,000,000 francs (L1,420,000). During the war the

building was utilized as the municipal storehouse of provisions. The

staircase and the magnificent hall are the finest portion of the

interior, and alike in conception and realization have never been

approached. Of Garnier's other works, the most remarkable are the Casino

at Monte Carlo, the Bischoffsheim villa at Bordighera, the Hotel du

Cercle de la Librairie in Paris; and, among tombs, those of the

musicians Bizet, Offenbach, Masse and Duprato. In 1874 he was elected a

member of the Institute of France, and after passing through the grades

of chevalier, officer and commander of the Legion of Honour, received in

1895 the rank of grand officer, a high distinction that had never before

been granted to an architect. Charles Garnier's reputation was not

confined to France; it was recognized by all the countries of Europe,

and in England he received, in 1886, the royal gold medal of the Royal

Institute of Architects, given by Queen Victoria. Besides his monograph

on the temple of Aegina, he wrote several works, of which _Le Nouvel

Opera de Paris_ is the most valuable. For the International Exhibition

of 1889 he designed the buildings illustrating the "History of the

House" in all periods, and a work on this subject was afterwards

published by him in conjunction with M. Ammann. Not the least of his

claims to the gratitude of his country were the services which he

rendered on the various art juries appointed by the state, the Institute

of France, and the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, services which in France are

rendered in an honorary capacity. Garnier died on the 3rd of August

1898. (R. P. S.)

GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANCOIS [FRANCIS] (1839-1873), French officer and

explorer, was born at St Etienne on the 25th of July 1839. He entered

the navy, and after voyaging in Brazilian waters and the Pacific he

obtained a post on the staff of Admiral Charner, who from 1860 to 1862

was campaigning in Cochin-China. After some time spent in France he

returned to the East, and in 1862 he was appointed inspector of the

natives in Cochin-China, and entrusted with the administration of

Cho-lon, a suburb of Saigon. It was at his suggestion that the marquis

de Chasseloup-Laubat determined to send a mission to explore the valley

of the Mekong, but as Garnier was not considered old enough to be put in

command, the chief authority was entrusted to Captain Doudart de Lagree.

In the course of the expedition--to quote the words of Sir Roderick

Murchison addressed to the youthful traveller when, in 1870, he was

presented with the Victoria Medal of the Royal Geographical Society of

London--from Kratie in Cambodia to Shanghai 5392 m. were traversed, and

of these 3625 m., chiefly of country unknown to European geography, were

surveyed with care, and the positions fixed by astronomical

observations, nearly the whole of the observations being taken by

Garnier himself. Volunteering to lead a detachment to Talifu, the

capital of Sultan Suleiman, the sovereign of the Mahommedan rebels in

Yunnan, he successfully carried out the more than adventurous

enterprise. When shortly afterwards Lagree died, Garnier naturally

assumed the command of the expedition, and he conducted it in safety to

the Yang-tsze-Kiang, and thus to the Chinese coast. On his return to

France he was received with enthusiasm. The preparation of his narrative

was interrupted by the Franco-German War, and during the siege of Paris

he served as principal staff officer to the admiral in command of the

eighth "sector." His experiences during the siege were published

anonymously in the feuilleton of _Le Temps_, and appeared separately as

_Le Siege de Paris, journal d'un officier de marine_ (1871). Returning

to Cochin-China he found the political circumstances of the country

unfavourable to further exploration, and accordingly he went to China,

and in 1873 followed the upper course of the Yang-tsze-Kiang to the

waterfalls. He was next commissioned by Admiral Dupre, governor of

Cochin-China, to found a French protectorate or a new colony in

Tongking. On the 20th of November 1873 he took Hanoi, the capital of

Tongking, and on the 21st of December he was slain in fight with the

Black Flags. His chief fame rests on the fact that he originated the

idea of exploring the Mekong, and carried out the larger portion of the

work.

The narrative of the principal expedition appeared in 1873, as _Voyage

d'exploration en Indo-Chine effectue pendant les annees 1866, 1867 et

1868, publie sous la direction de M. Francis Garnier, avec le concours

de M. Delaporte et de MM. Joubert et Thorel_ (2 vols.). An account of

the Yang-tsze-Kiang from Garnier's pen is given in the _Bulletin de la

Soc. de Geog._ (1874). His _Chronique royale du Cambodje_, was

reprinted from the _Journal Asiatique_ in 1872. See _Ocean Highways_

(1874) for a memoir by Colonel Yule; and Hugh Clifford, _Further

India_, in the Story of Exploration series (1904).

GARNIER, ROBERT (c. 1545-c. 1600), French tragic poet, was born at Ferte

Bernard (Le Maine) in 1545. He published his first work while still a

law-student at Toulouse, where he won a prize (1565) in the _jeux

floraux_. It was a collection of lyrical pieces, now lost, entitled

_Plaintes amoureuses de Robert Garnier_ (1565). After some practice at

the Parisian bar, he became conseiller du roi au siege presidial et

senechaussee of Le Maine, his native district, and later

lieutenant-general criminel. His friend Lacroix du Maine says that he

enjoyed a great reputation as an orator. He was a distinguished

magistrate, of considerable weight in his native province, who gave his

leisure to literature, and whose merits as a poet were fully recognized

by his own generation. He died at Le Mans probably in 1599 or 1600.

In his early plays he was a close follower of the school of dramatists

who were inspired by the study of Seneca. In these productions there is

little that is strictly dramatic except the form. A tragedy was a series

of rhetorical speeches relieved by a lyric chorus. His pieces in this

manner are _Porcie_ (published 1568, acted at the hotel de Bourgogne in

1573), _Cornelie_ and _Hippolyte_ (both acted in 1573 and printed in

1574). In _Porcie_ the deaths of Cassius, Brutus and Portia are each the

subject of an eloquent recital, but the action is confined to the death

of the nurse, who alone is allowed to die on the stage. His next group

of tragedies--_Marc-Antoine_ (1578), _La Troade_ (1579), _Antigone_

(acted and printed 1580)--shows an advance on the theatre of Etienne

Jodelle and Jacques Grevin, and on his own early plays, in so much that

the rhetorical element is accompanied by abundance of action, though

this is accomplished by the plan of joining together two virtually

independent pieces in the same way.

In 1582 and 1583 he produced his two masterpieces _Bradamante_ and _Les

Juives_. In _Bradamante_, which alone of his plays has no chorus, he cut

himself adrift from Senecan models, and sought his subject in Ariosto,

the result being what came to be known later as a tragi-comedy. The

dramatic and romantic story becomes a real drama in Garnier's hands,

though even there the lovers, Bradamante and Roger, never meet on the

stage. The contest in the mind of Roger supplies a genuine dramatic

interest in the manner of Corneille. _Les Juives_ is the pathetic story

of the barbarous vengeance of Nebuchadnezzar on the Jewish king Zedekiah

and his children. The Jewish women lamenting the fate of their children

take a principal part in this tragedy, which, although almost entirely

elegiac in conception, is singularly well designed, and gains unity by

the personality of the prophet. M. Faguet says that of all French

tragedies of the 16th and 17th centuries it is, with _Athalie_, the best

constructed with regard to the requirements of the stage. Actual

representation is continually in the mind of the author; his drama is,

in fact, visually conceived.

Garnier must be regarded as the greatest French tragic poet of his

century and the precursor of the great achievements of the next.

The best edition of his works is by Wendelin Foerster (Heilbronn, 4

vols., 1882-1883). A detailed criticism of his works is to be found in

Emile Faguet, _La Tragedie francaise au XVI^e siecle_ (1883, pp.

183-307).

GARNIER-PAGES, ETIENNE JOSEPH LOUIS (1801-1841), French politician, was

born at Marseilles on the 27th of December 1801. Soon after his birth

his father Jean Francois Garnier, a naval surgeon, died, and his mother

married Simon Pages, a college professor, by whom she had a son. The

boys were brought up together, and took the double name Garnier-Pages.

Etienne found employment first in a commercial house in Marseilles, and

then in an insurance office in Paris. In 1825 he began to study law, and

made some mark as an advocate. A keen opponent of the Restoration, he

joined various democratic societies, notably the _Aide-toi, le ciel

t'aidera_, an organization for purifying the elections. He took part in

the revolution of July 1830; became secretary of the _Aide-toi, le ciel

t'aidera_, whose propaganda he brought into line with his

anti-monarchical ideas; and in 1831 was sent from Isere to the chamber

of deputies. He was concerned in the preparation of the _Compte rendu_

of 1832, and advocated universal suffrage. He was an eloquent speaker,

and his sound knowledge of business and finance gave him a marked

influence among all parties in the chamber. He died in Paris on the 23rd

of June 1841.

His half-brother, LOUIS ANTOINE GARNIER-PAGES (1803-1878), fought on the

barricades during the revolution of July 1830, and after Etienne's death

was elected to the chamber of deputies (1842). He was a keen promoter

of reform, and was a leading spirit in the affair of the reform banquet

fixed for the 22nd of February 1848. He was a member of the provisional

government of 1848, and was named mayor of Paris. On the 5th of March

1848 he was made minister of finance, and incurred great unpopularity by

the imposition of additional taxes. He was a member of the Constituent

Assembly and of the Executive Commission. Under the Empire he was

conspicuous in the republican opposition and opposed the war with

Prussia, and after the fall of Napoleon III. became a member of the

Government of National Defence. Unsuccessful at the elections for the

National Assembly (the 8th of February 1871), he retired into private

life, and died in Paris on the 31st of October 1878. He wrote _Histoire

de la revolution de 1848_ (1860-1862); _Histoire de la commission

executive_ (1869-1872); and _L'Opposition et l'empire_ (1872).

GARNISH, a word meaning to fit out, equip, furnish, now particularly

used of decoration or ornament. It is formed from the O. Fr. _garnisant_

or _guarnissant_, participle of _garnir_, _guarnir_, to furnish, equip.

This is of Teutonic origin, the base being represented in O. Eng.

_warnian_, to take warning, beware, and Ger. _warnen_, to warn, Eng.

_warn_; the original sense would be to guard against, fortify, hence

equip or fit out. The meaning of "warn" is seen in the law term

"garnishee," a person who owes money to or holds money belonging to

another and is "warned" by order of the court not to pay it to his

immediate creditor but to a third person who has obtained final judgment

against that creditor. (See ATTACHMENT; EXECUTION; BANKRUPTCY.)

GARO HILLS, a district of British India, in the hills division of

Eastern Bengal and Assam. It takes its name from the Garos, a tribe of

doubtful ethnical affinities and peculiar customs, by whom it is almost

entirely inhabited. The Garos are probably a section of the great Bodo

tribe, which at one time occupied a large part of Assam. According to

the census of 1901 they numbered 128,117. In the 18th century they are

mentioned as being frequently in conflict with the inhabitants of the

plains below their hills, and in 1790 the British government first tried

to reduce them. No permanent success was achieved. In 1852 raids by the

Garos were followed by a blockade of the hills, but in 1856 they were

again in revolt. Again a repressive expedition was despatched in 1861,

but in 1866 there was a further raid. A British officer was now posted

among the hills; this step was effective; in 1869 the district was

constituted, and though in 1871 an outrage was committed against a

native on the survey staff, there was little opposition when an

expedition was sent in 1872-1873 to bring the whole district into

submission, and there were thereafter no further disturbances.

The district consists of the last spurs of the Assam hills, which here

run down almost to the bank of the Brahmaputra, where that river

debouches upon the plain of Bengal and takes its great sweep to the

south. The administrative headquarters are at Tura. The area of the

district is 3140 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 138,274, showing an

increase of 14% in the decade. The American missionaries maintain a

small training school for teachers. The public buildings at Tura were

entirely destroyed by the earthquake of June 12, 1897, and the roads in

the district were greatly damaged by subsidence and fissures. Coal in

large quantities and petroleum are known to exist. The chief exports are

cotton, timber and forest products. Trade is small, though the natives,

according to their own standard, are prosperous. They are fair

agriculturists. Communications within the district are by cart-roads,

bridle-paths and native tracks.

GARONNE (Lat. _Garumna_), a river of south-western France, rising in the

Maladetta group of the Pyrenees, and flowing in a wide curve to the

Atlantic Ocean. It is formed by two torrents, one of which has a

subterranean course of 2-1/2 m., disappearing in the sink known as the

Trou du Taureau ("bull's hole") and reappearing at the Goueil de Joueou.

After a course of 30 m. in Spanish territory, during which it flows

through the fine gorge called the Vallee d'Aran, the Garonne enters

France in the department of Haute Garonne through the narrow defile of

the Pont du Roi, and at once becomes navigable for rafts. At Montrejeau

it receives on the left the Neste, and encountering at this point the

vast plateau of Lannemezan is forced to turn abruptly east, flowing in a

wide curve to Toulouse. At Saint Martory it gives off the irrigation

canal of that name. At this point the Garonne enters a fertile plain,

and supplies the motive power to several mills. It is joined on the

right by various streams fed by the snows of the Pyrenees. Such are the

Salat, at whose confluence river navigation proper begins, and the Arize

and the Ariege (both names signifying "river"). From Toulouse the

Garonne flows to the north-west, now skirting the northern border of the

plateau of Lannemezan which here drains into it, the principal streams

being the Save, the Gers and the Baise. On its right hand the Garonne is

swelled by its two chief tributaries, the Tarn, near Moissac, and the

Lot, below Agen; farther down it is joined by the Drot (or Dropt), and

on the left by the Ciron. Between Toulouse and Castets, 33-1/2 m. above

Bordeaux, and the highest point to which ordinary spring-tides ascend,

the river is accompanied at a distance of from a 1/2 to 3 m. by the

so-called "lateral canal" of the Garonne, constructed in 1838-1856. This

canal is about 120 m. long, or 133 m. including its branches, one of

which runs off at right angles to Montauban on the Tarn. From Toulouse

to Agen the main canal follows the right bank of the Garonne, crossing

the Tarn on an aqueduct at Moissac, while another magnificent aqueduct

of twenty-three arches carries it at Agen from the right to the left

bank of the river. It has a fall of 420 ft. and over fifty locks, and is

navigable for vessels having the maximum dimensions of 98-1/2 ft.

length, 19 ft. breadth and 6-1/2 ft. draught. The carrying trade upon it

is chiefly in agricultural produce and provisions, building materials,

wood and industrial products. At Toulouse the canal connects with the

Canal du Midi, which runs to the Mediterranean. After passing Castets

the Garonne begins to widen out considerably, and from being 160 yds.

broad at Agen increases to about 650 yds. at Bordeaux, its great

commercial port. From here it flows with ever increasing width between

two flat shores to the Bec d'Ambes (15-1/2 m.), where, after a course of

357 m., it unites with the Dordogne to form the vast estuary known as

the Gironde. The triangular peninsula lying between these two great

tidal rivers is called Entre-deux-mers ("between two seas") and is

famous for its wines. The drainage area of the Garonne is nearly 33,000

sq. m. Floods are of common occurrence, and descend very suddenly. The

most disastrous occurred in 1875, 1856 and in 1770, when the flood level

at Castets attained the record height of 42-1/2 ft. above low-water

mark.

GARRET (from the O. Fr. _garite_, modern _guerite_, a watch-tower,

connected ultimately with "guard" and "ward"), properly a small look-out

tower built on a wall, and hence the name given to a room on the top

storey of a building, the sloping ceiling of which is formed by the

roof.

GARRETT, JOAO BAPTISTA DA SILVA LEITAO DE ALMEIDA, VISCONDE DE

ALMEIDA-GARRETT (1799-1854), perhaps the greatest Portuguese poet since

Camoens, was of Irish descent. Born in Oporto, his parents moved to the

Quinta do Castello at Gaya when he was five years old. The French

invasion of Portugal drove the family to the Azores, and Garrett made

his first studies at Angra, beginning to versify at an early age under

the influence of his uncle, a poet of the school of Bocage. Going to the

university of Coimbra in 1816, he soon earned notoriety by the precocity

of his talents and his fervent Liberalism, and there he gained his first

oratorical and literary successes. His tragedy _Lucrecia_ was played

there in February 1819, and during this period he also wrote _Merope_ as

well as a great part of _Cato_, all these plays belonging to the

so-called classical school. Leaving Coimbra with a law degree, he

proceeded to Lisbon, and on the 11th of November 1822 married D. Luiza

Midosi; but the alliance proved unhappy and a formal separation took

place in 1839.

The reactionary movement against the Radical revolution of 1820 reached

its height in 1823, and Garrett had to leave Portugal by order of the

Absolutist ministry then in power, and went to England. He became

acquainted with the masterpieces of the English and German romantic

movements during his stay abroad.

Imbued with the spirit of nationality, he wrote in 1824 at Havre the

poem "Camoes," which destroyed the influence of the worn-out classical

and Arcadian rhymers, and in the following year composed the patriotic

poem "D. Branca," or "The Conquest of the Algarve." He was permitted to

return to Portugal in 1826, and thereupon devoted himself to journalism.

With the publication of _O Portuguez_, he raised the tone of the press,

exhibiting an elevation of ideas and moderation of language then unknown

in political controversy, and he introduced the "feuilleton." But his

defence of Liberal principles brought him three months' imprisonment,

and when D. Miguel was proclaimed absolute king on the 3rd of May 1828,

Garrett had again to leave the country. In London, where he sought

refuge, he continued his adhesion to romanticism by publishing

_Adozinda_ and _Bernal-Francez_, expansions of old folk-poems, which met

with the warmest praise from Southey and were translated by Adamson. He

spent the next three years in and about Birmingham, Warwick and London,

engaged in writing poetry and political pamphlets, and by these and by

his periodicals he did much to unite the Portuguese _emigres_ and to

keep up their spirit amid their sufferings in a foreign land. Learning

that an expedition was being organized in France for the liberation of

Portugal, Garrett raised funds and joined the forces under D. Pedro as a

volunteer. Sailing in February 1832, he disembarked at Terceira, whence

he passed to S. Miguel, then the seat of the Liberal government. Here he

became a co-operator with the statesman Mousinho da Silveira, and

assisted him in drafting those laws which were to revolutionize the

whole framework of Portuguese society, this important work being done

far from books and without pecuniary reward. In his spare time he wrote

some of the beautiful lyrics afterwards collected into _Flores sem

Fructo_. He took part in the expedition that landed at the Mindello on

the 8th of July 1832, and in the occupation of Oporto. Early in the

siege he sketched out, under the influence of Walter Scott, the

historical romance _Arco de Sant' Anna_, descriptive of the city in the

reign of D. Pedro I.; and, in addition, he organized the Home and

Foreign offices under the marquis of Palmella, drafted many important

royal decrees, and prepared the criminal and commercial codes. In the

following November he was despatched as secretary to the marquis on a

diplomatic mission to foreign courts, which involved him in much

personal hardship. In the next year the capture of Lisbon enabled him to

return home, and he was charged to prepare a scheme for the reform of

public instruction.

In 1834-1835 he served as consul-general and charge d'affaires at

Brussels, representing Portugal with distinction under most difficult

circumstances, for which he received no thanks and little pay. When he

got back, the government employed him to draw up a proposal for the

construction of a national theatre and for a conservatoire of dramatic

art, of which he became the head. He instituted prizes for the best

plays, himself revising nearly all that were produced, and a school of

dramatists and actors arose under his influence. To give them models, he

proceeded to write a series of prose dramas, choosing his subjects from

Portuguese history. He began in 1838 with the _Auto de Gil Vicente_,

considering that the first step towards the recreation of the Portuguese

drama was to revive the memory of its founder, and he followed this up

in 1842 by the _Alfageme de Santarem_, dealing with the Holy Constable,

and in 1843 by _Frei Luiz de Sousa_, one of the few great tragedies of

the 19th century, a work as intensely national as _The Lusiads_. The

story, which in part is historically true, and has the merit of being

simple, like the action, is briefly as follows. D. Joao de Portugal, who

was supposed to have died at the battle of Alcacer, returns, years

afterwards, to find his wife married to Manoel de Sousa and the mother

of a daughter by him, named Maria. Thereupon the pair separate and enter

religion, and Manoel becomes the famous chronicler, _Frei Luiz de Sousa_

(q.v.). The characters live and move, especially Telmo, the old servant,

who would never believe in the death of his former master D. Joao, and

the consumptive child Maria, who helps Telmo to create the atmosphere

of impending disaster; while the episodes, particularly those of the

return of D. Joao and the death of Maria, are full of power, and the

language is Portuguese of the best.

Entering parliament in 1837, Garrett soon made his mark as an orator. In

that year he delivered many notable discourses in defence of liberal

ideas. He also brought in a literary copyright bill, which, when it

became law in 1851, served as a precedent for similar legislation in

England and Prussia. In 1840 he made his famous speech known as _Porto

Pyreu_, in which he skilfully turned the well-known anecdote of the "mad

Athenian" against his opponents. While attending with assiduity to his

duties as a deputy, he wrote, about this time, the drama _D. Filippa de

Vilhena_, founded on an incident in the revolution of 1640, for

representation by the pupils of the conservatoire, and the session of

1841 saw another of his oratorical triumphs in his speech against the

law of tithes. In July 1843 an excursion to Santarem resulted in his

prose masterpiece _Viagens na minha terra_, at once a novel and a

miscellany of literary, political and philosophic criticism, written

without plan or method, easy, jovial and epigrammatic. He took no part

in the civil war that followed the revolution of Maria da Fonte, but

continued his literary labours, producing in 1848 the comedy _A Sobrinha

do Marquez_, dealing with the times of Pombal, and in 1849 an historical

memoir on Mousinho da Silveira. He spent much of the year 1850 in

finishing his _Romanceiro_, a collection of folk-poetry of which he was

the first to perceive the value; and in June 1851 he was created a

viscount. In the following December he drew up the additional act to the

constitutional charter, and his draft was approved by the ministers at a

cabinet meeting in his house. Further, he initiated the _Conselho

Ultramarino_; and the _Law of the Misericordias_, with its preamble,

published in 1852, was entirely from his pen. In the same year he became

for a short time minister of foreign affairs. In 1853 he brought out

_Folhas Cahidas_, a collection of short poems ablaze with passion and

exquisite in form, of which his friend Herculano said: "if Camoens had

written love verses at Garrett's age, he could not have equalled him."

His final literary work was a novel, _Helena_, which he left unfinished,

and on the 10th of February 1854 he made his last notable speech in the

House. He died on the 9th of December 1854, and on the 3rd of May 1903

his remains were translated to the national pantheon, the Jeronymos at

Belem, where they rest near to those of Camoens. As poet, novelist,

journalist, orator and dramatist, he deserves the remark of Rebello da

Silva: "Garrett was not a man of letters only but an entire literature

in himself."

Besides his strong religious faith, Garrett was endowed with a deep

sensibility, a creative imagination, rare taste and a singular capacity

for sympathy. Thus, though a learned man and an able jurist, he was

bound to be first and always an artist. His artistic temperament

explains his many-sided activity, his expansive kindliness, his

seductive charm, especially for women, his patriotism, his aristocratic

pretensions, his huge vanity and dandyism, and the ingenuousness that

absolves him from many faults in an irregular life. From his rich

artistic nature sprang his profound, sincere, sensual and melancholy

lyrics, the variety and perfection of his scenic creations, the

splendour of his eloquence, the truth of his comic vein, the elegance of

his lighter compositions. Two books stand out in bold relief from among

his writings: _Folhas Cahidas_, and that tragedy of fatality and pity,

_Frei Luiz de Sousa_, with its gallery of noble figures incarnating the

truest realism in an almost perfect prose form. The complete collection

of his works comprises twenty-four volumes and there are several

editions.

AUTHORITIES.--Gomes de Amorim, _Garrett, memorias biographicas_ (3

vols., Lisbon, 1881-1888); D. Romero Ortiz, _La Litteratura Portuguesa

en el siglo XIX_ (Madrid, 1869), pp. 165-221; Dr Theophilo Braga,

_Garrett e o romantismo_ (Oporto, 1904), and _Garrett e os dramas

romanticos_ (Oporto, 1905), with a full bibliography; Innocencio da

Silva, _Diccionario bibliographico Portuguez_, vol. iii. pp. 309-316,

and vol. x. pp. 180-185. See _Revue encyclopedique Larousse_, No. 284,

for a bibliography of the foreign translations of Garrett. _Frei Luiz

de Sousa_ was translated by Edgar Prestage under the title _Brother

Luiz de Sousa_ (London, 1909). (E. Pr.)

GARRETTING, properly Galletting, a term in architecture for the process

in which the "gallets" or small splinters of stone are inserted in the

joints of coarse masonry to protect the mortar joints; they are stuck in

while the mortar is wet.

GARRICK, DAVID (1717-1779), English actor and theatrical manager, was

descended from a good French Protestant family named Garric or Garrique

of Bordeaux, which had settled in England on the revocation of the Edict

of Nantes. His father, Captain Peter Garrick, who had married Arabella

Clough, the daughter of a vicar choral of Lichfield cathedral, was on a

recruiting expedition when his famous third son was born at Hereford on

the 19th of February 1717. Captain Garrick, who had made his home at

Lichfield, where he had a large family, in 1731 rejoined his regiment at

Gibraltar. This kept him absent from home for many years, during which

letters were written to him by "little Davy," acquainting him with the

doings at Lichfield. When the boy was about eleven years old he paid a

short visit to Lisbon where his uncle David had settled as a wine

merchant. On his father's return from Gibraltar, David, who had

previously been educated at the grammar school of Lichfield, was,

largely by the advice of Gilbert Walmesley, registrar of the

ecclesiastical court, sent with his brother George to the "academy" at

Edial, just opened in June or July 1736 by Samuel Johnson, the senior by

seven years of David, who was then nineteen. This seminary was, however,

closed in about six months, and on the 2nd of March 1736/7 both Johnson

and Garrick left Lichfield for London--Johnson, as he afterwards said,

"with twopence halfpenny in his pocket," and Garrick "with

three-halfpence in his." Johnson, whose chief asset was the MS. tragedy

of _Irene_, was at first the host of his former pupil, who, however,

before the end of the year took up his residence at Rochester with John

Colson (afterwards Lucasian professor at Cambridge). Captain Garrick

died about a month after David's arrival in London. Soon afterwards, his

uncle, the wine merchant at Lisbon, having left David a sum of L1000, he

and his brother entered into partnership as wine merchants in London and

Lichfield, David taking up the London business. The concern was not

prosperous--though Samuel Foote's assertion that he had known Garrick

with three quarts of vinegar in the cellar calling himself a wine

merchant need not be taken literally--and before the end of 1741 he had

spent nearly half of his capital.

His passion for the stage completely engrossed him; he tried his hand

both at dramatic criticism and at dramatic authorship. His first

dramatic piece, _Lethe_, or _Aesop in the Shades_, which he was

thirty-seven years later to read from a splendidly bound transcript to

King George III. and Queen Charlotte, was played at Drury Lane on the

15th of April 1740; and he became a well-known frequenter of theatrical

circles. His first appearance on the stage was made in March 1741,

_incognito_, as harlequin at Goodman's Fields, Yates, who was ill,

having allowed him to take his place during a few scenes of the

pantomime entitled _Harlequin Student_, or _The Fall of Pantomime with

the Restoration of the Drama_. Garrick subsequently accompanied a party

of players from the same theatre to Ipswich, where he played his first

part as an actor under the name of Lyddal, in the character of Aboan (in

Southerne's _Oroonoko_). His success in this and other parts determined

his future career. On the 19th of October 1741 he made his appearance at

Goodman's Fields as Richard III. and gained the most enthusiastic

applause. Among the audience was Macklin, whose performance of Shylock,

early in the same year, had pointed the way along which Garrick was so

rapidly to pass in triumph. On the morrow the latter wrote to his

brother at Lichfield, proposing to make arrangements for his withdrawal

from the partnership, which, after much distressful complaint on the

part of his family, met by him with the utmost consideration, were

ultimately carried into effect. Meanwhile, each night had added to his

popularity on the stage. The town, as Gray (who, like Horace Walpole, at

first held out against the _furore_) declared, was "horn-mad" about him.

Before his Richard had exhausted its original effect, he won new

applause as Aboan, and soon afterwards as Lear and as Pierre in Otway's

_Venice Preserved_, as well as in several comic characters (including

that of Bayes). Glover ("Leonidas") attended every performance; the

duke of Argyll, Lords Cobham and Lyttelton, Pitt, and several other

members of parliament testified their admiration. Within the first six

months of his theatrical career he acted in eighteen characters of all

kinds, and from the 2nd of December he appeared in his own name. Pope

went to see him three times during his first performances, and

pronounced that "that young man never had his equal as an actor, and he

will never have a rival." Before next spring he had supped with "the

great Mr Murray, counsellor," and was engaged to do so with Mr Pope

through Murray's introduction, while he was dining with Halifax,

Sandwich and Chesterfield. "There was a dozen dukes of a night at

Goodman's Fields," writes Horace Walpole. Garrick's farce of _The Lying

Valet_, in which he performed the part of Sharp, was at this time

brought out with so much success that he ventured to send a copy to his

brother.

His fortune was now made, and while the managers of Covent Garden and

Drury Lane resorted to the law to make Giffard, the manager of Goodman's

Fields, close his little theatre, Garrick was engaged by Fleetwood for

Drury Lane for the season of 1742. In June of that year he went over to

Dublin, where he found the same homage paid to his talents as he had

received from his own countrymen. He was accompanied by Margaret (Peg)

Woffington, of whom he had been for some time a fervent admirer. (His

claim to the authorship of the song to Lovely Peggy is still _sub

judice_. There remains some obscurity as to the end of their liaison.)

From September 1742 to April 1745 he played at Drury Lane, after which

he again went over to Dublin. Here he remained during the whole season,

as joint-manager with Sheridan, in the direction and profits of the

Theatre Royal in Smock Alley. In 1746-1747 he fulfilled a short

engagement with Rich at Covent Garden, his last series of performances

under a management not his own. With the close of that season

Fleetwood's patent for the management of Drury Lane expired, and

Garrick, in conjunction with Lacy, purchased the property of the

theatre, together with the renewal of the patent; contributing L8000 as

two-thirds of the purchase-money. In September 1747 it was opened with a

strong company of actors, Johnson's prologue being spoken by Garrick,

while the epilogue, written by him, was spoken by Mrs Woffington. The

negotiations involved Garrick in a bitter quarrel with Macklin, who

appears to have had a real grievance in the matter. Garrick took no part

himself till his performance of Archer in the _Beaux' Stratagem_, a

month after the opening. For a time at least "the drama's patrons" were

content with the higher entertainment furnished them; in the end Garrick

had to "please" them, like most other managers, by gratifying their love

of show. Garrick was surrounded by many players of eminence, and he had

the art, as he was told by Mrs Clive, "of contradicting the proverb that

one cannot make bricks without straw, by doing what is infinitely more

difficult, making actors and actresses without genius." He had to

encounter very serious opposition from the old actors whom he had

distanced, and with the younger actors and actresses he was involved in

frequent quarrels. But to none of them or their fellows did he, so far

as it appears, show that jealousy of real merit from which so many great

actors have been unable to remain free. For the present he was able to

hold his own against all competition. The naturalness of his acting

fascinated those who, like Partridge in _Tom Jones_, listened to

nature's voice, and justified the preference of more conscious critics.

To be "pleased with nature" was, as Churchill wrote, in the _Rosciad_

(1761),[1] to be pleased with Garrick. For the stately declamation, the

sonorous, and beyond a doubt impressive, chant of Quin and his fellows,

Garrick substituted rapid changes of passion and humour in both voice

and gesture, which held his audiences spellbound. "It seemed," wrote

Richard Cumberland, "as if a whole century had been stepped over in the

passage of a single scene; old things were done away, and a new order at

once brought forward, bright and luminous, and clearly destined to

dispel the barbarisms of a tasteless age, too long superstitiously

devoted to the illusions of imposing declamation." Garrick's French

descent and his education may have contributed to give him the vivacity

and versatility which distinguished him as an actor; and nature had

given him an eye, if not a stature, to command, and a mimic power of

wonderful variety. The list of his characters in tragedy, comedy and

farce is large, and would be extraordinary for a modern actor of high

rank; it includes not less than seventeen Shakespearian parts. As a

manager, though he committed some grievous blunders, he did good service

to the theatre and signally advanced the popularity of Shakespeare's

plays, of which not less than twenty-four were produced at Drury Lane

under his management. Many of these were not pure Shakespeare; and he is

credited with the addition of a dying speech to the text of _Macbeth_.

On the other hand, Tate Wilkinson says that Garrick's production of

_Hamlet_ in 1773 was well received at Drury Lane even by the galleries,

"though without their favourite acquaintances the gravediggers." Among

his published adaptations are an opera, _The Fairies_ (from _Midsummer

Night's Dream_) (1755); an opera _The Tempest_ (1756); _Catherine and

Petruchio_ (1758); _Florizel and Perdita_ (1762). But not every

generation has the same notions of the way in which Shakespeare is best

honoured. Few sins of omission can be charged against Garrick as a

manager, but he refused Home's _Douglas_, and made the wrong choice

between _False Delicacy_ and _The Good Natur'd Man_. For the rest, he

purified the stage of much of its grossness, and introduced a relative

correctness of costume and decoration unknown before. To the study of

English dramatic literature he rendered an important service by

bequeathing his then unrivalled collection of plays to the British

Museum.

After escaping from the chains of his passion for the beautiful but

reckless Mrs Woffington, Garrick had in 1749 married Mademoiselle

Violette (Eva Maria Veigel), a German lady who had attracted admiration

at Florence or at Vienna as a dancer, and had come to England early in

1746, where her modest grace and the rumours which surrounded her

created a _furore_, and where she found enthusiastic patrons in the earl

and countess of Burlington. Garrick, who called her "the best of women

and wives," lived most happily with her in his villa at Hampton,

acquired by him in 1754, whither he was glad to escape from his house in

Southampton Street. To this period belongs Garrick's quarrel with Barry,

the only actor who even temporarily rivalled him in the favour of the

public. In 1763 Garrick and his wife visited Paris, where they were

cordially received and made the acquaintance of Diderot and others at

the house of the baron d'Holbach. It was about this time that Grimm

extolled Garrick as the first and only actor who came up to the demands

of his imagination; and it was in a reply to a pamphlet occasioned by

Garrick's visit that Diderot first gave expression to the views

expounded in his _Paradoxe sur le comedien_. After some months spent in

Italy, where Garrick fell seriously ill, they returned to Paris in the

autumn of 1764 and made more friends, reaching London in April 1765.

Their union was childless, and Mrs Garrick survived her husband until

1822. Her portrait by Hogarth is at Windsor Castle.

Garrick practically ceased to act in 1766, but he continued the

management of Drury Lane, and in 1769 organized the Shakespeare

celebrations at Stratford-on-Avon, an undertaking which ended in dismal

failure, though he composed an "Ode upon dedicating a building and

erecting a Statue to Shakespeare" on the occasion. (See, _inter alia,

Garrick's Vagary, or England Run Mad; with particulars of the Stratford

Jubilee_, 1769.) Of his best supporters on the stage, Mrs Cibber, with

whom he had been reconciled, died in 1766, and Mrs (Kitty) Clive retired

in 1769; but Garrick contrived to maintain the success of his theatre.

He sold his share in the property in 1776 for L35,000, and took leave of

the stage by playing a round of his favourite characters--Hamlet, Lear,

Richard and Benedick, among Shakespearian parts; Lusignan in _Zara_,

Aaron Hill's adaptation of Voltaire's _Zaire_; and Kitely in his own

adaptation of Ben Jonson's _Every Man in his Humour_; Archer in

Farquhar's _Beaux' Stratagem_; Abel Drugger in Ben Jonson's

_Alchemist_; Sir John Brute in Vanbrugh's _Provoked Wife_; Leon in

Fletcher's _Rule a Wife and have a Wife_. He ended the series, as Tate

Wilkinson says, "in full glory" with "the youthful Don Felix" in Mrs

Centlivre's _Wonder_ on the 10th of June 1776. He died in London on the

20th of January 1779. He was buried in Westminster Abbey at the foot of

Shakespeare's statue with imposing solemnities. An elegy on his death

was published by William Tasker, poet and physiognomist, in the same

year.

In person, Garrick was a little below middle height; in his later years

he seems to have inclined to stoutness. The extraordinary mobility of

his whole person, and his power of as it were transforming himself at

will, are attested by many anecdotes and descriptions, but the piercing

power of his eye must have been his most irresistible feature.

Johnson, of whose various and often merely churlish remarks on Garrick

and his doings many are scattered through the pages of Boswell, spoke

warmly of the elegance and sprightliness of his friend's conversation,

as well as of his liberality and kindness of heart; while to the great

actor's art he paid the exquisite tribute of describing Garrick's sudden

death as having "eclipsed the gaiety of nations, and impoverished the

public stock of harmless pleasure." But the most discriminating

character of Garrick, slightly tinged with satire, is that drawn by

Goldsmith in his poem of _Retaliation_. Beyond a doubt he was not

without a certain moral timidity contrasting strangely with his eager

temperament and alertness of intellect; but, though he was not cast in a

heroic mould, he must have been one of the most amiable of men. Garrick

was often happy in his epigrams and occasional verse, including his

numerous prologues and epilogues. He had the good taste to recognize,

and the spirit to make public his recognition of, the excellence of

Gray's odes at a time when they were either ridiculed or neglected. His

dramatic pieces, _The Lying Valet_, adapted from Motteux's _Novelty

Lethe_ (1740), _The Guardian_, _Linco's Travels_ (1767), _Miss in her

Teens_ (1747), _Irish Widow_, &c., and his alterations and adaptations

of old plays, which together fill four volumes, evinced his knowledge of

stage effect and his appreciation of lively dialogue and action; but he

cannot be said to have added one new or original character to the drama.

He was joint author with Colman of _The Clandestine Marriage_ (1766), in

which he is said to have written his famous part of Lord Ogleby. The

excellent farce, _High Life below Stairs_, appears to have been wrongly

attributed to Garrick, and to be by James Townley. His _Dramatic Works_

(1798) fill three, his _Poetic_ (1735) two volumes.

Garrick's _Private Correspondence_ (published in 1831-1832 with a short

memoir by Boaden, in 2 vols. 4to), which includes his extensive _Foreign

Correspondence_ with distinguished French men and women, and the notices

of him in the memoirs of Cumberland, Hannah More and Madame D'Arblay,

and above all in Boswell's _Life of Johnson_, bear testimony to his many

attractive qualities as a companion and to his fidelity as a friend.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A collection of unprinted Garrick letters is in the

Forster library at South Kensington. A list of publications of all

kinds for and against Garrick will be found in R. Lowe's

_Bibliographical History of English Theatrical Literature_ (1887). The

earlier biographies of Garrick are by Arthur Murphy (2 vols., 1801)

and by the bookseller Tom Davies (2 vols., 4th ed., 1805), the latter

a work of some merit, but occasionally inaccurate and confused as to

dates; and a searching if not altogether sympathetic survey of his

verses is furnished by Joseph Knight's valuable Life (1894). A memoir

of Garrick is included in a volume of French _Memoirs of Mlle Clairon

and others_, published by Levain (H.L. Cain) at Paris in 1846; and an

Italian _Biografia di Davide Garrick_ was published by C. Blasis at

Milan in 1840. Mr Percy Fitzgerald's _Life_ (2 vols., 1868; new

edition, 1899) is full and spirited, and has been reprinted, with

additions, among Sir Theodore Martin's _Monographs_ (1906). A

delightful essay on Garrick appeared in the _Quarterly Review_ (July

1868), directing attention to the admirable criticisms of Garrick's

acting in 1775 in the letters of G.C. Lichtenberg (_Verm. Schriften_,

iii., Gottingen, 1801). See also for a very valuable survey of

Garrick's labours as an actor, with a bibliography, C. Gaehde, _David

Garrick als Shakespeare-Darsteller_, &c. (Berlin, 1904). Mrs Parsons'

_Garrick, and his Circle_ and _Some unpublished Correspondence of

David Garrick_, ed. G.P. Baker (Boston, Mass., 1907), are interesting

additions to the literature of the subject. There is also a Life by

James Smyth, _David Garrick_ (1887). T.W. Robertson's play _David

Garrick_, first acted by Sothern, and later associated with Sir

Charles Wyndham, is of course mere fiction.

As to the portraits of Garrick, see W.T. Lawrence in The _Connoisseur_

(April 1905). That by Gainsborough at Stratford-on-Avon was preferred

by Mrs Garrick to all others. Several remain from the hand of Hogarth,

including the famous picture of Garrick as Richard III. The portraits

by Reynolds include the celebrated "Garrick between Tragedy and

Comedy." Zoffany's are portraits in character. Roubiliac's statue of

Shakespeare, for which Garrick sat, and for which he paid the sculptor

three hundred guineas, was originally placed in a small temple at

Hampton, and is now in the entrance hall at the British Museum.

(R. Ca.; A. W. W.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] In the subsequent _Apology addressed to the Critical Reviewers_,

Churchill revenged himself for the slight which he supposed Garrick

to have put upon him, by some spiteful lines, which, however, Garrick

requited by good-humoured kindness.

GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879), the American anti-slavery leader,

was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the 10th of December

1805. His parents were from the British province of New Brunswick. The

father, Abijah, a sea-captain, went away from home when William was a

child, and it is not known whether he died at sea or on land. The

mother, whose maiden name was Lloyd, is said to have been a woman of

high character, charming in person and eminent for piety. She died in

1823. William had a taste for books, and made the most of his limited

opportunities. His mother first set him to learn the trade of a

shoemaker, first at Newburyport, and then, after 1815, at Baltimore,

Maryland, and, when she found that this did not suit him, let him try

his hand at cabinet-making (at Haverhill, Mass.). But this pleased him

no better. In October 1818, when he was in his fourteenth year, he was

made more than content by being indentured to Ephraim W. Allen,

proprietor of the Newburyport _Herald_, to learn the trade of a printer.

He soon became an expert compositor, and after a time began to write

anonymously for the _Herald_. His communications won the commendation of

the editor, who had not at first the slightest suspicion that he was the

author. He also wrote for other papers with equal success. A series of

political essays, written by him for the Salem _Gazette_, was copied by

a prominent Philadelphia journal, the editor of which attributed them to

the Hon. Timothy Pickering, a distinguished statesman of Massachusetts.

His skill as a printer won for him the position of foreman, while his

ability as a writer was so marked that the editor of the _Herald_, when

temporarily called away from his post, left the paper in his charge.

The printing-office was for him, what it has been for many another poor

boy, no mean substitute for the academy and for the college. He was full

of enthusiasm for liberty; the struggle of the Greeks to throw off the

Turkish yoke enlisted his warmest sympathy, and at one time he seriously

thought of entering the West Point Academy and fitting himself for a

soldier's career. His apprenticeship ended in 1826, when he began the

publication of a new paper (actually the old one under a new name), the

_Free Press_, in his native place. The paper, whose motto was "Our

Country, our Whole Country, and nothing but our Country," was full of

spirit and intellectual force, but Newburyport was a sleepy place and

the enterprise failed. Garrison then went to Boston, where, after

working for a time as a journeyman printer, he became the editor of the

_National Philanthropist_, the first journal established in America to

promote the cause of total abstinence from intoxicating liquors. His

work in this paper was highly appreciated by the friends of temperance,

but a change in the proprietorship led to his withdrawal before the end

of the year. In 1828 he was induced to establish the _Journal of the

Times_ at Bennington, Vermont, to support the re-election of John Quincy

Adams to the presidency of the United States. The new paper, though

attractive in many ways, and full of force and fire, was too far ahead

of public sentiment on moral questions to win a large support. In Boston

he had met Benjamin Lundy (q.v.), who had for years been preaching the

abolition of slavery. Garrison had been deeply moved by Lundy's appeals,

and after going to Vermont he showed the deepest interest in the slavery

question. Lundy was then publishing in Baltimore a small monthly paper,

entitled _The Genius of Universal Emancipation_, and he resolved to go

to Bennington and invite Garrison to join him in the editorship. With

this object in view he walked from Boston to Bennington, through the

frost and snow of a New England winter, a distance of 125 m. His mission

was successful. Garrison was deeply impressed by the good Quaker's zeal

and devotion, and he resolved to join him and devote himself thereafter

to the work of abolishing slavery.