[2] The large number of gannets, and the vast quantity of fish they

take, has been frequently animadverted upon, but the computations on

this last point are perhaps fallacious. It seems to be certain that

in former days fishes, and herrings in particular, were at least as

plentiful as now, if not more so, notwithstanding that gannets were

more numerous. Those frequenting the Bass were reckoned by

Macgillivray at 20,000 in 1831, while in 1869 they were computed at

12,000, showing a decrease of two-fifths in 38 years. On Ailsa in

1869 there were supposed to be as many as on the Bass, but their

number was estimated at 10,000 in 1877 (_Report on the Herring

Fisheries of Scotland_, 1878, pp. xxv. and 171),--being a diminution

of one-sixth in eight years, or nearly twice as great as on the Bass.

GANODONTA (so named from the presence of bands of enamel on the teeth),

a group of specialized North American Lower and Middle Eocene mammals of

uncertain affinity. The group includes _Hemiganus_, _Psittacotherium_

and _Conoryctes_ from the Puerco, _Calamodon_ and _Hemiganus_ from the

Wasatch, and _Stylinodon_ from the Bridger Eocene. With the exception of

_Conoryctes_, in which it is longer, the skull is short and suggests

affinity to the sloths, as does what little is known of the limb-bones.

The dentition, too, is of a type which might well be considered

ancestral to that of the Edentata. For instance, the molars when first

developed have tritubercular summits, but these soon become worn away,

leaving tall columnar crowns, with a subcircular surface of dentine

exposed at the summit of each. Moreover, while the earlier types have a

comparatively full series of teeth, all of which are rooted and invested

with enamel, in the later forms the incisors are lost, the cheek-teeth

never develop roots but grow continuously throughout life. These and

other features induced Dr J.L. Wortman to regard the Ganodonta as an

ancestral suborder of Edentata; but this view is not accepted by Prof.

W.B. Scott. Teeth provisionally assigned to _Calamodon_ have been

obtained from the Lower Tertiary deposits of Switzerland.

See J.L. Wortman, "The Ganodonta and their Relationship to the

Edentata," _Bull. Amer. Mus._ vol. ix. p. 59 (1897); W.B. Scott,

"Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds, Edentata," _Rep. Princeton Exped. to

Patagonia_, vol. v. (1903-1904). (R. L.*)

GANS, EDUARD (1797-1839), German jurist, was born at Berlin on the 22nd

of March 1797, of prosperous Jewish parents. He studied law first at

Berlin, then at Gottingen, and finally at Heidelberg, where he attended

Hegel's lectures, and became thoroughly imbued with the principles of

the Hegelian philosophy. In 1820, after taking his doctor's degree, he

returned to Berlin as lecturer on law. In 1825 he turned Christian, and

the following year was appointed extraordinary, and in 1828 ordinary,

professor in the Berlin faculty of law. At this period the historical

school of jurisprudence was coming to the front, and Gans, predisposed

owing to his Hegelian tendencies to treat law historically, applied the

method to one special branch--the right of succession. His great work,

_Erbrecht in weltgeschichtlicher Entwicklung_ (1824, 1825, 1829 and

1835), is of permanent value, not only for its extensive survey of

facts, but for the admirable manner in which the general theory of the

slow evolution of legal principles is presented. In 1830, and again in

1835, Gans visited Paris, and formed an intimate acquaintance with the

leaders of literary culture and criticism there. The liberality of his

views, especially on political matters, drew upon Gans the displeasure

of the Prussian government, and his course of lectures on the history of

the last fifty years (published as _Vorlesungen uber d. Geschichte d.

letzten funfzig Jahre_, Leipzig, 1833-1834) was prohibited. He died at

Berlin on the 5th of May 1839. In addition to the works above mentioned,

there may be noted the treatise on the fundamental laws of property

(_Uber die Grundlage des Besitzes_, Berlin, 1829), a portion of a

systematic work on the Roman civil law (_System des romischen

Civil-Rechts_, 1827), and a collection of his miscellaneous writings

(_Vermischte Schriften_, 1832). Gans edited the _Philosophie der

Geschichte_ in Hegel's _Werke_, and contributed an admirable preface.

See _Revue des deux mondes_ (Dec. 1839).

GANSBACHER, JOHANN BAPTIST (1778-1844), Austrian musical composer, was

born in 1778 at Sterzing in Tirol. His father, a schoolmaster and

teacher of music, undertook his son's early education, which the boy

continued under various masters till 1802, when he became the pupil of

the celebrated Abbe G.J. Vogler. To his connexion with this artist and

with his fellow-pupils, more perhaps than to his own merits,

Gansbacher's permanent place in the history of music is due; for it was

during his second stay with Vogler, then (1810) living at Darmstadt,

that he became acquainted with Weber and Meyerbeer, and the close

friendship which sprang up among the three young musicians, and was

dissolved by death only, has become celebrated in the history of their

art. But Gansbacher was himself by no means without merit. He creditably

filled the responsible and difficult post of director of the music at St

Stephen's cathedral, Vienna, from 1823 till his death (July 13, 1844);

and his compositions show high gifts and accomplishment. They consist

chiefly of church music, 17 masses, besides litanies, motets,

offertories, &c., being amongst the number. He also wrote several

sonatas, a symphony, and one or two minor compositions of a dramatic

kind.

GANTE, a cloth made from cotton or tow warp and jute weft. It is largely

used for bags for sugar and similar material, and has the appearance of

a fine hessian cloth.

GANYMEDE, in Greek mythology, son of Tros, king of Dardania, and

Callirrhoe. He was the most beautiful of mortals, and was carried off by

the gods (in the later story by Zeus himself, or by Zeus in the form of

an eagle) to Olympus to serve as cup-bearer (Apollodorus iii. 12;

Virgil, _Aeneid_, v. 254; Ovid, _Metam._ x. 255). By way of

compensation, Zeus presented his father with a team of immortal horses

(or a golden vine). Ganymede was afterwards regarded as the genius of

the fountains of the Nile, the life-giving and fertilizing river, and

identified by astronomers with the Aquarius of the zodiac. Thus the

divinity that distributed drink to the gods in heaven became the genius

who presided over the due supply of water on earth. When pederasty

became common in Greece, an attempt was made to justify it and invest it

with dignity by referring to the rape of the beautiful boy by Zeus; in

Crete, where the love of boys was reduced to a system, Minos, the

primitive ruler and law-giver, was said to have been the ravisher of

Ganymede. Thus the name which once denoted the good genius who bestowed

the precious gift of water upon man was adopted to this use in vulgar

Latin under the form _Catamitus_. Ganymede being carried off by the

eagle was the subject of a bronze group by the Athenian sculptor

Leochares, imitated in a marble statuette in the Vatican. E. Veckenstedt

(_Ganymedes_, Libau, 1881) endeavours to prove that Ganymede is the

genius of intoxicating drink ([Greek: methu], mead, for which he

postulates a form [Greek: medos]), whose original home was Phrygia.

See article by P. Weizsacker in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_. In

the article GREEK ART, fig. 53 (Pl. 1.) gives an illustration of

Ganymede borne aloft by an eagle.

GAO, GAO-GAO, or GARO, a town of French West Africa, in the Upper

Senegal and Niger colony, on the left bank of the Niger, 400 m. by river

below Timbuktu. Pop. about 5000. The present town dates from the French

occupation in 1900; of the ancient city there are scanty ruins, the

chief being a truncated pyramid, the remains of the tomb (16th century)

of Mahommed Askia, the Songhoi conqueror, and those of the great mosque.

According to tradition a city stood on this spot in very ancient times

and its inhabitants are said to have had intercourse with the Egyptians.

It is known, however, that the city of which the French settlement is

the successor was founded by the Songhoi, probably in the 7th or 8th

century, and became the capital of their empire. Garo (Ga-rho) appears

to have been the correct name of the Songhoi city, though it was also

known as Gogo and Kuku (Kaougha)[1]. In the 12th century Idrisi

describes Kuku as a populous unwalled town devoted to commerce and

industry; it is possible, however, that Idrisi is referring not to Gao

but to another town somewhat to the south--at that period the middle

course of the Niger had many prosperous towns along its banks. In the

14th century Gao was conquered by the king of Melle, and its great

mosque was built (c. 1325) by the Melle sovereign Kunkur Musa on his

return from a pilgrimage to Mecca. In the 15th century the Songhoi

regained power and Gao attained its greatest prosperity in the reign of

Askia. It did not enjoy the commercial importance of Jenne nor the

intellectual supremacy of Timbuktu, but was the political centre of the

western Sudan for a long period. On the break up of the Songhoi power

the city declined in importance. It became subject in 1590 to the _Ruma_

of Timbuktu, from whom it was wrested in 1770 by the Tuareg, the last

named surrendering possession to the French. The first European to reach

Gao was Mungo Park (1805); he was followed in 1851 by Heinrich Barth,

and in 1896 by the French naval lieutenant Hourst. Gao is now the

headquarters of a military district. A caravan route leads from it to

Kano and Bornu. From Gao upwards the Niger is navigable for over 1000 m.

See TIMBUKTU. For the Gao region of the Niger see an article by F.

Dubois in _L'Afrique francaise_ (January 1909).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] There was another city called Kaoka or Gaoga east of Lake Chad in

the country now known as Bagirmi. It was the seat of the Bulala

dynasty, an offshoot of the royal family of Kanem, whose rule in the

15th century extended from the Shari to Darfur. The existence of the

state was first mentioned by Leo Africanus. To the Bornuese it was

known as Bulala or Kuka Bulala, a name which persists as that of a

district in French Congo (see BORNU). The similarity of the name

Gaoga to that of the Songhoi capital has given rise to much

confusion.

GAOL, or JAIL, a prison (q.v.). The two forms of the word are due to the

parallel dual forms in Old Central and Norman French respectively,

_jaiole_ or _jaole_, and _gaiole_ or _gayolle_. The common origin is the

med. Lat. _gabiola_, a diminutive formed from _cavea_, a hollow, a den,

from which the English "cave" is derived. The form "gaol" still commonly

survives in English, and is in official usage, e.g. "gaol-delivery," but

the common pronunciation of both words, "jail," shows the real surviving

word.

GAON (Heb. for "Excellency," plural _Geonim_), the title given to the

heads of the two Jewish academies in Babylonia, Sura and Pumbeditha.

Though the name is far older, it is chiefly applied to Rabbis who lived

between the close of the Talmud and the transference of the centre of

Judaism from Asia to Europe--i.e. from the end of the 6th to the middle

of the 11th century A.D. The Geonim were required to do homage to the

Exilarchs (see EXILARCH) but were otherwise independent. They exercised

wide authority and were appealed to in settlement of the social and

religious affairs of the diaspora. To them must be assigned the

arrangement of the main lines of the present Synagogue liturgy. Their

chief literary activity took the form of Answers to Questions--a form

which was extensively used in later centuries. The most noted of the

Geonim, who will be found treated under their respective names, were

Ahai, Amram, Semach, Saadiah, Sherira and Hai. Hai Gaon died in 1038,

closing the period of the Geonim after an activity of four and a half

centuries.

A full list of the Geonim is given in tabular form in the _Jewish

Encyclopaedia_, vol. v. p. 571. (I. A.)

GAP, the capital of the French department of the Hautes Alpes. Pop.

(1906) town, 6888; commune, 10,823. It is built at a height of 2418 ft.

on the right bank of the Luye (an affluent of the Durance), in an

agreeable position, and is dominated afar by snowy peaks on the N.E. The

little city has the look of a Provencal town, being white. The

17th-century cathedral church has been entirely reconstructed

(1866-1905). In the prefecture is the tomb of the constable de

Lesdiguieres (1543-1626), dating from about 1613, and due to a Lorraine

sculptor, Jacob Richier. The same building contains various scientific

and archaeological collections, as well as the very rich archives, which

include many MSS. from the monastery of Durbon, &c. There are a few

small manufactories of purely local importance. Gap is connected by

railway with Briancon (51-1/2 m.) and with Grenoble (85-1/2 m.), while

from the railway junction of Veynes (16-1/2 m. W. of Gap) it is 122 m.

by rail to Marseilles. The episcopal see of Gap, now in the

ecclesiastical province of Aix en Provence, is first certainly mentioned

in the 6th century, and in 1791 was enlarged by the annexation of that

of Embrun (then suppressed).

Gap is the _Vapincum_ of the Romans, and was founded by Augustus about

14 B.C. It long formed part of Provence, but in 1232 most of the region

passed by marriage to the dauphins of Viennois. The town itself,

however, remained under the rule of the bishops until 1512, when it was

annexed to the crown of France. The bishops continued to bear the title

of count of Gap until the Revolution. The town was sacked by the

Huguenots in 1567 and 1577, and by the duke of Savoy in 1692. It was the

birthplace of the reformer Guillaume Farel (1489-1565), who first

preached his doctrines there about 1561-1562, but then took refuge in

Switzerland.

See J. Roman, _Histoire de la ville de Gap_ (Gap, 1892).

(W. A. B. C.)

GAPAN, a town of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon, Philippine Islands,

3 m. E. of San Isidro, the capital. Pop. (1903) 11,278. It is situated

in a rich rice-growing region, and extensive forests in its vicinity

contain fine hardwoods. Its climate is comparatively cool and healthy.

The principal native dialects spoken are Tagalog and Pampangan. Gapan is

the oldest town of the province.

GARARISH (KARARISH), a semi-nomadic tribe of Semitic origin, dwelling

along the right bank of the Nile from Wadi Halfa to Merawi. Many members

of the tribe are agriculturists, others act as guides or transport

drivers. They declare themselves kinsfolk of the Ababda, but they are

more Arab than Beja.

GARASHANIN, ILIYA (1812-1874), Servian statesman, was the son of a

Servian peasant, who made money by exporting cattle and pigs to Austria

and by his intelligence and wealth attained to a certain influence in

the country. He wanted to give his son as good an education as possible,

and therefore sent him to Hungary to learn first in a Greek and then in

a German school. Highly gifted, and having passed through a regular

although somewhat short school training, the young Iliya very quickly

came to the front. In 1836 Prince Milosh appointed him a colonel and

commander of the then just organized regular army of Servia. In 1842 he

was called to the position of assistant to the home minister, and from

that time until his retirement from public life in 1867 he was

repeatedly minister of home affairs, distinguishing himself by the

energy and justice of his administration. But he rendered far greater

services to his country as minister for foreign affairs. He was the

first Servian statesman who had a political programme, and who worked to

replace the Russian protectorate over Servia by the joint protectorate

of all the great powers of Europe. As minister for foreign affairs in

1853 he was decidedly opposed to Servia joining Russia in war against

Turkey and the western powers. His anti-Russian views resulted in Prince

Menshikov, while on his mission in Constantinople, 1853, peremptorily

demanding from the prince of Servia (Alexander Karageorgevich) his

dismissal. But although dismissed, his personal influence in the country

secured the neutrality of Servia during the Crimean War. He enjoyed

esteem in France, and it was due to him that France proposed to the

peace conference of Paris (1856) that the old constitution, granted to

Servia by Turkey as suzerain and Russia as protector in 1839, should be

replaced by a more modern and liberal constitution, framed by a European

international commission. But the agreement of the powers was not

secured. Garashanin induced Prince Alexander Karageorgevich to convoke a

national assembly, which had not been called to meet for ten years. The

assembly was convoked for St Andrew's Day 1858, but its first act was to

dethrone Prince Alexander and to recall the old Prince Milosh

Obrenovich. When after the death of his father Milosh (in 1860) Prince

Michael ascended the throne, he entrusted the premiership and foreign

affairs to Iliya Garashanin. The result of their policy was that Servia

was given a new, although somewhat conservative, constitution, and that

she obtained, without war, the evacuation of all the fortresses

garrisoned by the Turkish troops on the Servian territory, including the

fortress of Belgrade (1867). Garashanin was preparing a general rising

of the Balkan nations against the Turkish rule, and had entered into

confidential arrangements with the Rumanians, Bosnians, Albanians,

Bulgarians and Greeks, and more especially with Montenegro. But the

execution of his plans was frustrated by his sudden resignation (at the

end of 1867), and more especially by the assassination of Prince Michael

a few months later (the 10th of June 1868). Although he was a

Conservative in politics, and as such often in conflict with the leader

of the Liberal movement, Yovan Ristich, he certainly was one of the

ablest statesmen whom Servia had in the 19th century. (C. Mi.)

GARAT, DOMINIQUE JOSEPH (1740-1833), French writer and politician, was

born at Bayonne on the 8th of September 1749. After receiving a good

education under the direction of a relation who was a cure, and having

been an advocate at Bordeaux, he came to Paris, where he obtained

introductions to the most distinguished writers of the time, and became

a contributor to the _Encyclopedie methodique_ and the _Mercure de

France_. He gained considerable reputation by an eloge on Michel de

L'Hopital in 1778, and was afterwards three times crowned by the Academy

for eloges on Suger, Montausier and Fontenelle. In 1785 he was named

professor of history at the _Lycee_, where his lectures enjoyed an equal

popularity with those of G.F. Laharpe on literature. Being chosen a

deputy to the states-general in 1789, he rendered important service to

the popular cause by his narrative of the proceedings of the Assembly

contributed to the _Journal de Paris_. Possessing strongly optimist

views, a mild and irresolute character, and indefinite and changeable

convictions, he played a somewhat undignified part in the great

political events of the time, and became a pliant tool in carrying out

the designs of others. Danton had him named minister of justice in 1792,

and in this capacity had entrusted to him what he called the _commission

affreuse_ of communicating to Louis XVI. his sentence of death. In 1793

he became minister of the interior. In this capacity he proved himself

quite inefficient. Though himself uncorrupt, he winked at the most

scandalous corruption in his subordinates, and in spite of the admirably

organized detective service, which kept him accurately informed of every

movement in the capital, he entirely failed to maintain order, which

might easily have been done by a moderate display of firmness. At last,

disgusted with the excesses which he had been unable to control, he

resigned (August 15, 1793). On the 2nd of October he was arrested for

Girondist sympathies but soon released, and he escaped further

molestation owing to the friendship of Barras and, more especially, of

Robespierre, whose literary _amour-propre_ he had been careful to

flatter. On the 9th Thermidor, however, he took sides against

Robespierre, and on the 12th of September 1794 he was named by the

Convention as a member of the executive committee of public instruction.

In 1798 he was appointed ambassador to Naples, and in the following year

he became a member, then president, of the Council of the Ancients.

Alter the revolution of the 18th Brumaire he was chosen a senator by

Napoleon and created a count. During the Hundred Days he was a member of

the chamber of representatives. In 1803 he was chosen a member of the

Institute of France, but after the restoration of Louis XVIII. his name

was, in 1816, deleted from the list of members. After the revolution of

1830 he was named a member of the new Academy of Moral and Political

Science. He died at Ustaritz near Bayonne, April 25, 1833. His writings

are characterized by elegance, grace and variety of style, and by the

highest kind of rhetorical eloquence; but his grasp of his subject is

superficial, and as his criticisms have no root in fixed and

philosophical principles they are not unfrequently whimsical and

inconsistent. He must not be confounded with his elder brother Dominique

(1735-1799), who was also a deputy to the states-general.

The works of Garat include, besides those already mentioned,

_Considerations sur la Revolution Francaise_ (Paris, 1792); _Memoires

sur la Revolution, ou expose de ma conduite_ (1795); _Memoires sur la

vie de M. Suard, sur ses ecrits, et sur le XVIII^e siecle_ (1820);

eloges on Joubert, Kleber and Desaix; several notices of distinguished

persons; and a large number of articles in periodicals. Valuable

materials for the history of Garat's tenure of the ministry, notably

the police reports of Dutard, are given in W.A. Schmidt's _Tableaux de

la Revolution Francaise_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1867-1870).

GARAT, PIERRE-JEAN (1764-1823), French singer, nephew of Dominique

Joseph Garat, was born in Bordeaux on the 25th of April 1764. Gifted

with a voice of exceptional timbre and compass he devoted himself, from

an early age, to the cultivation of his musical talents. On account of

his manifesting a distaste for the legal profession, for which his

father wished him to study, he was deprived of his allowance, but

through the patronage of a friend he obtained the office of secretary to

Comte d'Artois, and was afterwards engaged to give musical lessons to

the queen of France. At the beginning of the Revolution he accompanied

Rode to England, where the two musicians appeared together in concerts.

He returned to Paris in 1794. After the Revolution he became a

professional singer, and on account of a song which he had composed in

reference to the misfortunes of the royal family he was thrown into

prison. On regaining his liberty he went to Hamburg, where he at once

achieved extraordinary success; and by his subsequent appearances in

Paris, and his visits to Italy, Spain, Germany and Russia, he made for

himself a reputation as a singer unequalled by any other of his own

time. He was a keen partisan of Gluck in opposition to Handel. On the

institution of the Conservatoire de Musique he became its professor of

singing. He also composed a number of songs, many of which have

considerable merit. He died on the 1st of March 1823 in Paris.

GARAY, JANOS (1812-1853), Hungarian poet and author, was born on the

10th of October 1812, at Szegszard, in the county of Tolna. From 1823 to

1828 he studied at Funfkirchen, and subsequently, in 1829, at the

university of Pest. In 1834 he brought out an heroic poem, in

hexameters, under the title _Csatar_. After this he issued in quick

succession various historical dramas, among which the most successful

were _Arbocz, Orszagh Ilona_ and _Bathori Erzsebet_,--the first two

published at Pest in 1837 and the last in 1840. Garay was an energetic

journalist, and in 1838 he removed to Pressburg, where he edited the

political journal _Hirnok_ (Herald). He returned to Pest in 1839, when

he was elected a corresponding member of the Hungarian Academy of

Sciences. In 1842 he was admitted into the Kisfaludy Society, of which

he became second secretary. Garay enriched Hungarian literature with

numerous lyrical poems, ballads and tales. The first collection of his

poems was published at Pest in 1843; and his prose tales appeared in

1845, under the title of _Tollrajzok_ (Sketches with the Pen). His

historical ballads and legends, styled _Arpadok_ (Pest, 1847, 2nd ed.

1848), showed him to be a master in the art of ballad-writing. Some of

his lyrical poems also are excellent, as, for example, _Balatoni

Kagylok_ (Shells from the Balaton Lake) (Pest, 1848). His legend

_Bosnyak Zsofia_ (Pest, 1847), and his poetical romance _Frangepan

Kristofne_ (Christopher Frangepan's Wife) (Pest, 1846), gained the prize

of the Kisfaludy Society. His last and most famous work was an

historical poem in twelve cantos, with the title _Szent Laszlo_ (Saint

Ladislaus) (Eger, 1852, 2nd ed., Pest, 1853, 3rd ed. 1863). Garay was

professor of Hungarian language and literature to the university of Pest

in 1848-1849. After about four years' illness he died on the 5th of

November 1853, in great want. A collective edition of his poems was

published at Pest the year after his death by F. Ney (2nd ed. 1860), and

several of his poems were translated by Kertbeny.

See _Garay Janos Osszes koltemenyei_ (2nd ed., Pest, 1860); and

_Dichtungen von Johann Garay_ (2nd ed., Vienna, 1856).

GARBLE (a word derived from the Arab. _gharbala_, to sift, and related

to _ghirbal_, a sieve; the Arabic words are of foreign origin, probably

from the Lat. _cribrum_, a sieve), originally a medieval commercial term

in the Mediterranean ports, meaning to sort out, or to sift merchandize,

such as corn, spices, &c., in order to separate what was good from the

refuse or waste; hence to select the best of anything for retention.

Similarly a "garbler" was an official who was appointed to sort out, or

test the work of those who had already sorted, the spices or drugs

offered for sale in the London markets. In this original sense the word

is now obsolete, but by inversion, or rather perversion, "garble" now

means to sort out or select, chiefly from books or other literary works,

or from public speeches, some portion which twists, mutilates, or

renders ineffective the meaning of the author or speaker.

GARCAO, PEDRO ANTONIO JOAQUIM CORREA (1724-1772), Portuguese lyric poet,

was the son of Philippe Correa da Serra, a _fidalgo_ of the royal house

who held an important post in the foreign office; his mother was of

French descent. The poet's health was frail, and after going through a

Jesuit school in Lisbon and learning English, French and Italian at

home, he proceeded in 1742 to the university of Coimbra with a view to a

legal career. He took his degree in 1748, and two years later was

created a knight of the Order of Christ. In 1751 his marriage with D.

Maria Salema brought him a rich dower which enabled him to live in ease

and cultivate letters; but in later years a law-suit reduced him to

poverty. From 1760 to 1762 he edited the _Lisbon Gazette_. In 1756, in

conjunction with Cruz e Silva and others, Garcao founded the _Arcadia

Lusitana_ to reform the prevailing bad taste in literature, identified

with _Seicentismo_, which delighted in conceits, windy words and

rhetorical phrases. The _Arcadia_ fulfilled its mission to some extent,

but it lacked creative power, became dogmatic, and ultimately died of

inanition. Garcao was the chief contributor to its proceedings, bearing

the name of "Corydon Erimantheo," and his orations and dissertations,

with many of his lyrics, were pronounced and read at its meetings. He

lived much in the society of the English residents in Lisbon, and he is

supposed to have conceived a passion for an English married lady which

completely absorbed him and contributed to his ruin. In the midst of his

literary activity and growing fame, he was arrested on the night of the

9th of April 1771, and committed to prison by Pombal, whose displeasure

he had incurred by his independence of character. The immediate cause of

his incarceration would appear to have been his connexion with a love

intrigue between a young friend of his and the daughter of a Colonel

Elsden, but he was never brought to trial, and the matter must remain in

doubt. After much solicitation, his wife obtained from the king an order

for her husband's release on the 10th of November 1772, but it came too

late. Broken by infirmities and the hardships of prison life, Garcao

expired that very day in the Limoeiro, at the age of forty-seven.

Taking Horace as his model, and aided by sound judgment, scholarship and

wide reading, Garcao set out to raise and purify the standard of

poetical taste, and his verses are characterized by a classical

simplicity of form and expression. His sonnets _ad sodales_ show a

charming personality; his vigorous and elegant odes and epistles are

sententious in tone and reveal an inspired poet and a man chastened by

suffering. His two comedies in hendecasyllables, the _Theatro Novo_

(played in January 1766) and the _Assemblea_, are excellent satires on

the social life of the capital; and in the _Cantata de Dido_, included

in the latter piece, the spirit of Greek art is allied to perfection of

form, making this composition perhaps the gem of Portuguese 18th century

poetry.

Garcao wrote little and spent much time on the _labor limae_. His

works were published posthumously in 1778, and the most complete and

accessible edition is that of J.A. de Azevedo Castro (Rome, 1888). An

English version of the _Cantata de Dido_ appeared in the Academy

(January 19th, 1895). See Innocencio da Silva, _Diccionario

bibliographico Portuguez_, vol. vi. pp. 386-393, and vol. xvii. pp.

182-184; also Dr Theophilo Braga, _A Arcadia Lusitana_ (Oporto, 1899).

(E. Pr.)

GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL (1775-1832), Spanish singer and

composer, was born in Seville on the 22nd of January 1775. He became a

chorister at the cathedral of Seville, and studied music under the best

masters of that city. At seventeen he made his debut on the stage at

Cadiz, in an operetta, in which were included songs of his own

composition. Soon afterwards he appeared at Madrid in the twofold

capacity of singer and composer. His reputation being established, he

proceeded to Paris, where he appeared for the first time, in 1808, in

Paer's opera _Griselda_. Here also he was received with great applause,

his style of singing being especially appreciated. This he further

improved by careful study of the Italian method in Italy itself, where

he continued his successes. His opera _Il Califo di Bagdad_ was

favourably received at Naples in 1812, but his chief successes were

again due to his perfection as a vocalist. His opera _La Morte di Tasso_

was produced in 1821 in Paris, where it was followed in 1823 by his _Il

Fazzoletto_. In 1824 he went to London, and thence proceeded to America

(1825) with a company of artistes, amongst whom were his son Manoel and

his daughter Maria, better known under her subsequent name of Malibran.

In New York was produced his opera _La Figlia dell' aria_ in 1827. He

extended his artistic tour as far as Mexico, and was on the point of

returning to Europe in order to retire from public life when he was

robbed of his well-earned wealth by brigands on his way to Vera Cruz.

Settled again in Paris in 1829, he soon retired from the stage, and

devoted himself exclusively to teaching. He died in Paris on the 2nd of

June 1832. His method of teaching was famous, and some of the most

celebrated singers of the early part of the century were amongst his

pupils. He also wrote an excellent book on the art of singing called

_Metodo di canto_, of which the essence was subsequently incorporated by

his son Manoel in his admirable _Traite complet de l'art du chant_

(1847). His operas have not survived their day. He wrote nearly forty in

all, but with the exception of those quoted, and _El Poeta calculista_,

produced when he was thirty, none are remarkable. Besides the children

already mentioned, his daughter Paulina, Madame Viardot (1821-1910),

worthily continued the tradition for the best singing with which his

name had become associated.

His son, MANOEL GARCIA (1805-1906), who celebrated his hundredth

birthday in London on the 17th of March 1905, was born at Madrid, and

after his father's death devoted himself to teaching. He was a professor

at the Paris Conservatoire from 1830 to 1848, from that time to 1895 was

a professor at the Royal Academy of Music in London. He became famous

for his invention of the laryngoscope about 1850, apart from his

position as the greatest representative of the old "_bel canto_" style

of singing.

GARCIA DE LA HUERTA, VICENTE ANTONIO (1734-1787), Spanish dramatist, was

born at Zafra on the 9th of March 1734, and was educated at Salamanca.

At Madrid he soon attracted attention by his literary arrogance and

handsome person; and at an early age became chief of the National

Library, a post from which he was dismissed owing to the intrigues of

his numerous enemies. The publication of his unsatisfactory collection

of Spanish plays entitled _Theatro Hespanol_ (1785-1786) exposed him to

severe censures, which appear to have affected his reason. He died at

Madrid on the 12th of March 1787, without carrying into effect his

avowed intention of reviving the national drama. His _Agamemnon vengado_

derives from Sophocles, his _Jaire_ is translated from Voltaire, and

even his once famous _Raquel_, though Spanish in subject, is classic in

form.

GARCIA DE PAREDES, DIEGO (1466-1534), Spanish soldier and duellist, was

a native of Trujillo in Estremadura, Spain. He never commanded an army

or rose to the position of a general, but he was a notable figure in the

wars of the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century, when

personal prowess had still a considerable share in deciding the result

of actions. His native town and its district, which lie between Talavera

and Madrid, produced many of the most noted _conquistadores_ of America,

including the Pizarro family. Diego himself served in his youth in the

war of Granada. His strength, daring and activity fitted him to shine in

operations largely composed of night marches, escalades, surprises and

hand-to-hand combats. The main scene of his achievements was in Italy,

and he betook himself to it--on his own showing--not in search of glory,

but because he had killed a relation of his own, Ruy Sanchez de Vargas,

in a street fight arising out of a quarrel about a horse. He fled to

Rome, then under the rule of the Borgias. Diego was a distant relation

to the cardinal of Santa Cruz (Carvajal), a favourite with Pope

Alexander VI., who was in conflict with the barons of the Romagna and

took Diego into his service. He remained a soldier of the pope till he

killed a man in a personal quarrel and found it necessary to pass over

to the enemy. Now he became acquainted with the Colonnas, who

appreciated his services. The wars between Ferdinand V. of Aragon (the

Catholic king) and Louis XII. gave him a more creditable opening. The

Spanish general Gonsalvo de Cordoba, who knew his value, employed him

and trusted him; and he took part in all the wars of Italy on the

frontier of Navarre, and once against the Turks on the Danube, till

1530. His countrymen made him the hero of many Munchausen-like stories

of personal prowess. It was said that he held a bridge single-handed

against 200 Frenchmen, that he stopped the wheel of a water-mill, and so

forth. In the "Brief Summary" of his life and deeds attributed to him,

and printed at the end of the _Chronicle of the Great Captain_,

published in 1584 at Alcala de Henares, he lays no claim to having done

more than was open to a very athletic man. He was killed at Bologna in

1534 by a fall while engaged in a jumping-match with some of the younger

officers of the army. His body was carried to his native town Trujillo,

and buried in the church of Santa Maria Mayor in 1545.

GARCIA GUTIERREZ, ANTONIO (1812-1884), Spanish dramatist, was born at

Chiclana (Cadiz) on the 5th of July 1812, and studied medicine in his

native town. In 1832 he removed to Madrid, and earned a scanty living by

translating plays of Scribe and the elder Dumas; despairing of success,

he was on the point of enlisting when he suddenly sprang into fame as

the author of _El Trovador_, which was played for the first time on the

1st of March 1836. Garcia Gutierrez never surpassed this first effort,

which placed him among the leaders of the romantic movement in Spain,

and which became known all over Europe through Verdi's music. His next

great success was _Simon Bocanegra_ (1843), but, as his plays were not

lucrative, he emigrated to Spanish America, working as a journalist in

Cuba and Mexico till 1850, when he returned to Spain. The best works of

his later period are a _zarzuela_ entitled _El Grumete_ (1853), _La

Venganza catalana_ (1864) and _Juan Lorenzo_ (1865). He became head of

the archaeological museum at Madrid, and died there on the 6th of August

1884. His _Poesias_ (1840) and another volume of lyrics, entitled _Luz y

tinieblas_ (1842), are unimportant; but the brilliant versification of

his plays, and his power of analysing feminine emotions, give him a

foremost place among the Spanish dramatists of the 19th century.

GARD, a department in the south of France, consisting of part of the old

province of Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 421,166. Area 2270 sq. m. It is

bounded N. by the departments of Lozere and Ardeche, E. by the Rhone,

which separates it from Vaucluse and Bouches-du-Rhone, S. by the

Mediterranean, S.W. by Herault and W. by Aveyron. Gard is divided into

three sharply-defined regions. Its north-western districts are occupied

by the range of the Cevennes, which on the frontier of Lozere attain a

height of 5120 ft. The whole of this region is celebrated for its

fruitful valleys, its gorges, its beautiful streams, its pastures, and

the chestnut, mulberry and other fruit trees with which the mountains

are often clothed to their summits. The Garrigues, a dry, hilly region

of limestone, which lends itself to the cultivation of cereals, the vine

and olive, stretches from the foot of the Cevennes over the centre of

the department, covering about half its area. The southern portion,

which extends to the sea, and was probably at one time covered by it, is

a low plain with numerous lakes and marshes. Though unhealthy, it is

prosperous, and comprises the best arable land and vineyards in Gard.

Besides the Rhone, which bounds the department on the E., and the

Ardeche, the lower course of which forms part of its boundary on the N.,

the principal rivers are the Ceze, Gard, Vidourle and Herault. The most

northern of these is the Ceze, which rises in the Cevennes, and after a

course of about 50 m. in an E.S.E. direction falls into the Rhone above

Roquemaure. The Gard, or Gardon, from which the department takes its

name, is also an affluent of the Rhone, and, rising in the Cevennes from

several sources, traverses the centre of the department, having a length

of about 60 m. In the upper part of its course it flows through a

succession of deep mountain gorges, and from the melting of the snows on

the Cevennes is subject to inundations, which often cause great damage.

Its waters not infrequently rise 18 or 20 ft. in a few hours, and its

bed is sometimes increased in width to nearly a mile. Near Remoulins it

is crossed by a celebrated Roman aqueduct--the Pont du Gard (see

AQUEDUCT). The Vidourle flows in a S.S.E. direction from its source near

Le Vigan, and after a course of about 50 m. falls into the sea. Below

Sommieres it forms the western boundary of the department. The Herault

has its source and part of its course in the west of Gard. The Canal de

Beaucaire extends from the Rhone at Beaucaire to Aigues-Mortes, which

communicates with the Mediterranean at Grau-du-Roi by means of the

Grand-Roubine canal.

The climate is warm in the south-east, colder in the north-west; it is

rather changeable, and rain-storms are common. The cold and violent

north-west wind known as the mistral is its worst drawback. Les Fumades

(near Allegre) and Euzet have mineral springs. The chief grain crops are

wheat and oats. Rye, barley and potatoes are also grown. Gard is famed

for its cattle, its breed of small horses, and its sheep, the wool of

which is of a very fine quality. In the rearing of silk-worms it ranks

first among French departments. The principal fruit trees are the olive,

mulberry and chestnut. The vine is extensively cultivated and yields

excellent red and white wines. The department is rich in minerals, and

the mines of coal, iron, lignite, asphalt, zinc, lead and copper, which

are for the most part situated in the neighbourhoods of Alais and La

Grand'-Combe, constitute one of the chief sources of its wealth. Great

quantities of salt are obtained from the salt marshes along the coast.

The quarries of building and other stone employ a considerable number of

workmen. The fisheries are productive. The manufactures are extensive,

and include those of silk, of which Alais is the chief centre, cotton

and woollen fabrics, hosiery, ironware, hats (Anduze), liquorice,

gloves, paper, leather, earthenware and glass. There are also breweries

and distilleries, and important metallurgical works, the chief of which

are those of Besseges. The exports of Gard include coal, lignite, coke,

asphalt, building-stone, iron, steel, silk, hosiery, wine, olives,

grapes and truffles.

The department is served by the Paris-Lyon railway. It is divided into

the arrondissements of Nimes, Alais, Uzes and Le Vigan, with 40 cantons

and 351 communes. The chief town is Nimes, which is the seat of a

bishopric of the province of Avignon and of a court of appeal. Gard

belongs to the 15th military region, which has its headquarters at

Marseilles, and to the academie (educational division) of Montpellier.

Nimes, Alais, Uzes, Aigues-Mortes, Beaucaire, Saint-Gilles, Besseges, La

Grand'-Combe and Villeneuve-les-Avignon are the principal places.

Opposite the manufacturing town of Pont-St-Esprit the Rhone is crossed

by a fine medieval bridge more than 1000 yds. long built by the Pontiff

brethren. Le Vigan, an ancient town with several old houses, carries on

silk-spinning.

GARDA, LAKE OF (the _Lacus Benacus_ of the Romans), the most easterly

and the most extensive of the great Lombard lakes, being only surpassed

in the Alpine region by those of Geneva and Constance. Save the extreme

northern extremity (Riva, which was secured from Venice by Tirol in

1517), the whole lake is Italian, being divided between the provinces of

Verona and Brescia. Its broad basin orographically represents the

southern portion of the valley of the Adige, though that river now flows

through a narrow trench which is separated from the lake by the long

narrow ridge of the Monte Baldo (7277 ft.). Nowadays the lake is fed by

the Sarca, that flows in at its north end from the glaciers of the

Adamello, while at the southern extremity of the lake the Mincio flows

out, on its way to join the Po. The area of the lake is about 143 sq.

m., its length is 32-1/4 m., its greatest breadth is about 10 m., the

height of its surface above sea-level is 216 ft. and the greatest depth

yet measured is 1916 ft. Its upper or northern end is narrow, but

between Garda (E.) and Salo (W.) the lake expands gradually into a

nearly circular basin, which at the southern extremity is divided into

two parts by the long low promontory of Sermione, that projects from the

southern shore between Peschiera and Desenzano. Owing to this

conformation the lake is much exposed to sudden and violent winds, which

Virgil alludes to in his well-known line (_Georg_. ii. line 160):

_fluctibus et fremitu assurgens, Benace, marino_. The most dangerous of

these winds is the _Borea_ or _Suer_, that sweeps down from the north as

through a funnel. In the southern portion of the lake the _Vinessa_, an

E.S.E. wind, is most dreaded. The _Ora_ is a regular wind coming from

the east which, on reaching the lake, blows from S. to N. The steep

grey limestone crags of Monte Baldo, on the eastern side of the lake,

contrast strongly with the rich vegetation on the western and southern

shores. The portion of the western shore that extends from Gargnano to

Salo is the most sheltered and warmest part of the region, so that not

merely does it resemble one continuous garden (producing lemons, figs,

mulberries, olives, &c.), but is frequented in winter, and has been

given the name of the _Riviera Benacense_. The lovely promontory of

Sermione, at the southern end of the lake, has also an extremely

luxuriant vegetation, while it contains many remains of buildings of

Roman and later date, having been the Sirmio of Catullus, who resided

here and celebrated its beauties in many of his poems. In 1827 a boat

with paddles set in motion by horses was put on the lake, but the first

steamer dates only from 1844. At the south end of the lake, E. and W.

respectively of the promontory of Sermione, are the towns of Peschiera

(14-1/4 m. by rail from Verona on the east) and of Desenzano (17-1/2 m.

by rail from Brescia on the west), which are 8-3/4 m. distant from each

other. On the west shore of the lake are Salo, Toscolano, Gargnano and

Limone, while the rugged east shore can boast only of Bardolino and

Garda. At the northern tip of the lake, and in Tirol, is Riva, the most

considerable town on the lake, and 15-1/2 m. by rail from the Mori

station on the main Brenner line. (W. A. B. C.)

GARDANE, CLAUDE MATTHIEU, COUNT (1766-1818), French general and

diplomatist, was born on the 30th of January 1766. He entered the army

and rose rapidly during the revolutionary wars, becoming captain in 1793.

In May 1799 he distinguished himself by saving a division of the French

army which was about to be crushed by the Russians at the battle of

Bassignana, and was named at once brigadier-general by Moreau. He

incurred Napoleon's displeasure for an omission of duty shortly before

the battle of Marengo (June 14th, 1800), but in 1805 was appointed to be

aide-de-camp of the emperor. His chief distinction, however, was to be

won in the diplomatic sphere. In the spring of 1807, when Russia and

Prussia were at war with France, and the emperor Alexander I. of Russia

was also engaged in hostilities with Persia, the court of Teheran sent a

mission to the French emperor, then at the castle of Finkenstein in the

east of Prussia, with a view to the conclusion of a Franco-Persian

alliance. This was signed on the 4th of May 1807, at that castle; and

Napoleon designed Gardane as special envoy for the cementing of that

alliance. The secret instructions which he drew up for Gardane, and

signed on the 30th of May, are of interest as showing the strong oriental

trend of the emperor's policy. France was to guarantee the integrity of

Persia, to recognize that Georgia (then being invaded by the Russians)

belonged to the shah, and was to make all possible efforts for restoring

that territory to him. She was also to furnish to the shah arms, officers

and workmen, in the number and to the amount demanded by him. Napoleon on

his side required Persia to declare war against Great Britain, to expel

all Britons from her territory, and to come to an understanding with the

Afghans with a view to a joint Franco-Perso-Afghan invasion of India.

Gardane, whose family was well known in the Levant, had a long and

dangerous journey overland, but was cordially received at Teheran in

December 1807. The conclusion of the Franco-Russian treaty at Tilsit in

July 1807 rendered the mission abortive. Persia longed only for help

against Russia and had no desire, when all hope of that was past, to

attack India. The shah, however, promised to expel Britons and to grant

to France a commercial treaty. For a time French influence completely

replaced that of England at Teheran, and the mission of Sir John Malcolm

to that court was not allowed to proceed. Finally, however, Gardane saw

that nothing much was to be hoped for in the changed situation of

European affairs, and abruptly left the country (April 1809). This

conduct was not wholly approved by Napoleon, but he named him count and

in 1810 attached him to Massena's army in Portugal. There, during the

disastrous retreat from Santarem to Almeida, he suffered a check which

brought him into disfavour. The rest of his career calls for no notice.

He died in 1818. The report which he sent to Champagny (dated April

23rd, 1809) on the state of Persia and the prospects of a successful

invasion of India is of great interest. He admitted the difficulties of

this enterprise, but thought that a force of picked French troops, aided

by Persians and Afghans, might under favourable conditions penetrate into

India by way of Kandahar, or through Sind, especially if the British were

distracted by maritime attacks from Mauritius.

See Count Alfred de Gardane, _Mission du general Gardane en Perse_

(Paris, 1865); and P.A.L. de Driault, _La Politique orientale de

Napoleon: Sebastiani et Gardane_ (Paris, 1904). (J. Hl. R.)

GARDELEGEN, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the right bank of

the Milde, 20 m. W. from Stendal, on the main line of railway

Berlin-Hanover. Pop. (1905) 8193. It has a Roman Catholic and three

Evangelical churches, a hospital, founded in 1285, and a high-grade

school. There are considerable manufactures, notably agricultural

machinery and buttons, and its beer has a great repute. Gardelegen was

founded in the 10th century, and was for a long time the seat of a line

of counts. It suffered considerably in the Thirty Years' War, and in

1775 was burned by the French. On the neighbouring heath Margrave Louis

I. of Brandenburg gained, in 1343, a victory over Otto the Mild of

Brunswick.

GARDEN (from O. Fr. _gardin_, mod. Fr. _jardin_; this, like our words

"garth," a paddock attached to a building, and "yard," comes from a

Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as _gards_ and

O.H. Ger. _gart_, cf. Dutch _gaarde_ and Ger. _garten_), the ground

enclosed and cultivated for the growth of fruit, flowers or vegetables

(see HORTICULTURE). The word is also used for grounds laid out

ornamentally, used as places of public entertainment. Such were the

famous Ranelagh and Vauxhall Gardens in London; it is similarly used in

zoological gardens, and as a name in towns for squares, terraces or

streets. From the fact that Epicurus (q.v.) taught in the gardens at

Athens, the disciples of his school of philosophy were known as [Greek:

hoi apo ton kepon] (so Diog. Laertius x. 10); and Cicero (_De finibus_

v. 1. 3, and elsewhere) speaks of the _Horti Epicuri_. Thus as the

"Academy" refers to the Platonic and the "Porch" ([Greek: stoa]) to the

Stoic school, so the "Garden" is the name given to the Epicurean school

of philosophy. Apollodorus was known as [Greek: kepotyrannos], the

tyrant of the garden.

GARDENIA, in botany, a genus of the natural order Rubiaceae, containing

about sixty species of evergreen trees and shrubs, natives of the warmer

parts of the old world. Several are grown in stoves or greenhouses for

their handsome, sweet-scented white flowers. The flowers are developed

singly at the end of a branch or in the leaf-axils, and are funnel- or

salver-shaped with a long tube. The double forms of _Gardenia florida_

(a native of China) and _G. radicans_ (a native of Japan) are amongst

the most beautiful and highly perfumed of any in cultivation. Gardenias

are grown chiefly for cut flowers, and are readily propagated by

cuttings. They require plenty of heat and moisture in the growing

season, and must be kept free from insects such as the mealy bug, green

fly, red spider and scale-insect.

GARDINER, JAMES (1688-1745), Scottish soldier, was born at Carriden in

Linlithgowshire, on the 11th of January 1688. At the age of fourteen he

entered a Scottish regiment in the Dutch service, and was afterwards

present at the battle of Ramillies, where he was wounded. He

subsequently served in different cavalry regiments, and in 1730 was

advanced to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and in 1743 to that of

colonel. He fell at the battle of Prestonpans, the 21st of September

1745. The circumstances of his death are described in Sir Walter Scott's

_Waverley_. In his early years he was distinguished for his recklessness

and profligacy, but in 1719 a supernatural vision, as he regarded it,

led to his conversion, and from that time he lived a life of great

devoutness and of thorough consistency with his Christian profession. Dr

Alexander Carlyle of Inveresk, author of an autobiography, says that he

was "very ostentatious" about his conversion--speaks of him as weak, and

plainly thinks there was a great deal of delusion in Col. Gardiner's

account of his sins.

His life was written by Dr Philip Doddridge and has been often

reprinted.

GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON (1829-1902), English historian, son of Rawson

Boddam Gardiner, was born near Alresford, Hants, on the 4th of March

1829. He was educated at Winchester and Christ Church, Oxford, where he

obtained a first class in _literae humaniores_. He was subsequently

elected to fellowships at All Souls (1884) and Merton (1892). For some

years he was professor of modern history at King's College, London, and

devoted his life to historical work. He is the historian of the Puritan

revolution, and has written its history in a series of volumes,

originally published under different titles, beginning with the

accession of James I.; the seventeenth (the third volume of the _History

of the Commonwealth and Protectorate_) appeared in 1901. This was

completed in two volumes by C.H. Firth as _The Last Years of the

Protectorate_ (1909). The series is _History of England from the

Accession of James I. to the Outbreak of the Civil War_, 1603-1642 (10

vols.); _History of the Great Civil War_, 1642-1649 (4 vols.); and

_History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, 1649-1660_. His treatment

is exhaustive and philosophical, taking in, along with political and

constitutional history, the changes in religion, thought and sentiment

during his period, their causes and their tendencies. Of the original

authorities on which his work is founded many of great value exist only

in manuscript, and his researches in public and private collections of

manuscripts at home, and in the archives of Simancas, Venice, Rome,

Brussels and Paris, were indefatigable and fruitful. His accuracy is

universally acknowledged. He was perhaps drawn to the Puritan period by

the fact of his descent from Cromwell and Ireton, but he has certainly

written of it with no other purpose than to set forth the truth. In his

judgments of men and their actions he is unbiassed, and his

appreciations of character exhibit a remarkable fineness of perception

and a broad sympathy. Among many proofs of these qualities it will be

enough to refer to what he says of the characters of James I., Bacon,

Laud, Strafford and Cromwell. On constitutional matters he writes with

an insight to be attained only by the study of political philosophy,

discussing in a masterly fashion the dreams of idealists and the schemes

of government proposed by statesmen. Throughout his work he gives a

prominent place to everything which illustrates human progress in moral

and religious, as well as political conceptions, and specially to the

rise and development of the idea of religious toleration, finding his

authorities not only in the words and actions of men of mark, but in the

writings of more or less obscure pamphleteers, whose essays indicate

currents in the tide of public opinion. His record of the relations

between England and other states proves his thorough knowledge of

contemporary European history, and is rendered specially valuable by his

researches among manuscript sources which have enabled him to expound

for the first time some intricate pieces of diplomacy.

Gardiner's work is long and minute; the fifty-seven years which it

covers are a period of exceptional importance in many directions, and

the actions and characters of the principal persons in it demand careful

analysis. He is perhaps apt to attach an exaggerated importance to some

of the authorities which he was the first to bring to light, to see a

general tendency in what may only be the expression of an individual

eccentricity, to rely too much on ambassadors' reports which may have

been written for some special end, to enter too fully into the details

of diplomatic correspondence. In any case the length of his work is not

the result of verbiage or repetitions. His style is clear, absolutely

unadorned, and somewhat lacking in force; he appeals constantly to the

intellect rather than to the emotions, and is seldom picturesque, though

in describing a few famous scenes, such as the execution of Charles I.,

he writes with pathos and dignity. The minuteness of his narrative

detracts from its interest; though his arrangement is generally good,

here and there the reader finds the thread of a subject broken by the

intrusion of incidents not immediately connected with it, and does not

pick it up again without an effort. And Gardiner has the defects of his

supreme qualities, of his fairness and critical ability as a judge of

character; his work lacks enthusiasm, and leaves the reader cold and

unmoved. Yet, apart from its sterling excellence, it is not without

beauties, for it is marked by loftiness of thought, a love of purity

and truth, and refinement in taste and feeling. He wrote other books,

mostly on the same period, but his great history is that by which his

name will live. It is a worthy result of a life of unremitting labour, a

splendid monument of historical scholarship. His position as an

historian was formally acknowledged: in 1862 he was given a civil list

pension of L150 per annum, "in recognition of his valuable contributions

to the history of England"; he was honorary D.C.L. of Oxford, LL.D. of

Edinburgh, and Ph.D. of Gottingen, and honorary student of Christ

Church, Oxford; and in 1894 he declined the appointment of regius

professor of modern history at Oxford, lest its duties should interfere

with the accomplishment of his history. He died on the 24th of February

1902.

Among the more noteworthy of Gardiner's separate works are: _Prince

Charles and the Spanish Marriage_ (2 vols., London, 1869);

_Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 1625-1660_ (1st

ed., Oxford, 1889; 2nd ed., Oxford, 1899); _Oliver Cromwell_ (London,

1901); _What Gunpowder Plot was_ (London, 1897); _Outline of English

History_ (1st ed., London, 1887; 2nd ed., London, 1896); and

_Student's History of England_ (2 vols., 1st ed., London, 1890-1891;

2nd ed., London, 1891-1892). He edited collections of papers for the

Camden Society, and from 1891 was editor of the _English Historical

Review_. (W. Hu.)

GARDINER, STEPHEN (c. 1493-1555), English bishop and lord chancellor,

was a native of Bury St Edmunds. The date of his birth as commonly

given, 1483, seems to be about ten years too early, and surmises which

have passed current that he was some one's illegitimate child are of no

authority. His father is now known to have been John Gardiner, a

substantial cloth merchant of the town where he was born (see his will,

printed in _Proceedings of the Suffolk Archaeological Institute_, i.

329), who took care to give him a good education. In 1511 he, being then

a lad, met Erasmus at Paris (Nichols's _Epistles of Erasmus_, ii. 12,

13). But he had probably already been to Cambridge, where he studied at

Trinity Hall and greatly distinguished himself in the classics,

especially in Greek. He afterwards devoted himself to the canon and

civil law, in which subjects he attained so great a proficiency that no

one could dispute his pre-eminence. He received the degree of doctor of

civil law in 1520, and of canon law in the following year.

Ere long his abilities attracted the notice of Cardinal Wolsey, who made

him his secretary, and in this capacity he is said to have been with him

at More Park in Hertfordshire, when the conclusion of the celebrated

treaty of the More brought Henry VIII. and the French ambassadors

thither. It is stated, and with great probability, that this was the

occasion on which he was first introduced to the king's notice, but he

does not appear to have been actively engaged in Henry's service till

three years later. In that of Wolsey he undoubtedly acquired a very

intimate knowledge of foreign politics, and in 1527 he and Sir Thomas

More were named commissioners on the part of England in arranging a

treaty with the French ambassadors for the support of an army in Italy

against the emperor. That year he accompanied Wolsey on his important

diplomatic mission to France, the splendour and magnificence of which

are so graphically described by Cavendish. Among the imposing train who

went with the cardinal--including, as it did, several noblemen and privy

councillors--Gardiner alone seems to have been acquainted with the real

heart of the matter which made this embassy a thing of such peculiar

moment. Henry was then particularly anxious to cement his alliance with

Francis I., and gain his co-operation as far as possible in the object

on which he had secretly set his heart--a divorce from Catherine of

Aragon. In the course of his progress through France he received orders

from Henry to send back his secretary Gardiner, or, as he was called at

court, Master Stevens, for fresh instructions; to which he was obliged

to reply that he positively could not spare him as he was the only

instrument he had in advancing the king's "secret matter." Next year

Gardiner, still in the service of Wolsey, was sent by him to Italy along

with Edward Fox, provost of King's College, Cambridge, to promote the

same business with the pope. His despatches on this occasion are still

extant, and whatever we may think of the cause on which he was engaged,

they certainly give a wonderful impression of the zeal and ability with

which he discharged his functions. Here his perfect familiarity with the

canon law gave him a great advantage. He was instructed to procure from

the pope a decretal commission, laying down principles of law by which

Wolsey and Campeggio might hear and determine the cause without appeal.

The demand, though supported by plausible pretexts, was not only unusual

but clearly inadmissible. Clement VII. was then at Orvieto, and had just

recently escaped from captivity at St Angelo at the hands of the

imperialists. But fear of offending the emperor could not have induced

him to refuse a really legitimate request from a king like Henry. He

naturally referred the question to the cardinals about him; with whom

Gardiner held long arguments, enforced, it would seem, by not a little

browbeating of the College. What was to be thought, he said, of a

spiritual guide, who either could not or would not show the wanderer his

way? The king and lords of England would be driven to think that God had

taken away from the Holy See the key of knowledge, and that pontifical

laws which were not clear to the pope himself might as well be committed

to the flames.

This ingenious pleading, however, did not serve, and he was obliged to

be content with a general commission for Campeggio and Wolsey to try the

cause in England. This, as Wolsey saw, was quite inadequate for the

purpose in view; and he again instructed Gardiner, while thanking the

pope for the commission actually granted, to press him once more by very

urgent pleas, to send the desired decretal on, even if the latter was

only to be shown to the king and himself and then destroyed. Otherwise,

he wrote, he would lose his credit with the king, who might even be

tempted to throw off his allegiance to Rome altogether. At last the

pope--to his own bitter regret afterwards--gave what was desired on the

express conditions named, that Campeggio was to show it to the king and

Wolsey and no one else, and then destroy it, the two legates holding

their court under the general commission. After obtaining this Gardiner

returned home; but early in the following year, 1529, when proceedings

were delayed on information of the brief in Spain, he was sent once more

to Rome. This time, however, his efforts were unavailing. The pope would

make no further concessions, and would not even promise not to revoke

the cause to Rome, as he did very shortly after.

Gardiner's services, however, were fully appreciated. He was appointed

the king's secretary. He had been already some years archdeacon of

Taunton, and the archdeaconry of Norfolk was added to it in March 1529,

which two years later he resigned for that of Leicester. In 1530 he was

sent to Cambridge to procure the decision of the university as to the

unlawfulness of marriage with a deceased brother's wife, in accordance

with the new plan devised for settling the question without the pope's

intervention. In this he succeeded, though not without a good deal of

artifice, more creditable to his ingenuity than to his virtue. In

November 1531 the king rewarded him for his services with the bishopric

of Winchester, vacant by Wolsey's death. The promotion was unexpected,

and was accompanied by expressions from the king which made it still

more honourable, as showing that if he had been in some things too

subservient, it was from no abject, self-seeking policy of his own.

Gardiner had, in fact, ere this remonstrated boldly with his sovereign

on some points, and Henry now reminded him of the fact. "I have often

_squared_ with you, Gardiner," he said familiarly, "but I love you never

the worse, as the bishopric I give will convince you." In 1532,

nevertheless, he excited some displeasure in the king by the part he

took in the preparation of the famous "Answer of the Ordinaries" to the

complaints brought against them in the House of Commons. On this subject

he wrote a very manly letter to the king in his own defence.

His next important action was not so creditable; for he was, not

exactly, as is often said, one of Cranmer's assessors, but, according to

Cranmer's own expression, "assistant" to him as counsel for the king,

when the archbishop, in the absence of Queen Catherine, pronounced her

marriage with Henry null and void on the 23rd of May 1533. Immediately

afterwards he was sent over to Marseilles, where an interview between

the pope and Francis I. took place in September, of which event Henry

stood in great suspicion, as Francis was ostensibly his most cordial

ally, and had hitherto maintained the justice of his cause in the matter

of the divorce. It was at this interview that Bonner intimated the

appeal of Henry VIII. to a general council in case the pope should

venture to proceed to sentence against him. This appeal, and also one on

behalf of Cranmer presented with it, were of Gardiner's drawing up. In

1535 he and other bishops were called upon to vindicate the king's new

title of "Supreme Head of the Church of England." The result was his

celebrated treatise _De vera obedientia_, the ablest, certainly, of all

the vindications of royal supremacy. In the same year he had an

unpleasant dispute with Cranmer about the visitation of his diocese. He

was also employed to answer the pope's brief threatening to deprive

Henry of his kingdom.

During the next few years he was engaged in various embassies in France

and Germany. He was indeed so much abroad that he had little influence

upon the king's councils. But in 1539 he took part in the enactment of

the severe statute of the Six Articles, which led to the resignation of

Bishops Latimer and Shaxton and the persecution of the Protestant party.

In 1540, on the death of Cromwell, earl of Essex, he was elected

chancellor of the university of Cambridge. A few years later he

attempted, in concert with others, to fasten a charge of heresy upon

Archbishop Cranmer in connexion with the Act of the Six Articles; and

but for the personal intervention of the king he would probably have

succeeded. He was, in fact, though he had supported the royal supremacy,

a thorough opponent of the Reformation in a doctrinal point of view, and

it was suspected that he even repented his advocacy of the royal

supremacy. He certainly had not approved of Henry's general treatment of

the church, especially during the ascendancy of Cromwell, and he was

frequently visited with storms of royal indignation, which he schooled

himself to bear with patience. In 1544 a relation of his own, named

German Gardiner, whom he employed as his secretary, was put to death for

treason in reference to the king's supremacy, and his enemies insinuated

to the king that he himself was of his secretary's way of thinking. But

in truth the king had need of him quite as much as he had of Cranmer;

for it was Gardiner, who even under royal supremacy, was anxious to

prove that England had not fallen away from the faith, while Cranmer's

authority as primate was necessary to upholding that supremacy. Thus

Gardiner and the archbishop maintained opposite sides of the king's

church policy; and though Gardiner was encouraged by the king to put up

articles against the archbishop himself for heresy, the archbishop could

always rely on the king's protection in the end. Heresy was gaining

ground in high places, especially after the king's marriage with

Catherine Parr; and there seems to be some truth in the story that the

queen herself was nearly committed for it at one time, when Gardiner,

with the king's approbation, censured some of her expressions in

conversation. In fact, just after her marriage, four men of the Court

were condemned at Windsor and three of them were burned. The fourth, who

was the musician Marbeck, was pardoned by Gardiner's procurement.

Great as Gardiner's influence had been with Henry VIII., his name was

omitted at the last in the king's will, though Henry was believed to

have intended making him one of his executors. Under Edward VI. he was

completely opposed to the policy of the dominant party both in

ecclesiastical and in civil matters. The religious changes he objected

to both on principle and on the ground of their being moved during the

king's minority, and he resisted Cranmer's project of a general

visitation. His remonstrances, however, were met by his own committal to

the Fleet, and the visitation of his diocese was held during his

imprisonment. Though soon afterwards released, it was not long before he

was called before the council, and, refusing to give them satisfaction

on some points, was thrown into the Tower, where he continued during the

whole remainder of the reign, a period slightly over five years. During

this time he in vain demanded his liberty, and to be called before

parliament as a peer of the realm. His bishopric was taken from him and

given to Dr Poynet, a chaplain of Cranmer's who had not long before

been made bishop of Rochester. At the accession of Queen Mary, the duke

of Norfolk and other state prisoners of high rank were in the Tower

along with him; but the queen, on her first entry into London, set them

all at liberty. Gardiner was restored to his bishopric and appointed

lord chancellor, and he set the crown on the queen's head at her

coronation. He also opened her first parliament and for some time was

her leading councillor.

He was now called upon, in advanced life, to undo not a little of the

work in which he had been instrumental in his earlier years--to

vindicate the legitimacy of the queen's birth and the lawfulness of her

mother's marriage, to restore the old religion, and to recant what he

himself had written touching the royal supremacy. It is said that he

wrote a formal _Palinodia_ or retractation of his book _De vera

obedientia_, but it does not seem to be now extant; and the reference is

probably to his sermon on Advent Sunday 1554, after Cardinal Pole had

absolved the kingdom from schism. As chancellor he had the onerous task

of negotiating the queen's marriage treaty with Philip, to which he

shared the general repugnance, though he could not oppose her will. In

executing it, however, he took care to make the terms as advantageous

for England as possible, with express provision that the Spaniards

should in nowise be allowed to interfere in the government of the

country. After the coming of Cardinal Pole, and the reconciliation of

the realm to the see of Rome, he still remained in high favour. How far

he was responsible for the persecutions which afterwards arose is a

debated question. He no doubt approved of the act, which passed the

House of Lords while he presided there as chancellor, for the revival of

the heresy laws. Neither is there any doubt that he sat in judgment on

Bishop Hooper, and on several other preachers whom he condemned, not

exactly to the flames, but to be degraded from the priesthood. The

natural consequence of this, indeed, was that when they declined, even

as laymen, to be reconciled to the Church, they were handed over to the

secular power to be burned. Gardiner, however, undoubtedly did his best

to persuade them to save themselves by a course which he conscientiously

followed himself; nor does it appear that, when placed on a commission

along with a number of other bishops to administer a severe law, he

could very well have acted otherwise than he did. In his own diocese no

victim of the persecution is known to have suffered till after his

death; and, much as he was already maligned by opponents, there are

strong evidences that his natural disposition was humane and generous.

In May 1553 he went over to Calais as one of the English commissioners

to promote peace with France; but their efforts were ineffectual. In

October 1555 he again opened parliament as lord chancellor, but towards

the end of the month he fell ill and grew rapidly worse till the 12th of

November, when he died over sixty years of age.

Perhaps no celebrated character of that age has been the subject of so

much ill-merited abuse at the hands of popular historians. That his

virtue was not equal to every trial must be admitted, but that he was

anything like the morose and narrow-minded bigot he is commonly

represented there is nothing whatever to show. He has been called

ambitious, turbulent, crafty, abject, vindictive, bloodthirsty and a

good many other things besides, not quite in keeping with each other; in

addition to which it is roundly asserted by Bishop Burnet that he was

despised alike by Henry and by Mary, both of whom made use of him as a

tool. How such a mean and abject character submitted to remain five

years in prison rather than change his principles is not very clearly

explained; and as to his being despised, we have seen already that

neither Henry nor Mary considered him by any means despicable. The truth

is, there is not a single divine or statesman of that day whose course

throughout was so thoroughly consistent. He was no friend to the

Reformation, it is true, but he was at least a conscientious opponent.

In doctrine he adhered to the old faith from first to last, while as a

question of church policy, the only matter for consideration with him

was whether the new laws and ordinances were constitutionally

justifiable.

His merits as a theologian it is unnecessary to discuss; it is as a

statesman and a lawyer that he stands conspicuous. But his learning

even in divinity was far from commonplace. The part that he was allowed

to take in the drawing up of doctrinal formularies in Henry VIII.'s time

is not clear; but at a later date he was the author of various tracts in

defence of the Real Presence against Cranmer, some of which, being

written in prison, were published abroad under a feigned name.

Controversial writings also passed between him and Bucer, with whom he

had several interviews in Germany, when he was there as Henry VIII.'s

ambassador.

He was a friend of learning in every form, and took great interest

especially in promoting the study of Greek at Cambridge. He was,

however, opposed to the new method of pronouncing the language

introduced by Sir John Cheke, and wrote letters to him and Sir Thomas

Smith upon the subject, in which, according to Ascham, his opponents

showed themselves the better critics, but he the superior genius. In his

own household he loved to take in young university men of promise; and

many whom he thus encouraged became distinguished in after life as

bishops, ambassadors and secretaries of state. His house, indeed, was

spoken of by Leland as the seat of eloquence and the special abode of

the muses.

He lies buried in his own cathedral at Winchester, where his effigy is

still to be seen. (J. Ga.)

GARDINER, a city of Kennebec county, Maine, U.S.A., at the confluence of

Cobbosseecontee river with the Kennebec, 6 m. below Augusta. Pop. (1890)

5491; (1900) 5501 (537 foreign-born); (1910) 5311. It is served by the

Maine Central railway. The site of the city is only a few feet above

sea-level, and the Kennebec is navigable for large vessels to this

point; the water of the Cobbosseecontee, falling about 130 ft. in a

mile, furnishes the city with good power for its manufactures (chiefly

paper, machine-shop products, and shoes). The city exports considerable

quantities of lumber and ice. Gardiner was founded in 1760 by Dr

Sylvester Gardiner (1707-1786), and for a time the settlement was called

Gardinerston; in 1779, when it was incorporated as a town, the founder

being then a Tory, it was renamed Pittston. But in 1803, when that part

of Pittston which lay on the W. bank of the Kennebec was incorporated as

a separate town and new life was given to it by the grandson of the

founder, the present name was adopted. Gardiner was chartered as a city

in 1849. The town of Pittston, on the E. bank of the Kennebec, had a

population of 1177 in 1900.

GARDNER, PERCY (1846- ), English classical archaeologist, was born in

London, and was educated at the City of London school and Christ's

College, Cambridge (fellow, 1872). He was Disney professor of

archaeology at Cambridge from 1880 to 1887, and was then appointed

professor of classical archaeology at Oxford, where he had a stimulating

influence on the study of ancient, and particularly Greek, art. He also

became prominent as an historical critic on Biblical subjects. Among his

works are: _Types of Greek Coins_ (1883); _A Numismatic Commentary on

Pausanias_ (with F. Imhoof-Blumer, 1887); _New Chapters in Greek

History_ (1892), an account of excavations in Greece and Asia Minor;

_Manual of Greek Antiquities_ (with F.B. Jevons, 2nd ed. 1898); _Grammar

of Greek Art_ (1905); _Exploratio Evangelica_ (1899), on the origin of

Christian belief; _A Historic View of the New Testament_ (1901); _Growth

of Christianity_ (1907).

His brother, ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER (1862- ), educated at the City of

London school and Caius College, Cambridge (fellow, 1885), is also well

known as an archaeologist. From 1887 to 1895 he was director of the

British School of Archaeology at Athens, and later became professor of

archaeology at University College, London. His publications include:

_Introduction to Greek Epigraphy_ (1887); _Ancient Athens_ (1902);

_Handbook of Greek Sculpture_ (1905); _Six Greek Sculptors_ (1910). He

was elected first Public Orator of London University in 1910.

GARDNER, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop.

(1890) 8424; (1900) 10,813, of whom 3449 were foreign-born; (1910

census) 14,699. The township is traversed by the Boston & Maine railway.

It has an area of 21.4 sq. m. of hill country, well watered with streams

and ponds, and includes the villages of Gardner (15 m. by rail W. of

Fitchburg), South Gardner and West Gardner. In the township are the

state colony for the insane, the Henry Heywood memorial hospital, and

the Levi Heywood memorial library (opened in 1886), a memorial to Levi

Heywood (1800-1882), a prominent local manufacturer of chairs, who

invented various kinds of chair-making machinery. By far the principal

industry of the township (dating from 1805) is the manufacture of

chairs, the township having in 1905 the largest chair factory in the

world; among the other manufactures are toys, baby-carriages,

silver-ware and oil stoves. In 1905 the total factory product of the

township was valued at $5,019,019, the furniture product alone amounting

to $4,267,064, or 85.2% of the total. Gardner, formed from parts of

Ashburnham, Templeton, Westminster and Winchenden, was incorporated in

1785, and was named in honour of Col. Thomas Gardner (1724-1775), a

patriot leader of Massachusetts, who was mortally wounded in the battle

of Bunker Hill.

See W.D. Herrick, _History of the Town of Gardner_ (Gardner, 1878),

covering the years 1785-1878.

GARE-FOWL[1] (Icelandic, _Geirfugl_; Gaelic, _Gearbhul_), the anglicized

form of the Hebridean name of a large sea-bird now considered extinct,

formerly a visitor to certain remote Scottish islands, the Great Auk of

most English book-writers, and the _Alca impennis_ of Linnaeus. In size

it was hardly less than a tame goose, and in appearance it much

resembled its smaller and surviving relative the razor-bill (_Alca

torda_); but the glossy black of its head was varied by a large patch of

white occupying nearly all the space between the eye and the bill, in

place of the razor-bill's thin white line, while the bill itself bore

eight or more deep transverse grooves instead of the smaller number and

the ivory-like mark possessed by the species last named. Otherwise the

coloration was similar in both, and there is satisfactory evidence that

the gare-fowl's winter-plumage differed from that of the breeding-season

just as is ordinarily the case in other members of the family _Alcidae_

to which it belongs. The most striking characteristic of the gare-fowl,

however, was the comparatively abortive condition of its wings, the

distal portions of which, though the bird was just about twice the

linear dimensions of the razor-bill, were almost exactly of the same

size as in that species--proving, if more direct evidence were wanting,

its inability to fly.

[Illustration: Gare-Fowl, or Great Auk.]

The most prevalent misconception concerning the gare-fowl is one which

has been repeated so often, and in books of such generally good repute

and wide dispersal, that a successful refutation seems almost hopeless.

This is the notion that it was a bird possessing a very high northern

range, and consequently to be looked for by Arctic explorers. How this

error arose would take too long to tell, but the fact remains

indisputable that, setting aside general assertions resting on no

evidence worthy of attention, there is but a single record deserving any

credit at all of a single example of the species having been observed

within the Arctic Circle, and this, according to Prof. Reinhardt, who

had the best means of ascertaining the truth, is open to grave doubt.[2]

It is clear that the older ornithologists let their imagination get the

better of their knowledge or their judgment, and their statements have

been blindly repeated by most of their successors. Another error which,

if not so widely spread, is at least as serious, since Sir R. Owen

unhappily gave it countenance, is that this bird "has not been specially

hunted down like the dodo and dinornis, but by degrees has become more

scarce." If any reliance can be placed upon the testimony of former

observers, the first part of this statement is absolutely untrue. Of the

dodo all we know is that it flourished in Mauritius, its only abode, at

the time the island was discovered, and that some 200 years later it had

ceased to exist--the mode of its extinction being open to conjecture,

and a strong suspicion existing that though indirectly due to man's acts

it was accomplished by his thoughtless agents (_Phil. Trans._, 1869, p.

354). The extinction of the _Dinornis_ lies beyond the range of recorded

history. Supposing it even to have taken place at the very latest period

as yet suggested--and there is much to be urged in favour of such a

supposition--little but oral tradition remains to tell us how its

extirpation was effected. That it existed after New Zealand was

inhabited by man is indeed certain, and there is nothing extraordinary

in the proved fact that the early settlers (of whatever race they were)

killed and ate moas. But evidence that the whole population of those

birds was done to death by man, however likely it may seem, is wholly

wanting. The contrary is the case with the gare-fowl. In Iceland there

is the testimony of a score of witnesses, taken down from their lips by

one of the most careful naturalists who ever lived, John Wolley, that

the latest survivors of the species were caught and killed by

expeditions expressly organized with the view of supplying the demands

of caterers to the various museums of Europe. In like manner the fact is

incontestable that its breeding-stations in the western part of the

Atlantic were for three centuries regularly visited and devastated with

the combined objects of furnishing food or bait to the fishermen from

very early days, and its final extinction, according to Sir Richard

Bonnycastle (_Newfoundland in 1842_, i. p. 232), was owing to "the

ruthless trade in its eggs and skin." There is no doubt that one of the

chief stations of this species in Icelandic waters disappeared through

volcanic action, and that the destruction of the old Geirfuglasker drove

some at least of the birds which frequented it to a rock nearer the

mainland, where they were exposed to danger from which they had in their

former abode been comparatively free; yet on this rock (Eldey =

fire-island) they were "specially hunted down" whenever opportunity

offered, until the stock there was wholly extirpated in 1844.

A third misapprehension is that entertained by John Gould in his _Birds

of Great Britain_, where he says that "formerly this bird was plentiful

in all the northern parts of the British Islands, particularly the

Orkneys and the Hebrides. At the commencement of the 19th century,

however, its fate appears to have been sealed; for though it doubtless

existed, and probably bred, up to the year 1830, its numbers annually

diminished until they became so few that the species could not hold its

own." Now of the Orkneys, we know that George Low, who died in 1795,

says in his posthumously-published _Fauna Orcadensis_ that he could not

find it was ever seen there; and on Bullock's visit in 1812 he was told,

says Montagu (_Orn. Dict. App._), that one male only had made its

appearance for a long time. This bird he saw and unsuccessfully hunted,

but it was killed soon after his departure, while its mate had been

killed just before his arrival, and none have been seen there since. As

to the Hebrides, St Kilda is the only locality recorded for it, and the

last example known to have been obtained there, or in its neighbourhood,

was that given to Fleming (_Edinb. Phil. Journ._ x. p. 96) in 1821 or

1822, having been some time before captured by Mr Maclellan of Glass.

That the gare-fowl was not plentiful in either group of islands is

sufficiently obvious, as also is the impossibility of its continuing to

breed "up to the year 1830."

But mistakes like these are not confined to British authors. As on the

death of an ancient hero myths gathered round his memory as quickly as

clouds round the setting sun, so have stories, probable as well as

impossible, accumulated over the true history of this species, and it

behoves the conscientious naturalist to exercise more than common

caution in sifting the truth from the large mass of error. Americans

have asserted that the specimen which belonged to Audubon (now at Vassar

College) was obtained by him on the banks of Newfoundland, though there

is Macgillivray's distinct statement (_Brit. Birds_, v. p. 359) that

Audubon procured it in London. The account given by Degland (_Orn.

Europ._ ii. p. 529) in 1849, and repeated in the last edition of his

work by M. Gerbe, of its extinction in Orkney, is so manifestly absurd

that it deserves to be quoted in full: "Il se trouvait en assez grand

nombre il y a une quinzaine d'annees aux Orcades; mais le ministre

presbyterien dans le Mainland, en offrant une forte prime aux personnes

qui lui apportaient cet oiseau, a ete cause de sa destruction sur ces

iles." The same author claims the species as a visitor to the shores of

France on the testimony of Hardy (_Annuaire normand_, 1841, p. 298),

which he grievously misquotes both in his own work and in another place

(_Naumannia_, 1855, p. 423), thereby misleading an anonymous English

writer (_Nat. Hist. Rev._, 1865, p. 475) and numerous German readers.

John Milne in 1875 visited Funk Island, one of the former resorts of the

gare-fowl, or "penguin," as it was there called, in the Newfoundland

seas, a place where bones had before been obtained by Stuvitz, and

natural mummies so lately as 1863 and 1864. Landing on this rock at the

risk of his life, he brought off a rich cargo of its remains, belonging

to no fewer than fifty birds, some of them in size exceeding any that

had before been known. His collection was subsequently dispersed, most

of the specimens finding their way into various public museums.

A literature by no means inconsiderable has grown up respecting the

gare-fowl. Neglecting works of general bearing, few of which are

without many inaccuracies, the following treatises may be especially

mentioned:--J.J.S. Steenstrup, "Et Bidrag til Geirfuglens

Naturhistorie og saerligt til Kundskaben om dens tidligere

Udbredningskreds," _Naturh. Foren. Vidensk. Meddelelser_ (Copenhagen,

1855), p. 33; E. Charlton, "On the Great Auk," _Trans. Tyneside Nat.

Field Club_, iv. p. 111; "Abstract of Mr J. Wolley's Researches in

Iceland respecting the Gare-fowl," _Ibis_ (1861), p. 374; W. Preyer,

"_Uber Plautus impennis_," _Journ. fur Orn._ (1862), pp. 110, 337;

K.E. von Baer, "Uber das Aussterben der Tierarten in physiologischer

und nicht physiologischer Hinsicht," _Bull. de l'Acad. Imp. de

St-Petersb._ vi. p. 513; R. Owen, "Description of the Skeleton of the

Great Auk," _Trans. Zool. Soc._ v. p. 317; "The Gare-fowl and its

Historians," _Nat. Hist. Rev._ v. p. 467; J.H. Gurney, jun., "On the

Great Auk," _Zoologist_ (2nd ser.), pp. 1442, 1639; H. Reeks, "Great

Auk in Newfoundland," &c., _op. cit._ p. 1854; V. Fatio, "Sur l'Alca

impennis," _Bull. Soc. Orn. Suisse_, ii. pp. 1, 80, 147; "On existing

Remains of the Gare-fowl," _Ibis_ (1870), p. 256; J. Milne, "Relics of

the Great Auk," _Field_ (27th of March, 3rd and 10th of April 1875).

Lastly, reference cannot be omitted to the happy exercise of poetic

fancy with which Charles Kingsley was enabled to introduce the chief

facts of the gare-fowl's extinction (derived from one of the

above-named papers) into his charming _Water Babies_. (A. N.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The name first appears, and in this form, in the _Account of

Hirta_ (St Kilda) _and Rona, &c._, by the lord register, Sir George

M'Kenzie, of Tarbat, printed by Pinkerton in his _Collection of

Voyages and Travels_ (iii. p. 730), and then in Sibbald's _Scotia

illustrata_ (1684). Martin soon after, in his _Voyage to St Kilda_,

spelt it "Gairfowl." Sir R. Owen adopted the form "garfowl," without,

as would seem, any precedent authority.

[2] The specimen is in the Museum of Copenhagen; the doubt lies as to

the locality where it was obtained, whether at Disco, which is

within, or at the Fiskernas, which is without, the Arctic Circle.

GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM (1831-1881), twentieth president of the United

States, was born on the 19th of November 1831 in a log cabin in the

little frontier town of Orange, Cuyahoga county, Ohio. His early years

were spent in the performance of such labour as fell to the lot of

every farmer's son in the new states, and in the acquisition of such

education as could be had in the district schools held for a few weeks

each winter. But life on a farm was not to his liking, and at sixteen he

left home and set off to make a living in some other way. A book of

stories of adventure on the sea, which he read over and over again when

a boy, had filled him with a longing for a seafaring life. He decided,

therefore, to become a sailor, and, in 1848, tramping across the country

to Cleveland, Ohio, he sought employment from the captain of a lake

schooner. But the captain drove him from the deck, and, wandering on in

search of work, he fell in with a canal boatman who engaged him. During

some months young Garfield served as bowsman, deck-hand and driver of a

canal boat. An attack of the ague sent him home, and on recovery, having

resolved to attend a high school and fit himself to become a teacher, he

passed the next four years in a hard struggle with poverty and in an

earnest effort to secure an education, studying for a short time in the

Geauga Seminary at Chester, Ohio. He worked as a teacher, a carpenter

and a farmer; studied for a time at the Western Reserve Eclectic

Institute at Hiram, Ohio, which afterward became Hiram College, and

finally entered Williams College. On graduation, in 1856, Garfield

became professor of ancient languages and literature in the Eclectic

Institute at Hiram, and within a year had risen to the presidency of the

institution.

Soon afterwards he entered political life. In the early days of the

Republican party, when the shameful scenes of the Kansas struggle were

exciting the whole country, and during the campaigns of 1857 and 1858,

he became known as an effective speaker and ardent anti-slavery man. His

reward for his services was election in 1859 to the Ohio Senate as the

member from Portage and Summit counties. When the "cotton states"

seceded, Garfield appeared as a warm supporter of vigorous measures. He

was one of the six Ohio senators who voted against the proposed

amendment to the Federal Constitution (Feb. 28th, 1861) forbidding any

constitutional amendment which should give Congress the power to abolish

or interfere with slavery in any state; he upheld the right of the

government to coerce seceded states; defended the "Million War Bill"

appropriating a million dollars for the state's military expenses; and

when the call came for 75,000 troops, he moved that Ohio furnish 20,000

soldiers and three millions of dollars as her share. He had just been

admitted to the bar, but on the outbreak of war he at once offered his

services to the governor, and became lieutenant-colonel and then colonel

of the 42nd Ohio Volunteers, recruited largely from among his former

students. He served in Kentucky, was promoted to the rank of

brigadier-general of volunteers early in 1862; took part in the second

day's fighting at the battle of Shiloh, served as chief of staff under

Rosecrans in the Army of the Cumberland in 1863, fought at Chickamauga,

and was made a major-general of volunteers for gallantry in that battle.

In 1862 he was elected a member of Congress from the Ashtabula district

of Ohio, and, resigning his military commission, took his seat in the

House of Representatives in December 1863. In Congress he joined the

radical wing of the Republican party, advocated the confiscation of

Confederate property, approved and defended the Wade-Davis manifesto

denouncing the tameness of Lincoln, and was soon recognized as a hard

worker and ready speaker. Capacity for work brought him places on

important committees--he was chairman successively of the committee on

military affairs, the committee on banking and currency, and the

committee on appropriations,--and his ability as a speaker enabled him

to achieve distinction on the floor of the House and to rise to

leadership. Between 1863 and 1873 Garfield delivered speeches of

importance on "The Constitutional Amendment to abolish Slavery," "The

Freedman's Bureau," "The Reconstruction of the Rebel States," "The

Public Debt and Specie Payments," "Reconstruction," "The Currency,"

"Taxation of United States Bonds," "Enforcing the 14th Amendment,"

"National Aid to Education," and "the Right to Originate Revenue Bills."

The year 1874 was one of disaster to the Republican party. The greenback

issue, the troubles growing out of reconstruction in the South, the

Credit Mobilier and the "Salary Grab," disgusted thousands of

independent voters and sent a wave of Democracy over the country.

Garfield himself was accused of corruption in connexion with the Credit

Mobilier scandal, but the charge was never proved. A Republican

convention in his district demanded his resignation, and re-election

seemed impossible; but he defended himself in two pamphlets, "Increase

of Salaries" and "Review of the Transactions of the Credit Mobilier

Company," made a village-to-village canvass, and was victorious. In 1876

Garfield for the eighth time was chosen to represent his district; and

afterwards as one of the two representatives of the Republicans in the

House, he was a member of the Electoral Commission which decided the

dispute regarding the presidential election of 1876. When, in 1877,

James G. Blaine was made a senator from Maine, the leadership of the

House of Representatives passed to Garfield, and he became the

Republican candidate for speaker. But the Democrats had a majority in

the House, and he was defeated. Hayes, the new president, having chosen

John Sherman to be his secretary of the treasury, an effort was made to

send Garfield to the United States Senate in Sherman's place. But the

president needed his services in the House, and he was not elected to

the Senate until 1880.

The time had now come (1880) when the Republican party must nominate a

candidate for the presidency. General Grant had served two terms

(1869-1877), and the unwritten law of custom condemned his being given

another. But the "bosses" of the Republican party in three great

States--New York, Pennsylvania and Illinois--were determined that he

should be renominated. These men and their followers were known as the

"stalwarts." Opposed to them were two other factions, one supporting

James G. Blaine, of Maine, and the other John Sherman, of Ohio. When the

convention met and the balloting began, the contest along these

factional lines started in earnest. For eight-and-twenty ballots no

change of any consequence was noticeable. Though votes were often cast

for ten names, there were but two real candidates before the convention,

Grant and Blaine. That the partisans of neither would yield in favour of

the other was certain. That the choice therefore rested with the

supporters of the minor candidates was manifest, and with the cry

"Anything to beat Grant!" an effort was made to find some man on whom

the opposition could unite. Such a man was Garfield. His long term of

service in the House, his leadership of his party on its floor, his

candidacy for the speakership, and his recent election to the United

States Senate, marked him out as the available man. Between the casting

of the first and the thirty-third ballot, Garfield, who was the leader

of Sherman's adherents in the convention, had sometimes received one or

two votes and at other times none. On the thirty-fourth he received

seventeen, on the next fifty, and on the next almost the entire vote

hitherto cast for Blaine and Sherman, and was declared nominated. During

the campaign Garfield was subject to violent personal abuse; the fact

that he was alleged to have received $329 from the Credit Mobilier as a

dividend on stock led his opponents to raise the campaign cry of "329,"

and this number was placarded in the streets of the cities and printed

in flaring type in partisan newspapers. The forged "Morey letter," in

which he was made to appear as opposed to the exclusion of the Chinese,

was widely circulated and injured his candidacy in the West. That the

charges against Garfield were not generally credited, however, is shown

by the fact that he received 214 electoral votes to his opponent's 155.

He was inaugurated on the 4th of March 1881.

Unfortunately, the new president was unequal to the task of composing

the differences in his party. For his secretary of state he chose James

G. Blaine, the bitterest political enemy of Senator Roscoe Conkling

(q.v.), the leader of the New York "stalwarts." Without consulting the

New York senators, Garfield appointed William H. Robertson, another

political enemy of Conkling's, to the desirable post of Collector of the

Port of New York, and thereby destroyed all prospects of party harmony.

On the 2nd of July, while on his way to attend the commencement

exercises at Williams College, the new president was shot in a

Washington railway station by a disappointed office-seeker named Charles

J. Guiteau, whose mind had no doubt been somewhat influenced by the

abuse lavished upon the president by his party opponents; and on the

19th of September 1881, he died at Elberon, New Jersey, whither he had

been removed on the 6th. He was buried in Cleveland, Ohio, where in 1890

a monument was erected by popular subscription to his memory.

In 1858 Garfield had married Miss Lucretia Rudolph, by whom he had seven

children. His son, HARRY AUGUSTUS GARFIELD (b. 1863) graduated at

Williams College in 1885, practised law in Cleveland, Ohio, in

1888-1903, was professor of politics at Princeton University in

1903-1908, and in 1908 became president of Williams College. Another

son, JAMES RUDOLPH GARFIELD (b. 1865), also graduated at Williams

College in 1885 and practised law in Cleveland; he was a Republican

member of the Ohio Senate in 1896-1899, was commissioner of

corporations, Department of Commerce and Labour, in 1903-1907,

attracting wide attention by his reports on certain large industrial

organizations, and was secretary of the interior (1907-1909) in the

cabinet of President Roosevelt.

President Garfield's writings, edited by Burke A. Hinsdale, were

published at Boston, in two volumes, in 1882. (J. B. McM.)

GAR-FISH, the name given to a genus of fishes (_Belone_) found in nearly

all the temperate and tropical seas, and readily recognized by their

long, slender, compressed and silvery body, and by their jaws being

produced into a long, pointed, bony and sharply-toothed beak. About

fifty species are known from different parts of the globe, some

attaining to a length of 4 or 5 ft. One species is common on the British

coasts, and is well known by the names of "long-nose," "green-bone," &c.

The last name is given to those fishes on account of the peculiar green

colour of their bones, which deters many people from eating them,

although their flesh is well flavoured and perfectly wholesome. The

skipper (_Scomberesox_) and half-beak (_Hemirhamphus_), in which the

lower jaw only is prolonged, are fishes nearly akin to the gar-pikes.

GARGANEY[1] (North-Italian, _Garganello_), or SUMMER-TEAL, the _Anas

querquedula_ and _A. circia_ of Linnaeus (who made, as did Willughby and

Ray, two species out of one), and the type of Stephens's genus

_Querquedula_. This bird is one of the smallest of the _Anatidae_, and

has gained its common English name from being almost exclusively a

summer-visitant to England where nowadays it only regularly resorts to

breed in some of the East-Norfolk Broads, though possibly at one time it

was found at the same season throughout the great Fen-district. Slightly

larger than the common teal (_A. crecca_), the male is readily

distinguished therefrom by its peculiarly-coloured head, the sides of

which are nutmeg-brown, closely freckled with short whitish streaks,

while a conspicuous white curved line descends backwards from the eyes.

The upper wing-coverts are bluish grey, the scapulars black with a white

shaft-stripe, and the wing-spot (_speculum_) greyish green bordered

above and below by white. The female closely resembles the hen teal, but

possesses no wing-spot. In Ireland or Scotland the garganey is very

rare, and though it is recorded from Iceland, more satisfactory evidence

of its occurrence there is needed. It has not a high northern range, and

its appearance in Norway and Sweden is casual. Though it breeds in many

parts of Europe, in none can it be said to be common; but it ranges far

to the eastward in Asia--even to Formosa, according to Swinhoe--and

yearly visits India in winter in enormous numbers. Those that breed in

Norfolk arrive somewhat late in spring and make their nests in the vast

reed-beds which border the Broads--a situation rarely or never chosen by

the teal. The labyrinth or bony enlargement of the trachea in the male

garganey differs in form from that described in any other drake, being

more oval and placed nearly in the median line of the windpipe, instead

of on one side, as is usually the case.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The word was introduced by Willughby from Gesner (_Orn._, lib.

iii. p. 127), but, though generally adopted by authors, seems never

to have become other than a book-name in English, the bird being

invariably known in the parts of this island where it is indigenous

as "summer-teal."

GARGANO, MONTE (anc. _Garganus Mons_), a massive mountainous peninsula

projecting E. from the N. coast of Apulia, Italy, and belonging

geologically to the opposite Dalmatian coast; it was indeed separated

from the rest of Italy by an arm of the sea as late as the Tertiary

period. The highest point (Monte Calvo) is 3465 ft. above sea-level. The

oak forests for which it was renowned in Roman times have entirely

disappeared.

GARGOYLE, or GURGOYLE (from the Fr. _gargouille_, originally the throat

or gullet, cf. Lat. _gurgulio_, _gula_, and similar words derived from

root _gar_, to swallow, the word representing the gurgling sound of

water; Ital. _doccia di grande_; Ger. _Ausguss_), in architecture, the

carved termination to a spout which conveys away the water from the

gutters. Gargoyles are mostly grotesque figures. The term is applied

more especially to medieval work, but throughout all ages some means of

throwing the water off the roofs, when not conveyed in gutters, has been

adopted, and in Egypt there are gargoyles to eject the water used in the

washing of the sacred vessels which would seem to have been done on the

flat roofs of the temples. In Greek temples the water from the roof

passed through the mouths of lions whose heads were carved or modelled

in the marble or terra-cotta cymatium of the cornice. At Pompeii large

numbers of terra-cotta gargoyles have been found which were modelled in

the shape of various animals.