MISTRESS OF INDIA and MISTRESS OF CONSTANTINOPLE? If you wait till her
ends are gained it will be too late to get aid from us. If you do not
give us to-day a favourable reply, we must go back to our people and
tell them that the English people are joined with Russia, so that what
Russia could not effect by her arms some people in England will have
effected by their calumnies.
All these things we tell you. If you wish to be sure of the truth,
make an assembly, as we do, and we will prove them. If you make no such
assembly, you have no right to say them. From Europe or from England no
help has come to us. We have heard that if there was justice to be found
it was in England; we came then to England, weak and poor, expecting to
find justice from you.
(Signed) HADJI HAYDEN HASSAN.
KUSTAR OGLI ISMAEL.
APPENDIX XI.
HOLY RUSSIA AND THE CURSED CRESCENT.
BY A. CLEVELAND COXE,[33]
_Bishop of the Western Diocese of New York_.
Trump of the Lord, I hear it blow;
Forward the cross; the world shall know
Jehovah's arm's against the foe.
Down shall the cursed crescent go.
To arms! To arms!
God wills it so.
God help the Russians—God bless the Czar,
Shame on the swords that trade can mar,
Shame on the laggards, faint and far,
That rise not to the holy war.
To arms! To arms!
The Cross and Czar.
How long, O Lord, for Thou art just,
Vengeance is Thine, in Thee we trust
Wake, arm of God, and dash to dust
Those hordes of rapine and of lust.
To arms! To arms!
Wake swords that rust.
Forward the Cross. Break, clouds of Ire,
Break with the thunder and the fire,
To new Crusades let Faith inspire,
Down with the crescent to the mire.
To arms! To arms!
To vengeance dire.
_The Bishop answered by Mr. W. Croffut._
Thou Man of God, who thus implore
Thy brother's sacred blood to pour
In hateful tides of turbid gore,
From Dardanelles to Danube's shore.
Be still! Be still!
Blaspheme no more.
God help the babes, God bless the wives;
Shame on the priests that whet the knives,
Shame on the Church whose altar thrives
By wrecking peaceful peasants' lives.
Be still! Be still!
'Tis hell that drives.
How long, O Lord, before Thy shrine
Shall men pray Vengeance, God, is Thine,
Then worship Moloch as divine,
And drink the battle's bloody wine?
Be still! Be still!
O heart of mine.
APPENDIX XII.
THE CORRUPTION OF ARMENIAN OFFICIALS.
REPORT OF MR. TAYLOR TO HER MAJESTY'S GOVERNMENT WITH
REFERENCE TO THE CORRUPTION OF ARMENIAN OFFICIALS IN HIS (THE
ERZEROUM) DISTRICT.
(_Extract._)
_Christians._—The different sects into which the Christians are divided
in the Erzeroum Vilayet are:—
Souls.
Gregorian Armenians 287,700
Nestorians 110,000
Armenian Catholics 8,000
Orthodox Greeks 4,000
Protestants (natives) 1,300
———
Total 411,000
_Armenians._—The advice and ostentatious leaning towards Russia of the
Armenian clergy in my district, headed by the Catholicas residing at
Etchmiazin in Russia, and his bishops in these parts, have naturally
enough inclined the more ignorant members of their flocks—rich and
poor—to adopt the same views; and considering also that a whole
Christian house of ten souls in Russia pays only, for all taxes, 9
roubles (1_l._ 10_s._) annually as against three times the sum here, if
there has not been a general emigration, it is simply owing to the fact
that disposable arable lands in Russian Armenia are scarce, while the
reverse prevails in Turkey.
Everywhere throughout these districts I found the Armenians bitter in
their complaints against the Turkish Government, at the same time that
they were unreserved in their praises of Russia, openly avowing their
determination to emigrate. This bias is owing, as already stated, to the
constant hostile teaching of their clergy; at the same time, ample cause
for discontent, as has already been shown further back, is afforded
by the really wretched system of Turkish provincial administration,
the unequal imposition of taxes, scandalous method of levying them
and the tithes, persistent denial or miscarriage of justice, and
practical disavowal of the Christians' claim to be treated with the same
consideration and respect as their equals among Moslems. But experience
has taught me that which candour and strict impartiality compel me
to state, that the subordinate officers of the local Government are
aided and abetted in their disgraceful proceedings or encouraged in
persistent indifference to crying wrongs, as well by the criminal
assistance as wilful apathy or silence of the Armenian Medjliss members,
ostensibly elected by the suffrages of their co-religionists to guard
their interests. Unfortunately, then, as the evil lies as much with
the Christians as the Turks, under existing regulations there is no
remedy for it, and there can be none till the local authorities really
see for themselves that the Porte's orders are really carried out and
to open the way for the introduction of a higher class of people for
such employments. As it is, no man of wealth, influence, or character
will accept a seat in any one of the Councils; he will not waste time
in attending to official duties in a place where he has to put up with
the contumely and impertinent insults of the Moslem members, all which
are patiently borne by the fawning and obsequious Christians whose
living depends upon this appointment. And even were a man of character
and ability to accept a nomination at the hands of his community, the
Pasha, with whom in fact the fate of such elections lie, as he has
the power of rejection, would always prefer a needy, pliant member to
one whose riches and position would place him beyond the reach of his
menaces or influence. The interests of the community are consequently
entrusted to speculators accustomed to the atmosphere of the Serai in
their capacity of revenue farmers or Seraffs, who in such positions
have, in addition to their own disgusting servility, all the chicanery
and vices of Turkish officials—acquired a dangerous influence, either
as the partners or creditors of the chief provincial officers. Such an
influence might be meritorious and useful if exercised in the interests
of justice and duty, but it becomes a downright evil when practised,
as it always is, for their own benefit or that of their partners in
corruption, and scarcely ever for their brethren. The claims of the
poor are either neglected or betrayed, and those of the rich depend
upon the amount of their presents or degree of their sycophancy. The
Armenian clergy and head men, on their part, purposely ignoring the
villanous conduct of their Medjliss members representing the repeated
failures of justice that inevitably result as due to the fanaticism
or imbecility of a Government determined to ignore all just claims,
exaggerate actual facts; the more readily to induce their dependents to
adopt the disloyal views they propagate. As they pursue such intrigues,
apparently unchecked and with the secret approval of Russian agents,
wavering members, formerly content with or resigned to their lot, openly
express disaffection and traitorous ideas.
APPENDIX XIII.
FEMALE BRIGANDAGE.
Millingen remarks in "Wild Life amongst the Koords"—Amongst the many
acts of brigandage of which the Koords are guilty—a peculiar kind of
highway robbery must here be stated, which is probably unparalleled.
The culprits, the brigands, are in this case young women, who set out
on plundering pursuits in order to turn a dishonest penny. A troop of
fair bandits take up a station at the side of a road, there patiently to
await for the arrival of the doomed traveller. As soon as the vedettes
announce his approach, the fair troop starts off to meet him, welcoming
him with dances and with fiery glances of irresistible power. He is
compelled to stop, as a matter of course, and the fair maids then
politely request him to alight. No sooner has the bewildered victim
put his feet on the ground than he finds himself at close quarters with
the whole troop. Immediately he is stripped of all he has on his back,
and is left in that primitive state in which Adam was at one time. Then
begins a series of dances and fascinating gestures in the style of those
performed by the maids at the Lupercalian games, the object of which
is to make the unfortunate victim lose his self-control. An attempt,
however, on the part of the victim to reciprocate the advances of his
alluring tyrants, becomes instantly fatal. The troop get hold of him
in a summary way, declare him to have made attempts on the virtue of
the fair maids, and condemn him to be pricked with thorns upon a very
sensitive part of his person. These dances and the flagellations, which
serve as entractes, are repeated several times over, till the sufferer,
exhausted and bleeding, is nearly in a fainting condition. Then the
female troop of bandits drag the wretched traveller before a court
of matrons, which holds its sittings somewhere in the neighbourhood.
There a charge of attempting a criminal assault is brought against the
pretended culprit, who not only receives a good dose of upbraiding, but
is also condemned to pay a fine.
APPENDIX XIV.
THE ROUTES WHICH TRAVERSE ASIA MINOR, AND THE EUPHRATES AND TIGRIS.
The routes which traverse Asia Minor and cross the Euphrates and Tigris
commence at Constantinople on the Bosphorus, or at Smyrna on the Ægean
sea, and meet upon the plateau of Asia Minor.
Of these routes the chief are—The Erzeroum and Tabriz; the Diarbekir and
Mosul; the Aleppo and Bagdad. On leaving Constantinople, the Bosphorus
is crossed; the road then leads along the coast of the Propontus from
Scutari to Gebiseh, the ancient Lybissa, and where the tomb of Hannibal
can be seen; then beside the Astacenian Gulf, from Gebiseh to Nicomedia
(Ismid). Here the three routes separate.
The Erzeroum road leads eastward, and parallel to the coast of the Black
Sea.
The Diarbekir route cuts Asia Minor longitudinally, and descends into
the valley of the Euphrates towards Malatia. The Aleppo road cuts
it obliquely, and descends upon the shores of the Mediterranean near
Tarsus.
The Erzeroum route crosses the Sakaria towards its mouth, between
Sabanja and Khanda, leads by the villages of Dusdscheh or Muderli to the
town of Boli, situated near the ruins of Hadrianopolis; beyond Boli the
road is very hilly; it then traverses the towns of Gerideh and Hamanli,
and descends with the waters of the Parthenius to the little town of
Tcherkis. Tcherkis is at the junction of the Trebizond and Tokat route.
The Trebizond route ascends more to the north, crosses the mountains
which separate the basin of the Parthenius from that of the Halys, and
descends with an affluent of the Halys to Kastamuni, and from there, by
Tach-kupri, to the town of Voyavat.
Tach-kupri is built on the site of Pompeiopolis, and Voyavat in a
fertile plain, at the foot of a height crowned by an old citadel.
Voyavat is an important position, because it is at the intersection of
the Sinope and Trebizond route.
The Sinope route turns to the north, and leads through a very rich and
undulating country. This is one of the most fertile districts in Asia
Minor.
The Trebizond route leads eastward, passes the Halys near Vizir Kupri,
and, after numerous ascents and descents, issues beside a watercourse
in a bay surrounded by olive-trees. Here is the town of Samsoun. It
then leads along the coast of the Black Sea, crosses the Iris near
Tcharchembeh, and the Thermadon near Thermeh; and leaving the little
town of Unieh to the left and on the sea-shore, it goes by Fatsa, Ordau,
and Kerasun to Tripoli; from there, after turning the bay of Platana,
it leads to Trebizond.
The Tokat road bends more to the south after leaving Tcherkis; it
crosses the mountains which border the basin of the Parthenius near
Karadjcur, and descends by Kodja Hissar to the town of Tusia upon the
Halys. It next traverses the river near Hadji Hamzeh or Osmanjik, and,
after passing Marsivan, crosses the western affluent of the Iris at
Amasia; from here it goes by Turkhal to Tokat. The direct route from
Tokat to Erzeroum eastward goes from Tokat or from Turkhal to Niksar,
on the Lycus, the eastern affluent of the Iris; and continuing by this
affluent to Kara Hissar, it ascends near the villages of Kerkif or
Lorri, the mountains which separate the waters of the Black Sea from
the Euphrates, and descends into the plain of Erzeroum near Vijan.
There is another road from Constantinople to Sivas. This is the regular
Angora track; it leaves the Trebizond route at Nicomedia, crosses the
Sakaria near Geiweh; and following the chord of the arc which this
river describes as it descends from the plateau of Asia Minor, leads by
the little towns of Terekli and Torbali to Nalihan, near the ruins of
Gordium; after which it ascends by the little town of Bei Bazar on to
the Angora plateau. This plateau is one of the points which dominate
Asia Minor; hence the reason why formerly so much importance was
attached to the fortress of Gordium. The road then leads by the village
of Bei Bazar, or by Tabadji, on to a ridge of mountains which separate
the basin of the Sakaria from that of the Halys, and descends by the
village of Akserai to the latter of these rivers. The stream is crossed
either at a ford or on a raft, and the route goes by the villages of
Sangor and Osman Koi to the town of Yuzgat; the chief seat of the family
Tchapan-Oglou,[34] formerly one of the most powerful in Asia Minor.
Yuzgat is an important position, because it is at the junction of the
two routes from Tokat and Cæsarea. The first leads to the east; and
crossing the mountains which separate the basin of the Halys from that
of the Iris, it debouches through a deep ravine on to the lofty plateau
of Zela, celebrated for Cæsar's victory over Pharnaces; from here it
descends and slopes gently down to the Western Iris, near Tokat. The
Cæsarea route turns to the south after leaving Yuzgat, and leading by
the villages of Ingourli, Kislan, and Boghazlayan, recrosses the Halys
near Emlar; after which it goes by Erkelet (Hiklar) to Cæsarea.
Another route leads by Angora to Cæsarea, and from Cæsarea to Malatia
in the valley of the Euphrates. It is the route from Constantinople to
Diarbekir and to Mosul. After leaving Nicomedia (Ismid) it turns south,
ascends the mountains which separate the Astacenian from the Cianean
Gulf, and descends to Lake Ascanius, near Nicea; then turning eastward,
and passing alongside Mount Olympus, it crosses the Gallus at Lefke
(Louka) near its junction with the Sakaria; then ascending this river
along its left bank as far as Zugud (Soghat), it crosses the Thymbrius
near Eski-Shehr, the ancient Doryleum, situated in the middle of a vast
and bare plain. The road now rises insensibly by Sidi Ghazi and Sever
Hissar to the Angora plateau. This is the easiest route to go from
Nicomedia to the plateau of Asia Minor. It follows the watercourses.
Two routes lead from Angora to Cæsarea. One crosses the Halys near the
village of Kara Keni, from whence it ascends the river along its right
bank to the little town of Mandjour, where its two principal affluents
unite. Then crossing the eastern affluent, between the villages of
Tchalik and Ambar, the route leads to the foot of Mount Argea towards
Cæsarea. The other road borders the eastern plateau of Asia Minor; and
ascending the Halys along its right bank, passes the eastern affluent of
this river above Mandjour; from here the route goes to Cæsarea, across
a vast plain destitute of trees. It is the easiest road, but there are
no habitations, and provisions are very scarce in this direction.
Cæsarea is a branching point for all the routes which cross the
Euphrates, or which descend from the plateau of Asia Minor to the
littoral of Cilicia. One of these routes leads to Sivas, another to
Diarbekir, a third to Aintab, and a fourth to Adana and Tarsus. The
first leads in a north-easterly direction, and ascends the eastern
affluent of the Halys from Emlar to Sivas; this is the easiest route
by which to ascend to the plateau of Armenia. The road from Angora by
Tokat to Sivas is the shortest. It is best provided with provisions; but
the route by Cæsarea is less broken and more accessible for artillery.
The route from Cæsarea to Diarbekir leads eastward along the Melas till
that river joins the Euphrates below Malatia. The river is then crossed
in a ferry-boat at the village of Teis Oglan, and the road continues
by the little town of Kharput to a chain of mountains which unite Mount
Taurus to Mount Niphates. It descends with the principal affluent of the
Tigris to Maïden, and from Maïden goes to the town of Arghana; from here
it leads alongside this river to Diarbekir, and from Diarbekir goes by
Djesire to Mosul.
The road from Cæsarea to Aintab leads in a south-easterly direction,
traverses one of the chains which unite Mount Argea to the southern
branch of Mount Taurus, and descends by the village of Garrin into the
valley of El Bostan, towards the sources of the Sarus. The valley of El
Bostan, although very high, is fertile, and planted with fruit-trees.
El Bostan is the branching point of three routes which lead—one to
Samozate, another to Aintab, and the third to Marash. The first route
turns to the east of Mount Amanus and descends with an affluent of the
Euphrates to Samozate; the second crosses the mountain, descends by a
profound ravine to Aintab, and leads from Aintab to Aleppo alongside
the Chalus. The third turns Mount Amanus on the west, and descends with
the Pyramus to the little town of Marash, and from Marash goes to the
village of Messis, on the gulf of Alexandretta.
The most frequented route from Cæsarea to Alexandretta is _viâ_ Adana
or Tarsus. This route leads to the south, turns Mount Argea towards the
west, and goes by Endjazou, the ancient Castabale, and by Kara Hissar,
the ancient Cybistra, to Yenji Bar, probably the ancient Nora; from
here it ascends to the high plain of Nigdeh, which is watered, like El
Bostan, by an affluent of the Sarus. It descends from Nigdeh to Ketch
Hissar, called Dana by Xenophon, an important position, because it is at
the intersection of the two routes of Cæsarea and Koniah; from there the
road leads by the village of Tchikisla into a deep and winding gorge,
hollowed out in the slopes of Mount Taurus, and where the different
affluents of the Sarus unite together. From here the route debouches by
the village of Abi Cheik into the great plain of Cilicia, on one side
of which is Tarsus, and on the other Adana. In leaving the defile above
mentioned, the road branches to the right for Tarsus, and to the left to
Adana, and from Adana goes to Alexandretta. The best-known route from
Constantinople to Syria is that of Koniah. It traverses the western
border of the plateau of Asia Minor, and cuts the peninsula obliquely
from the north-west to the south-east. This route, leaving the road to
Angora, at Nicea, and ascending those branches of Mount Olympus which
bound Lake Ascanius on the south, descends to the little town of Yeni
Cheer, where the two routes from Brusa and Kiutayah cross. The first
turns to the west and leads to Brusa; it passes by Mount Olympus, on
the north. The second turns southward, and passing by Mount Olympus on
the east, goes to the town of Ainegol (Yeni Ghoul), towards the sources
of the Gallus, and from Ainegol leads by the village of Turbah to the
town of Kiutayah upon the Thymbrius. It then ascends by the Thymbrius
to its sources towards the village of Altyn Tash, and finally reaches
the plateau of Afiun Kara Hissar, bounded on the west by the western
chain of the Taurus, and on the east by a range of little lakes which
almost touch each other, and which extend towards the south to the
environs of Koniah. This plateau is very high. It is separated from the
central plateau of Asia Minor by a series of hills, which are crowned
towards the south by the Baba Dagh (mountain). The route passes between
two chains of mountains, and leads by Bulwadin, built upon the site of
Dynia, and by Izaklou to Ak-Shehr. This little town is situated in a
well-watered plain, at the foot of a mountain covered with vegetation,
and about six miles from a lake which bounds the plain on the east. The
route leaves all the lakes to the left, and goes by Ilgyn and Kadoun
Khan to the village of Hi Ladik, built upon the ruins of Laodicea
Combusta; from here it is a ten hours' march to Koniah, the road leading
there at the foot of the mountains which bound the plateau of Asia Minor
on the south, and which rise gradually to the southern chain of Mount
Taurus.
The most frequented route from Koniah is that which leads by Tarsus or
by Adana to Alexandretta. It is the route from Smyrna and Constantinople
to Aleppo and Bagdad. It is the route of Antioch, Palmyra, and Babylon.
It is the route of all the conquerors.
This route, when it leaves the plain of Koniah, turns the Kara Dagh
(mountain) towards the north, goes by the villages of Ismil, of Geiweh,
and Hartan to Erekli; and after joining with the Cæsarea route and
below Ketch Hissar descends with the river Sarus towards the village of
Tchikisla, and issues from a deep gorge of Mount Taurus into the great
plain of Cilicia.
The Alexandretta route cuts the plain obliquely; leaving Tarsus to
the right, it passes the Sarus at Adana, the Pyramus at the village of
Messis, three miles from this village enters a cleft in the mountains
which border the gulf of Alexandretta; from here it debouches into a
fertile but desert plain, nine miles long, from three to four wide,
and surrounded on all sides by arid mountains. There is an exit
towards the east, and after a difficult march for an hour, the route
descends to the ruined town of Kartanleh, which is now inhabited in the
winter by some Turkoman tribes. Kartanleh is situated at the edge of
a plateau, or rather a terrace, about three miles long, and bordered
on its eastern extremity by some black rocks. They approach each other
very closely. The passage is excessively narrow. The defile gradually
becomes wider, and a mile farther it debouches on to a little plain
about two miles long and one mile broad, bounded on the south by the
Gulf of Alexandretta, on the east by a vast marsh, and on the north by a
chain of heights, which rise gradually to Mount Amanus. Ayas is at the
foot of these heights, and about one mile from the sea. The road now
turns south, leads for some time along a sandy shore, and then crosses
a little mountain torrent which flows into the marsh, and which some
travellers have taken, to be the Carsus of Xenophon; others, the Pinarus
of Arrien. After having passed the torrent and rounded the gulf, the
road leaves the shore and rises gradually to Pias, situated like Ayas a
little distance from the sea, and at the foot of some heights which keep
on ascending till they culminate in Mount Amanus. Pias is twenty-six
miles from Ayas, sixteen from Alexandretta, and at the south-eastern
angle of a bay. Its shore is more easily approached than that of Ayas;
troops could be easily disembarked here. It is the most vulnerable point
of the coast. From Pias, as from Alexandretta, it is only three marches
to the plateau of Antioch, a dominating point and the key to Syria.
The Aleppo route leaves the sea at Alexandretta, and turning south-east
ascends through a deep gorge to Beylan. From here it leads over some
mountains which bound the gulf on the east, and which unite the Taurus
to the Syrian chain. The route then descends to the plain of Antioch.
The road here branches. One branch leads by some mountains, which are on
the north, to Killis and Aintab; it then crosses the Euphrates at Kum
Kaleh, the ancient Zeugma. The other branch cuts the plain of Antioch
from the north to the south, passes the Orontes beneath the walls of
the town, and, turning to the east, crosses the Chalus beneath Aleppo.
Aleppo is at the junction of two roads which cross the Euphrates—the
one at Bir, in taking a north-eastern course, the other at Kerkisieh
or Anah, in leading towards the south-east. The first is the Mosul, and
the second the Bagdad route through Babylonia and the desert. The Mosul
route, after leaving Aleppo, ascends to a bare plain, traversed by two
affluents of the Sadjour, which fall into the Euphrates near the ruins
of Hierapolis. The first station is at the village of Hardaran. The
road then leads across two affluents of the Sadjour, and goes through
olive-gardens to the Euphrates, which is crossed at a ferry near Bir. It
would be very difficult to ford the river at this point. After leaving
Bir, the road passes over two chains of calcareous hills, between which
is a pretty valley, covered with fruit-trees. It descends from the
second chain by a steep path, which is paved with big stones, and is
cut in several places out of the rock.
Urfa, the ancient Edessa, is situated in a valley between two hills,
which are separated from the Tauric chain and united to a series of
other hills which cut like a curtain the vast plain of Mesopotamia.
From Urfa to Mosul there are two routes; one, more to the north than
the other, joins the Samozate road towards Severek, and, crossing
one of the heights of Mount Masius, descends with an affluent of the
Tigris to Diarbekir. It goes from here by Djesireh to Mosul. It is a
difficult route, but the only one where provisions can be met with. The
other route ascends in the direction of the sources of the Khaboras,
follows the chord of the arc which forms the Tauric chain from Severek
to Mardin, leads from Mardin to Nisibin through a cultivated plain
watered by the Mygdonius, and goes from Nisibe to Mosul through an
uncultivated district, which extends from the foot of the Tauric chain
to the mountain of Singare. There is nothing to stop an army marching
along this route save the scarcity of provisions. It is the best road
for cavalry. The other one would be more convenient for infantry. Two
roads lead from Mosul to Bagdad. One passes along the right bank of the
Tigris, and the other the left. The first passes by Tekrit and across
the desert—the second by Arbeles and through ancient Assyria. This last
route is the longest. It leaves the river, to avoid some hills which
border the left bank; but it is the only road where cultivated lands
and provisions can be found. Leaving Mosul, it crosses the Tigris upon
a bridge of boats, and passes in succession the Bumadus and the Zabus,
six miles apart the one from the other. The plain between the two rivers
is elevated, and is undulating towards the north-east; but it sinks and
becomes flat towards the south-west, in the direction of the angle where
the two rivers meet. From the ford where the road crosses the Zabus,
it is only twenty-seven miles to Arbeles, which rises like an island
in the midst of the most beautiful plain of Assyria. The road undulates
slightly, and the position is a favourable one for manœuvring an army.
On leaving Arbeles, the route descends beside a small watercourse to
Altyn-Kupri. Here the Caprus is crossed upon a stone bridge. The little
town of Scherzour, at the foot of the Median chain, is on the left of
the route, and it continues by Kerkut and Daour towards the villages of
Kifri and Kara Tepe in the plain of Bagdad.
The direct route from Aleppo to Bagdad leads in a south-easterly
direction. After leaving the plain of Aleppo, it passes through a long
valley closely bordered by two hills. In the middle of the plain is
the town of Taib. The road now debouches upon the Euphrates—on one
side towards Racca, the ancient Nicephorium, and on the other towards
the ruins of Tapsaque, at the beginning of a bend which the great
river makes in its course towards Kerkisieh, the ancient Circesium. It
appears that the ancients crossed the Euphrates sometimes at one and
sometimes at the other of these points. At the present time the route
leads along the right bank to Ana, the ancient Anatho, and to Hit, the
ancient Æiopolis. Here the river is crossed in a ferry-boat. The road
continues along the left bank to Ambar, the ancient Perisabour, and to
Felujah, which is the point where the Euphrates in its windings nearest
approaches the Tigris. The Babylon and Bagdad routes now separate. The
first leads to the south, along the Euphrates. Fifteen hours' march
brings you to Hillah, which is built on the site of Babylon. The other
road leads eastward; and, after crossing a bare plain which divides the
two rivers, you arrive in eleven hours at Bagdad. To enter this town
the river has to be crossed on a bridge of boats. As the crow flies, it
is only fifty-four miles from Babylon to Bagdad. The route leads from
south to north. It is a difficult one. There are fissures in the ground.
They become filled with water during the inundations caused by the two
rivers. Caravans going from one town to the other generally go round by
Feludjah; this lengthens the road by about twenty-one miles.
The route from Aleppo to Bagdad by the desert and by Babylon has this
advantage over the Mosul road. It is shorter, because it follows the
cord, the other following the circumference of the bow; but as the
ground between Aleppo and Tapsaque is no longer cultivated, and as
troops can no longer be accompanied by a flotilla of vessels, it is not
practicable for an army. It is only suited for a division of cavalry
and for caravans with camels; even then there would be a risk of the
force perishing from hunger or thirst. The long zone which the road
traverses, and which loses itself in the Arabian desert, is a plain with
slight undulations, but they are so slight that a man on horseback could
scarcely conceal himself. There are few plants: you find some wells of
petroleum, hardly any animals. There are no birds; everywhere you see
a white soil impregnated with gypsum or salt.
A few palm and fruit trees announce to the traveller that he has arrived
at the environs of Bagdad.
Bagdad is the starting-point of two important roads: they lead, one
to the south of Persia, the other to the north. The first leads to the
south-east, and passing alongside the foot of the Median chain, crosses
the Kerah or river of Kirmanchah, the ancient Eulee, near the ruins of
Suza, and the two branches of the Karoon, the ancient Orontes, the one
at Dizful, the other at Shuster; from whence the route ascends to the
plateau of Media, and to Lourkian. It then passes the Persian Pyles
towards the sources of the Bendemir, or of the Persian Araxes, and
descends with this river upon the plateau of Persia towards Ispahan.
The second road goes to the north-east, ascends the Diala to Sheraban
or Apollonia, from whence it rises by Zar-Zil upon the plateau of
Media towards Karmanshah. It then passes the defiles of Mount Orontes
towards Kangawar, and descends to Hamadan. This is the ancient route
from Ecbatana, the great route from Turkey to Persia, Hamadan is at
the intersection of two roads which lead—the one to Ispahan in turning
south-east, the other to Teheran in leading north-east.
Such are the different routes, remarks Baron Beaujour, which lead from
Asia Minor across the Euphrates and Tigris into Asia proper. From
what has been said, it will be seen that they are reduced to three
principal ones—to the Erzeroum and Tabriz, which turns the two rivers
towards their sources; to the Urfa and Mosul, which crosses the rivers
in the middle of their course; and to the Aleppo and Bagdad, which
leads along the Euphrates to Babylon, and which passes the Tigris near
Bagdad. The first route is impracticable for artillery, the last for
infantry. The centre road is the only one available for a large army;
for whilst cavalry and artillery could pass by Merdin and Nisibin,
infantry penetrating from Urfa through the defiles of Severek, into the
valley of the Tigris, could descend with this river from Diarbekir to
Mosul, and from Mosul to Bagdad; from here, ascending the Diala, the
army might continue by the defiles of Mount Zagros on to the plateau of
Media towards Karmanshah, and from the plateau of Media by the defiles
of Mount Orontes upon the Persian plateau towards Hamadan. Master of the
Persian plateau an army could march towards Teheran as far as the foot
of the Tauric chain, continue along this chain to Mount Paropamisus, and
descend by Kandahar or Cabul into the valley of the Indus towards Attok.
Although this is a long and difficult route, it is not an impracticable
one for an army which has previously conquered the Turks and the
Persians.
Means of subsistence can be found everywhere along this road. Troops
would only meet with opposition from wandering hordes, or from people
like the Afghans. However, the hordes are mere robbers. The Afghans
would have no chance of victory unless they were united amongst
themselves. To conquer the Afghans, all that would be required would be
to fight them in detail.
Alexander formerly marched along this route. In our own times, Napoleon
and Paul the First, the two most powerful monarchs in Europe, wished to
follow it, to attack the English in India. This project, the boldest
which has been conceived in modern times, could only be executed by
generous princes, who would like to conquer India, not to keep it, but
to civilize the country. In the present state of Europe, India could
only be conquered by the Russians, who are very little exposed to
attacks from other nations. Masters of Georgia and of the line of the
Araxes, the Russians can turn the western side of the Caspian Sea, and
penetrate by Casbin upon the plateau of Persia, or penetrate by the
east and by Bokhara across the Oxus and Jaxartes, which are by no means
insurmountable obstacles.
Baron Beaujour concludes his remarks upon the subject by saying,—
"This enterprise would be justifiable provided that the attacking force
had some glorious object in view, such as that of civilizing India.
The English, who are already masters of the peninsula, can do this last
better than the Russians. THE LATTER OUGHT TO CIVILIZE THEMSELVES BEFORE
THEY THINK OF CIVILIZING OTHER NATIONS."
APPENDIX XV.
THE MILITARY IMPORTANCE OF SYRIA.
Baron Beaujour, in his "Voyage Militaire dans l'Empire Ottoman,"
published in 1829, remarks about the military importance of Syria as
follows:—
Syria has a great military importance. It is on the route from Asia to
Africa. If the Isthmus of Suez were cut through, Syria would acquire
a still greater importance. This country is now open, art has not
defended it on any side; but Nature has defended it on the east and
south by deserts; on the west by the sea, and on the north by a chain
of mountains which surround it like a rampart. Mount Amanus, which forms
this rampart, and which extends from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates,
dominates Syria; this is the reason why the masters of Aleppo and
Antioch have always been the masters of the rest of the country. All the
routes were open to them. They could not be arrested on any particular
road, because each route could be turned by the others. The road from
Antioch to Jerusalem ascends the Orontes, and traverses the two chains.
It descends by the Leontes into Cœle Syria, by the Jordan into Judea;
and by the Chrysorrhoas into the plain of Damascus. This route is the
only one which opens out all the interior of the country. The others
only open out the littoral. An army can always be stopped by a foe who
occupies the first-mentioned route. The road from Gaza to Laodicea along
the coast is only suitable for an army which is accompanied by a fleet.
The transversal routes of Caifa or Acre to Damascus by Nazareth, of Tyre
or Sidon to Emesa by Cœle Syria—from Tripoli to Hamah by Akka, and from
Laodicea to Schogr by Abdama can only conveniently be used by an army
which is mistress of the sea.
Syria can be attacked from two sides—either through Asia Minor or
through Egypt. TO ATTACK SYRIA FROM ASIA MINOR, MOUNT AMANUS MUST BE
PASSED EITHER AT ITS CENTRE NEAR AINTAB, OR AT ITS TWO EXTREMITIES BY
ZEUGMA OR BY ISSUS. THE PASS BY ZEUGMA IS THE EASIEST—TO HOLD THIS PASS
IT IS NECESSARY TO BE THE MASTER OF THE EUPHRATES. The passage by Aintab
is more difficult, but it can be turned. An army can descend by several
roads from Mount Amanus along the watercourses into the plain of Antioch
as into the plain of Aleppo.
An attack by the gulf of Alexandretta is more difficult. This gulf is
closed by a cordon of mountains which is bent on the seaside like a
bow. Even if this bow were pierced from one side, it would be necessary
to pierce it from the other and penetrate into Syria by the defile of
Beilan, after having entered by that of Issus. Syria is defended on
the Egyptian side by a desert—here there is neither water nor grass;
but so soon as an army has crossed this desert and taken Gaza, it
can ascend the coast to Carmel, and if it is mistress of the sea, can
ascend at pleasure by the transversal valley of Esdrelon upon the plain
of Damascus, or by the transversal valley of Balbek upon the plain of
Emesa which commands the entire valley of the Orontes. An army could
even ascend the coast to Laodicea, its right supported on the Lebanon,
its left on the sea, and sweep before it the Turks dispersed amidst
the towns of the littoral, as the wind drives before it the dust. If
the Turks were to rally in the valley of Cœle Syria, or in the plain
of Damascus, a defeat here would drive them into the desert. The
Mutualis, Druses, Maronites, Ansares are not united—to conquer them it
is sufficient to sow dissension in their ranks; even if they were to
fight beneath the same standards they could never arrest an army in its
march. These people know nothing about tactics, they are only acquainted
with mountain warfare. They would never dare to risk themselves in the
plain or to sustain the shock of a European battalion. All these people
are like Arabs; they are only fit to rob caravans or to follow an army
with the object of pillage.
An attack upon Syria by the littoral of Palestine and Phœnicia could
only succeed so long as you were mistress of the sea. It would be better
to attack Syria by sea than from Egypt; but to attack Syria by sea, one
must begin by establishing oneself in the island of Cyprus. Cyprus is
to Syria what Zante is to the Morea; it would serve as a depôt for the
army and a harbour for the fleet. Larnaca and Famagusta are the most
favourable points for naval stations. The Syrian coast is too straight,
it possesses no good port, nor even any good roads. The ports of
Laodicea, Tripoli, Beyrout, and Sidon are too small. The anchoring roads
of Acre, Jaffa, and Gaza are too exposed. Alexandretta and Tyre are the
sole points where an army can be disembarked without danger. This is the
reason why these two places have always been considered the two keys
of Syria, on the side of the sea. An attack by Alexandretta has this
advantage, it separates Syria at once from the rest of Turkey. It also
has its disadvantages. Depôts must be formed on a very unhealthy shore.
The defiles of Mount Rhosus must be passed; here there are difficult
gorges where a handful of soldiers could resist an army.
An attack by Tyre would be the easiest and the least dangerous. The
peninsula on which this town is built is now no longer defended.
This peninsula facilitates a descent upon the neighbouring coast. The
surrounding plain is fertile. An army would be thoroughly protected by
guarding on one side the defile of Cape Blanc, and on the other, that
of the valley of the Leontes or of Cœle Syria. From this valley an army
could ascend by Balbek to the highest point of the Syrian chain. It
could dominate the whole country as if from the summit of an enormous
citadel. This point surmounts all the passes, and an army could descend
by the Jordan to Jerusalem by the Chrysorrhoas to Damascus, and by the
Orontes to Antioch.
Tyre and Alexandretta are the two most vulnerable points in Syria. If
history does not recall to the Turks the importance of these two towns,
Europeans have not forgotten it. Acre and Laodicea are the next most
important points. In summer an army could easily disembark there, and,
like Tyre and Alexandretta, they give access to the entire country.
The Turks, then, ought to fortify these places better, and especially
Alexandretta and Tyre, so as to make them the principal fortresses in
Syria; and not to think so much of Aleppo and Damascus, which can be
easily defended against the Arabs of the desert.
If Syria is easy to attack—she is equally difficult to conquer. Her
territory is mountainous. A small army could defend itself for a long
time against a large force. In Mesopotamia and in Egypt a single battle
won would be sufficient to reduce the entire country. In Syria it would
only enable the foe to occupy a more advanced position, and to march
from one valley to another, as from the valley of the Orontes to the
valley of the Jordan, or from the littoral of Phœnicia to Palestine;
but to march from one of these positions to the other, it is necessary
to pass defiles. If the defenders were masters of the transversal
valleys which unite the littoral with the interior of the country—and
in particular of the valley of Balbek—no enemy could advance a step
without encountering obstacles. This would protract the war and give
the defenders a great advantage. Syria, then, is difficult to conquer,
but, once conquered, is easy to defend. This is the reason why it is so
important from a military point of view.
APPENDIX B. (XVI.)
SIR JOHN BURGOYNE ON THE DEFENCES OF CONSTANTINOPLE.
The following remarks made by Sir John Burgoyne in his work, "Military
Opinions," and published in 1859, may not be uninteresting to the
reader. Alluding to the events preceding the Crimean War, the author
observes:
There can be but little doubt that the Turkish force on the frontier
will be numerically very inferior to that of the Russians. It may be
stated at about 120,000, while their enemy must be able to dispose of
at least 200,000 serviceable forces. Under such a state of things it is
manifest that the best policy for Russia would be to use every effort to
strike a heavy blow at once, to force the Danube in mass, and by rapid
and vigorous movements to cut off, or thoroughly defeat the divided
hordes of the Turks. In the event of success they would push on so far
as their arrangements would allow, towards the Balkan.
When once the Russians are firmly established on the right bank of the
Danube, the Turks must necessarily retire to Shumla and the Balkan, and
it is to be hoped that this will be effected before the detached corps
or the flanks shall be too much compromised. The first real defence,
then, that it would appear could be prudently made, would be on the
Balkan passes. On the Balkan it is to be hoped that the Turkish armies
would, by due arrangements, be under such great advantages of position
as to enable them to make an obstinate stand.
Still, the line is long, the passes must be many, and the enemy, still
numerous, would probably at length establish himself across it; but
by this time, feeling the effects of the campaign and forward movement
in such a country, he would find a difficulty in keeping together such
large bodies, in maintaining their efficiency, and obtaining supplies
for them. These difficulties would increase as he prolonged the advance.
It may be considered that at such a period a well prepared field of
battle along the line of the Carasu river—from its mouth in the Lake
of Bujuk Checkmedge, on the Sea of Marmora, to Kara Bournu on the
Black Sea. The length of this line, from sea to sea, is twenty-four
or twenty-five miles; but each flank being covered by lakes and
rivers, would be easily watched and secured, and the extent of the
real fighting-ground would be, by these features, reduced to nine or
ten miles of plain; but with favourable undulations affording a good
command over the front, and which might be improved in strength in a
most powerful degree by a great development of respectable field-works.
One most important advantage to be obtained from the occupation of
this position would be that it covers the entire Bosphorus, and would
therefore enable our fleets to remain masters of the Black Sea to the
last, and preclude the enemy from the use of it.
To apply the resources of this position with effect, two ingredients
must be available; first, early and energetic measures for entrenching
so great an extent, so as to give it the greatest possible strength:
and the other, that an adequate force should remain available for its
occupation and defence. The first would require the application of
several thousand workmen for several months, and could only be effected
by the employment of troops, but with an understanding that a degree of
benefit would be derived from their very first labours, which could be
progressively improved to the very last moment. The second would require
50,000 good troops, or a proportionate increase in number of such as
might be inferior.
These may appear to be heavy demands, but can scarcely be considered
so, as the main and last stand to prevent the fall of an empire. The
situation of the Dardanelles is detached, but presents far greater
facilities for its protection, though still requiring considerable
means. This is to be effected by occupying powerfully the neck of land
which connects the great European Peninsula (the old Chersonese of
Thrace) with the main land. At about seven miles in front of Gallipoli,
and near the village of Boulaher, this neck is only three miles wide,
being the narrowest part, and presents at that identical part a position
that, duly fortified and garrisoned, may be given enormous strength.
The whole extent of coast round the peninsula in rear of that line
would be protected by the naval forces. Large means would be required
to be applied to the preparation of this position within a short time;
4000 workmen would do it in three months, and a garrison of 12,000 good
troops would be necessary for its defence if properly attached.
The use of this position however, would not be solely confined to
securing the retreat of the fleet, but would be very threatening for
offensive measures also; it would cover a very extensive district,
within which might be rapidly collected by sea any force that it might
be thought advisable at any time to advance, either to the front or
flank of the invader, with a comparatively short communication and
secure depôts and retreats. It is, in fact, the point that would
form the best line of operations for any forces acting in alliance
with Turkey, excepting those which would be applied to the immediate
protection of Constantinople; although the water communication would
be open to the Gulf of Enos, and perhaps up the Maritza, the depôts,
hospitals, reserves, &c., should be established on this peninsula.
To return to the consideration of the defences for Constantinople. A
second line has been designed round the city, at only a mile or two in
advance; the ground is extremely favourable. It would cover the whole
space from the Sea of Marmora to the Bosphorus and, well entrenched,
would be capable of considerable resistance, but it has several defects.
1. It can hardly be deemed sufficiently extensive and influential
for the last resort of a great army. 2. It would be too near to the
city, and the proceedings and feelings of the forces would be greatly
influenced by the tumults, panics, insurrections, treacheries, and
confusion of the place; so much so, that no vigorous defence could
be expected from it. 3. It would be considered as a last hold, and
merely as a point for surrender. 4. It would not cover the whole of the
Bosphorus, and consequently it would necessitate the evacuation of the
Black Sea by our fleet.
On these accounts I attach no value to it, provided the Carasu frontier
be taken up. If the disposable force was only from 5000 to 12,000
strong, I would recommend its services being exclusively engaged to
secure the Dardanelles, an additional force of 25,000 might form a
valuable nucleus for the preparation and defence of the frontier of
the Carasu. If a larger army could be collected it would join and
act in conjunction with the Turkish forces in the Balkan, for which
purpose their best landing-place would be the Gulf of Enos, proceeding
to Adrianople up the Maritza river; or they might act elsewhere,
according to the circumstances of the times. An idea is suggested that
the Russians, on the understanding of the preparation by the allies,
may content themselves with remaining in quiet possession of the
Principalities, and thus gain an absolute advantage. It is not for me,
taking in view military operations only, to judge of the effect of such
a course, further than to give an opinion that I am not aware of any
military measures that it would be desirable to attempt to drive them
out without the co-operation of Austria.
The question is rather political than military, but it would appear to
me that by so doing they would certainly abandon their cause for war,
and would suffer more in prestige than they would gain in substance.
APPENDIX B. (XVII.)
THE CHEKMAGEE LINES.
Major-General Macintosh in his work, "A Military Tour in European
Turkey," remarks on the possibility of a winter campaign, and on the
defences of Constantinople as follows:—
"About the time that I visited the Dardanelles I made an excursion from
Constantinople into Bulgaria, noting as I rode along all that appeared
of professional interest in the country through which I passed. It was
the beginning of November when I set out, but I found the passes of the
Balkan quite practicable as regarded snow, though this is not always
the case at that season. Excepting an occasional rainy day, I travelled
agreeably enough over the plains on both sides of the mountains. On
leaving Constantinople, the Adrianople road carried me over a bleak
track of undulating country resembling our downs, but deeply furrowed in
many places with steep ravines, and showing few vestiges of habitation
beyond an occasional farm-yard enclosed by a solid wall, and generally
containing several dwellings and sheds for cattle. These enclosures
might often serve for posts, but they could hardly resist artillery;
although there is a method employed in the East of digging outside the
wall a deep ditch, and throwing the earth up to a certain height against
it, which would in some degree deaden the fire, at the same time that
the ditch formed by the excavation adds an obstacle compensating for
the facility which the earth thrown up within would otherwise give to
an escalade.
"The road passes at no great distance from the shore of the Sea of
Marmora, about ten miles from the city walls. I reached the crest of
one of the elevated downs commanding a view of an extensive lake, about
seven miles in length, and two in breadth, bordered with marshy land,
and stretching from the sea into the country, and in the direction of
the ridge called the Lesser Balkan, which lies to the north. The lake is
separated from the sea at its south-western extremity by a low ledge,
not many yards in breadth, traversed by the ancient highway, now in a
ruinous state, and supported in some places on low arches, through which
the brackish water passes and repasses, according to the direction of
the wind between the sea and the lake. The causeway could be easily
closed artificially, when seven miles of country would be rendered
unassailable by an enemy; for, although boats might navigate these lakes
to a certain extent, its marshy shores must always render navigation
difficult, even if such vessels were at hand, which, hitherto, has not
been the case.
"The spot which the Turks call Kuchuk Chekmagee is designated by the
Franks Ponte Piccolo, to distinguish it from the greater bridge crossing
the isthmus at Buyuk Chekmagee, or Ponte Grande, the second lake, about
six miles and a half further on towards Adrianople.
"The ledge at Ponte Piccolo is about three quarters of a mile in
length, but the lake expands very considerably further up, and at the
distance of four miles is broken into a fork, each branch being fed by
a stream which flows from the highlands to the north. Proceeding over
the ledge, a country of heights and valleys becoming bolder to the
northward extends for about six or seven miles, when the second lake
of equal length, but somewhat narrower than the first, presents itself,
divided like the other from the sea by a narrow ledge, supporting a bad
causeway, the centre of which rests on the large bridge above mentioned.
From the brow or crest of the heights above, which are lower than
those at Kuchuk Chekmagee, but which command the ledge at a very short
distance; a zigzag path leads down to the village of Buyuk Chekmagee.
Standing at this point, the spectator is immediately impressed with
the conviction of the great strength of such a pass, and of its immense
utility to Turkey, if turned to proper account; being, as it were, the
abutment on which the left flank of a fine position rests, covering the
capital from an enemy in this direction, a capital which, once attained
by an hostile army, would mark, most probably, in its own ruin, the fall
of the Ottoman Empire in Europe.
"A recent writer has described the locality as 'that formidable position
about twenty miles from the capital so celebrated in history, where,
owing to the nature of the ground, Attila was stayed in his march to
conquer the Eastern Empire, and where at a later period the Huns[35]
were signally defeated by Belisarius.' In reference to this statement,
however, it must be observed that, as regards the advance of Attila,
Gibbon especially mentions that he was only arrested by the city walls
of Constantinople, without alluding to any position whatever. The
following is the passage from Gibbon. 'The armies of the Eastern Empire
were vanquished in three successive engagements, and the progress of
Attila may be traced by the fields of battle. The two first on the banks
of the Utus, and under the walls of Marcianopolis, were fought on the
extensive plains between the Danube and Mount Hæmus. As the Romans were
pressed by a victorious enemy, they gradually and unskilfully retired
towards the Chersonesus of Thrace (the peninsula of the Dardanelles),
and that narrow peninsula, the last extremity of the land, was marked
by their third and irreparable defeat. By the destruction of their
army, Attila acquired the indisputable possession of the field. From
the Hellespont to Thermopylæ and the suburbs of Constantinople he
ravaged without resistance and without mercy the provinces of Thrace
and Macedonia. Heraclia[36] and Constantinople might perhaps escape
this dreadful irruption of the Huns.'... Belisarius is said by the
historian to have intrenched himself at Melanthius, about twenty miles
from Constantinople, and there repulsed seven thousand Bulgarians, by
whom he was attacked."
Major-General Macintosh, after having described the shore road from
Constantinople to the lakes, describes the inland road as follows:—
"Quitting the city by the gate of Adrianople, and leaving on the right
the River Sydaris, vulgarly called the Ali-bey, which flows through
a ravine into the Golden Horn, not far from where it receives the
Barbysis (now called the Kheat-Khaneh-soo), the road passes between the
two great barracks of Ramish Chiflik and Daoud Pasha, situated about
two miles from the walls where the Turks, looking much too near the
city for its strongest defences, formerly erected field-works, which,
though fallen into decay, might, if repaired, serve as the scene of
a last struggle with the enemy. This neighbourhood is intersected by
the subterranean conduits and lofty aqueducts which convey water from
Kalfas, Kavas-Kioi, and other great reservoirs to Constantinople; and
though when I visited them they were quite undefended, the Chekmagee
lines if erected would effectually protect these works. The vast
importance of preserving them will be understood when it is recollected
that Constantinople is situated on the extremity of a wedge of land
ill supplied with springs or running streams, and in a climate where,
at certain seasons, there is but little rain for months. Leaving the
aqueducts behind, a country is now traversed resembling that on the
parallel route already described, but in which the heights are bolder,
and the valleys more abrupt, while small towns and farm-houses are of
more frequent occurrence, and the supply of water near the road is, by
means of copious artificial fountains and occasional rivers by which
it is crossed, considerably more abundant. This highly defensible track
extends as far as the Chekmagee lines, which may be said to run from the
two lakes on the Sea of Marmora, nearly to the fort of Kara-bornoo, on
the Black Sea, where it has in its front the salt lake of Derkos, and
the narrow ledge dividing it from the sea, which, no doubt, might be
easily cut through so as to admit the waters of the Euxine. Our approach
to the first of these lines, or that nearest Constantinople, is marked,
after passing a khan and fountain, by the summit of a bold position on
the Constantinople side of a river flowing through a deep ravine towards
the lesser lake, and hence a view is obtained of Kuchuk Chekmagee and
the neighbouring sea. Descending into the ravine, the road, which is
generally good, crosses the river by a substantial stone bridge, close
to which is a fountain, and ascending the steep bank on the opposite
side passes a large walled farm, where another position commences.
"From this point we come on a succession of inferior slopes, dipping
towards the lakes and marshes, each affording a position.
"One of these about two miles from the Chatsalda marsh in its front, to
which it extends, has, in its course, a little to the west of the road,
a small isolated height, well suited for a fort or telegraph. From this
eminence there is an extensive view, embracing the second lake, with
its town and isthmus; and several villages occur on both sides of the
road. This locality is well suited for the encampment of troops, being
elevated above the marshes, and at the same time not far distant from
water.
"Descending the height the road commences the passage of the marsh, by
a narrow ancient causeway composed of square blocks of stone, often
much displaced, and frequently intersected by the Kara-soo and other
streams, over which long stone slabs are placed, forming a species of
bridge removable at pleasure, thus adding to the other means available
here for preventing the advance of an enemy. A similar road leads also
from Chatsalda towards Derkos, on the Black Sea, a distance of about
ten miles, where the right of the lines described would rest near
the Cape and Fort of Kara-bornoo. Chatsalda is also about ten miles
from the greater bridge, and fifteen or sixteen from the lesser; and,
unfortunately, is in front of the lines, or it would have formed a good
station for a depôt, or might have been the head-quarters of a force
during the healthy season of the year.... The country extending from the
Sea of Marmora to the right of the Chatsalda road is very well secured.
Thence to the Black Sea the heights become still bolder, and the valley
deeper, till the road crosses the Lesser Balkan. The course of the River
Kara-soo lies through one of the ravines peculiar to the country, which
look like abrupt cracks across the mountain ranges, and of this peculiar
formation the Bosphorus itself affords the most striking example.
"A third pass to the right leads through the lines by the village of
Kastana-Kioi, and a fourth across the heights of the Lesser Balkan
transversely by a road which leads from it along the shore to Midia,
joining one from the mouth of the Bosphorus. The three last-mentioned
roads, as well as the Chekmagees, could, if strengthened by defensive
works, be included in a position comparable with any existing."
END OF VOL. II.
LONDON:
GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, PRINTERS,
ST. JOHN'S SQUARE.
FOOTNOTES
[1] The Caimacan did not exaggerate, judging by Consul-Gen.
Mansfield's official Report, see Appendix I. p. 323, also
Appendices II. and III.
[2] These remarks of the Mutasarraf Pacha resemble those
made on the same subject by other Pachas in Asia Minor. All
these Turkish gentlemen had the same opinion of the Russian
Ambassador.
[3] See Consul Taylor's Report on this subject, Appendix XII.,
p. 363.
[4] See statement made by the Circassian Deputies, Appendices
IX. and X., p. 351-353.
[5] This extract is quoted from a remarkable pamphlet,
entitled "Circassia," published by Hardwicke in 1862.
[6] See Appendix IV., p. 333.
[7] See Routes which cross the Euphrates and Tigris, Appendix
XIV.
[8] See Importance of Syria from a Military Point of View,
Appendix XV.
[9] See Mr. Taylor's Report to the British Government on this
matter, Appendix XXII., p. 363.
[10] A small coin, but often used as a general term to express
money.
[11] Fortunately for the Turks in the present war, the Russian
cavalry has so far proved itself very inefficient.
[12] This actually happened in the first engagements in the
neighbourhood of Deli Baba.
[13] Since my stay at Erzeroum, the defences of that city have
been strengthened.
[14] Major-General Macintosh, writing in 1854 on the subject,
remarks that "in their desire to win over the Kurds, the
Russian authorities proceeded so far, that on the pretext that
they were a migratory people, they claimed a right for them to
cross the frontier for the purpose of grazing their cattle;
and that even in Turkey they should still be looked upon as
Russian subjects, and have no imports to pay on that side."
He continues, "I have no doubt it is the interest of Russia
that the Kurds should to a certain degree be weakened and
scattered, though it has been her crafty policy, while urging
or encouraging Turkey in this course (referring to attacks
upon Kurds), to pretend to be their champion and friend.
She has pursued a similar course among the Turkomans to the
eastward of the Caspian; and when in a contiguous part of Asia
I heard of dresses of honour having been given to the chiefs,
at the same time that the Shah of Persia was encouraged to
attack them from the south. The more these various tribes of
barbarians weaken themselves by their incessant conflicts,
the more they are paving the way for the dominion of such a
power as Russia."
[15] Subsequent events have proved how right General Kohlmann
was in his opinion.
[16] Fortunately during the present war the Kurds have
remained true to the Sultan, or Major-General Macintosh's
predictions might have been realized.
[17] For Importance of Syria from a Military Point of View,
see Appendix XV., p. 383.
[18] Major Millingen goes more fully into particulars about
this custom of the Kurdish women. See Appendix XIII., p. 366.
[19] See Appendix IX., p. 351.
[20] See Appendix I., p. 323.
[21] See Appendix IV., p. 337, Russian Agents and the
Massacres in Bulgaria.
[22] See Appendix VII, p. 349, The Schoolmasters in Massacre.
[23] Hamlet, i. 5.
[24] The first witness examined at this Court of Inquiry was
Sir Charles Russell, Bart., M.P. for Westminster.
[25] See Appendix IV., p. 337.
[26] See Appendix I., p. 323, The Floggers of Women and
Children.
[27] See Appendix VII., p. 349, The Schoolmasters in Massacre.
[28] See Appendix IV., p. 339.
[29] See page 333.
[30] Is this the way the Rev. Mr. Malcolm Maccoll would like
to see the union of the Eastern and Western churches brought
about?
[31] This is worth while remembering—F. B.
[32] This is worth while remembering—F. B.
[33] I extract these lines from an American paper, which
declares that they were written by the Prelate in question. To
the best of my belief the Bishop has not denied the statement
nor the sentiments which the verses express.—F. B.
[34] Daravish Bey is the last of that celebrated family. He is
nearly ruined owing to some dealings with an Armenian usurer.
[35] Bulgarians.
[36] Situated at the modern Erakler, forty miles beyond Busuk
Chekmagee.