superlative in comparing more than two. If only two roads are open to us,
we ought to say that we shall take the _shorter_.
=Exercise.=—Select the proper adjective for each of these sentences, and
give your reasons:—
1. Which would be the (_cheapest_ or _cheaper_) route—by water
or by rail?
2. Prince is the (_swifter_ or _swiftest_) horse, but Pete is
the (_stronger_ or _strongest_).
3. Which is the (_higher_ or _highest_)—the Eiffel Tower or the
Washington Monument?
4. Of the two leading candidates, Wilson and Harmon, which is
(_more likely_ or _most likely_) to be nominated?
Sometimes an ill-chosen adjective is used after the verb _feel_. The
sentence, “I feel _good_,” is correct only when it means “I feel
righteous,” while “I feel _well_,” means “I am in good health.” In this
sentence _well_ is an adjective meaning the opposite of _sick_.
NOTE.—We also have the adverb _well_, denoting manner, as in
the sentence, “LaFollette spoke _well_.”
The sentence, “Rufus looks _good_,” is correct when we mean that Rufus
looks as if he were a good man; but we should say, “Rufus looks _well_
(not _good_) in gray.” Here _well_ is an adjective meaning pleasing or
acceptable.
The limiting adjectives _this_ and _these_ should not be followed by the
word _here_. We point out sufficiently when we say _this book_, _these
books_.
The personal pronoun _them_ should never be used for the limiting
adjective _those_. We should say _those horses_, _those wagons_, _those
tents_.
If we modify a noun by the limiting adjective _each_, _every_, _either_,
_neither_, or _no_, we must use a singular pronoun to represent that
noun; as,—
Each man took _his_ appointed place.
Every girl made _her_ own costume.
Neither man lost _his_ job.
=Exercise.=—Supply the correct pronoun in each of these sentences:—
NOTE.—The masculine pronoun should be used when there is no
word in the sentence that indicates whether the male or the
female sex is referred to.
1. Everybody came and brought —— appetite.
2. Each lady contributed whatever —— chose.
3. No young person can afford to waste —— time.
4. Neither doctor will give —— assistance.
5. No day is without —— disappointments.
6. If either man calls, tell —— that I am busy.
7. Every girl in the class said that —— did not understand the
lesson.
8. Every boy wishes that —— might be president.
9. No soldier acknowledged that —— was afraid.
10. Neither chair is in —— place.
XLVII. REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES
=178.= In our study of adjectives in Lessons IX, XXVI, XXXIII, XXXVII,
XLIV, XLV, and XLVI we have learned that adjectives may be classified
as limiting adjectives and descriptive adjectives; that _which_ and
_what_ are interrogative adjectives; that adjectives have the property
of comparison; and that adjectives may be used in four different ways:
(1) before a noun to modify that noun; (2) after a noun as an appositive
modifier; (3) as a subjective complement of certain intransitive verbs,
and (4) as the objective complement of certain transitive verbs.
=Exercise.=—Make an outline of the subject, Adjectives, to recite from in
class. Illustrate each point you make with a good sentence of your own
composition.
=179.= When we parse an adjective, we should tell:—
(1) Its class,—descriptive, limiting, or interrogative.
(2) Its degree (if it admits of comparison).
(3) Its use, and what it modifies.
=Exercise.=—Parse each adjective in the following sentences:—
1. The puppy grew bigger and clumsier each day. His most
friendly overtures to the cat were wholly misunderstood.
2. Paris is an immense city, full of broad and handsome
streets, magnificent buildings, grand open places with
fountains and statues, great public gardens and parks free to
everybody.
3. His gray eyes, clear and kind, flashed like fire when he
spoke of his adventures.
4. Which picture shall we hang between these two front
windows—the little Nydia or this pretty landscape?
5. It was clear that the whelps of last spring had betaken
themselves to other and safer hunting grounds.
6. For a moment the boy felt afraid—afraid in his own woods.
7. Below us lies a lake, clear and cold, whereon fairies might
launch their airy shallops.
8. Jo Calone threw down his saddle on the dusty ground, and
turned his horses loose.
9. What fun the rabbits must have been having!
10. The full moon of October, deep orange in a clear, deep sky,
hung large and somewhat distorted just over the wooded hills.
11. For a long time pain and hunger kept me awake.
12. How sweet and demure those girls looked!
13. Do you suppose that any old Roman ever had twenty-four
different kinds of pie at one dinner?
14. There was something in their cries that sounded strangely
wild and fierce.
15. The cardinal bird drew herself up very straight, raised her
crest, and opened her big beak.
16. What harm can a naked frog do us?
17. Land in London is so valuable that a single acre of it has
been sold for four and a half million dollars.
18. The old servant made our lives miserable by her
cantankerous ways.
XLVIII. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS
=180.= When we say, “This ring was my mother’s,” we use the word _this_
as an adjective modifying the noun _ring_. When we say, “This was my
mother’s ring,” we use the one word _this_ in place of _this ring_ as
subject of the sentence, hence _this_ is no longer an adjective, but has
become a pronoun. Since its ordinary use is that of an adjective, we call
it an =adjective pronoun=.
Many limiting adjectives may be used as pronouns. We often make such
sentences as these:—
_Few_ shall part where _many_ meet.
If honor is lost, then _all_ is lost.
When _two_ or _three_ are gathered together in Thy name, Thou
wilt grant their requests.
=181.= The commonest adjective pronouns are _all_, _any_, _each_,
_either_, _few_, _first_, _former_, _last_, _little_, _many_, _more_,
_most_, _much_, _neither_, _one_, _other_, _several_, _some_, _this_,
_that_, _these_, _those_.
Make sentences containing five of these adjective pronouns.
=182.= Two adjective pronouns, _one_ and _other_, may be declined.
_Singular_ _Plural_ _Singular_ _Plural_
_Nom._ one ones other others
_Poss._ one’s ones’ other’s others’
_Obj._ one ones other others
Sentences like these are common:—
One sometimes tires of _one’s_ occupation.
Each envied the _other’s_ good fortune.
The two adjective pronouns, _one_ and _other_, may be modified by
adjectives; as, “Many others came,” “The green ones are the prettiest.”
_Each other_ and _one another_, though consisting of two words, may be
considered as one adjective pronoun.
=183.= Some adjective pronouns may be modified by articles. We say, “_The
last_ is the best of all the game,” “I like gooseberries, so I picked _a
few_.”
=Summary.=—An =adjective pronoun= is a limiting adjective used in place
of a noun.
The adjective pronouns _one_ and _other_ may be declined.
Some adjective pronouns may be modified by adjectives.
=Exercise.=—Select the adjective pronouns in these sentences. Tell the
use and case of each. Tell the noun that each pronoun stands for. Supply
this noun where you can. What part of speech does the adjective pronoun
become then?
1. This is the story of a bad boy.
2. Many of the protozoa are very beautiful. Some build shells
for themselves of strange and curious shapes.
3. The ham turned out to be a very remarkable one.
4. There is a vast difference between the styles of 1860 and
1900. The former favored Paisley shawls and flounced skirts,
the latter sanctioned the tailor-made suit and the shirt waist.
5. A little made us very happy once.
6. From time to time one or another of the leaping rabbits
would take himself off through the fir trees, while others
continued to arrive along the moonlight trails.
7. All is of God that is or is to be.
8. A bluejay and a red squirrel were loudly berating each other
for stealing.
9. The convenience of resting one’s self in the open air is one
of the comforts of Paris.
10. Each of these was a wolf of renown; most of them were
above the ordinary size; one in particular, the second in
command, was a veritable giant. Several of the band were
especially noted. One of them was a beautiful white wolf, that
the Mexicans called Blanca; this was supposed to be a female,
possibly Lobo’s mate. Another was a yellow wolf of remarkable
swiftness.
11. It is not easy to change one’s life all in a minute.
12. It is a blessed fact that one’s own home is the hub of the
universe.
13. Every one said that I was a tomboy.
14. Some wore short doublets, others jerkins, with long knives
in their belts, and most of them had enormous breeches of
similar style with that of the guide’s.
15. The years hurry onward, treading in their haste on one
another’s heels.
What noun is understood after _guide’s_ in sentence 14?
XLIX. VERBS: TENSE
=184.= Three very common words are _yesterday_, _to-day_, and
_to-morrow_. The word _yesterday_ refers to time that has gone, or
past time; _to-day_ refers to time that now is, or =present= time; and
_to-morrow_ refers to time that is to come, or =future= time.
=185.= Every event takes place in time, and so when we tell of the
occurrence of any event, we must have some way of making clear whether
that event took place in the past, or is taking place in the present, or
will take place in the future. Of course, we might tell this by adverbs
or adverbial phrases, but we have a very much better way,—we tell it by
the form of the verb we use. What time do we think of when we see the
verbs _eats_, _works_, _plays_, _sleeps_? What time is told by the verbs
_ate_, _worked_, _played_, _slept_? What change is made in the form of
the two sets of verbs? What time is told by the verbs _will eat_, _will
work_, _will play_, _will sleep_?
=186.= In the last group of verbs, where each verb consists of two words,
it is the first word _will_ that denotes future time. Such a word is
called a helping word, or =auxiliary= verb.
=187.= The change in the form of a verb to denote time is called =tense=.
=188.= Tense is a property of all verbs. It is evident that there must be
three tenses,—present, past, and future, as shown in the three sets of
verbs that have just been examined. These are called =primary= tenses.
There are three other tenses, called =secondary= tenses. We may say, “I
_have eaten_ my supper,” “I _had eaten_ my supper,” “I _shall have eaten_
my supper.” These verbs call attention not so much to the time of the
action as to the fact that it is completed, or perfected.
_Have eaten_ means that a past action is completed at the present time.
This form is called the =present perfect= tense.
_Had eaten_ means that a past action was completed before some particular
past time. This form is called the =past perfect= tense.
_Shall have eaten_ means that an action will be completed before some
definite future time. This is called the =future perfect= tense.
=Summary.=—=Tense= is that property of a verb which denotes the time of
an action or an event.
There are six tenses:—
(1) The =present tense= denotes that an action is taking place. It
usually consists of one word, the simplest form of the verb.
(2) The =past tense= denotes that an action did take place. It usually
consists of one word.
(3) The =future tense= denotes that an action will take place. It
consists of two words, one of which is the auxiliary _shall_ or _will_.
(4) The =present perfect tense= denotes that a past action is now
completed. It consists of two words, one of which is the auxiliary _have_
or _has_.
(5) The =past perfect tense= denotes that a past action was completed
before a particular past time. It consists of two words, one of which is
the auxiliary _had_.
(6) The =future perfect tense= denotes that a future action will be
completed before a particular future time. It consists of three words,
one of which is the auxiliary _have_, and another the auxiliary _shall_
or _will_.
NOTES.—1. The present tense is used also to denote (1) that
something is true at all times; as “Waste makes want,” and (2)
that something occurs habitually; as, “She teaches school.”
2. When a predicate consists of a series of verbs in the same
tense, the auxiliary is usually expressed only with the first
verb. In the sentence, “Now that he has eaten and slept, he
is ready for work,” the second verb is _has slept_, with the
auxiliary understood.
=189.= A common error is the use of the present perfect tense for the
past tense. We say, “I _have been_ in Florida several times,” because
we mean several times before now; but we say, “I _was_ in Florida last
year,” because we mean that our being there occurred in past time with
no reference whatever to the present. If we are still in Florida we may
say, “I _have been_ in Florida a long time”; but if we are no longer in
Florida we say, “I _was_ in Florida a long time.”
=Exercise 1.=—Justify the use of the past or the present perfect tense in
each of these sentences:—
1. I learned the poem last evening.
2. I have learned the poem already.
3. I bought my hat at Stone’s.
4. I have bought a new spring hat.
5. I came home last Monday.
6. I have come to stay a week.
7. I tried my skates this afternoon.
8. I haven’t tried my new skates.
9. I have walked ever since sunrise.
10. I walked from sunrise until noon.
11. I spoke to the President this morning.
12. I have never spoken to the President.
13. I spoke to him twice when I was in Washington.
14. I have spoken to him several times.
=Exercise 2.=—Using the subject _I_, form the six tenses of the following
verbs. Consult the dictionary for forms of which you are not sure.
break
bring
buy
come
drive
go
leave
love
run
see
sing
take
turn
wait
=Exercise 3.=—Select all the verbs in these sentences, and tell the tense
of each:—
1. Trees wave, flowers bloom, and bright-winged birds flit from
palm to cedar.
2. The lynx turned to the right, along a well-worn trail,
ran up a tree, descended hastily, and glided away among the
thickets.
3. Tommy and I had played together till five o’clock that
Saturday afternoon.
4. The children thought, “how long the vacation will be!” but
the mother thought, “how soon it will have come and gone.”
5. He who knows nothing fears nothing.
6. The duck had never seen a guinea egg before in all her life.
7. The boy comes nearer to perpetual motion than anything else
in nature.
8. Nobody has yet discovered how many grasshoppers a turkey
will hold.
9. I have made no addition to my cabinet since we met.
10. The big black pots swinging from the cranes had bubbled and
gurgled and sent out puffs of appetizing steam.
11. “How many pieces shall I cut this pie into?” said she.
12. I have seen wild bees and butterflies feeding at a height
of 13,000 feet above the sea.
13. You shall go to bed, and I will remain with you a few days
until you get over this fever.
14. The daisies have shut up their sleepy red eyes.
Analyze sentences 2, 3, 6, 9, 14.
L. THE INDICATIVE MODE
=190.= Each of the six verb forms that we have been studying,—I _eat_,
I _ate_, I _shall eat_, I _have eaten_, I _had eaten_, I _shall have
eaten_,—is used in the statement of a fact, and is said to be in the
=indicative mode=.
Mode is that property of a verb which denotes the manner of an assertion.
The indicative mode is used in the statement of a fact.
=191.= In some tenses there is a slight difference between the singular
and the plural form of a verb, hence verbs are said to have the property
of =number=. We should always use the verb form that agrees with the
number of the subject. In the present tense, for example, we say in the
singular, “The man _goes_;” and in the plural, “The men _go_.”
=192.= In some tenses there is a slight difference in the form of the
verb to denote person, hence verbs are said to have the property of
=person=. In the present perfect tense, we say in the first person, “I
_have_ gone;” and in the third person, “He _has_ gone.”
=193.= When we give all the forms of a verb in the three persons and the
two numbers of each tense, we are said to =conjugate= the verb.
=194.= Conjugation of the verb _be_ in the indicative mode:—
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE
_Singular_ _Plural_ _Singular_ _Plural_
I am we are I was we were
thou art you are thou wast you were
he is they are he was they were
FUTURE TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
_Singular_ _Plural_ _Singular_ _Plural_
I shall be we shall be I have been we have been
thou wilt be you will be thou hast been you have been
he will be they will be he has been they have been
PAST PERFECT TENSE
_Singular_ _Plural_
I had been we had been
thou hadst been you had been
he had been they had been
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
_Singular_ _Plural_
I shall have been we shall have been
thou wilt have been you will have been
he will have been they will have been
=195.= Conjugation of _see_ in the indicative mode:—
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE
_Singular_ _Plural_ _Singular_ _Plural_
I see we see I saw we saw
thou seest you see thou sawest you saw
he sees they see he saw they saw
FUTURE TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
_Singular_ _Plural_ _Singular_ _Plural_
I shall see we shall see I have seen we have seen
thou wilt see you will see thou hast seen you have seen
he will see they will see he has seen they have seen
PAST PERFECT TENSE
_Singular_ _Plural_
I had seen we had seen
thou hadst seen you had seen
he had seen they had seen
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
_Singular_ _Plural_
I shall have seen we shall have seen
thou wilt have seen you will have seen
he will have seen they will have seen
=Exercise.=—Conjugate the verbs in Exercise 2, p. 126, in the six tenses
of the Indicative Mode.
LI. THE INTERROGATIVE FORM OF THE INDICATIVE MODE
=196.= The indicative mode is used not only in stating facts, but also in
asking questions. In interrogative sentences the order of the words that
make up the verb is changed somewhat. In a simple statement we say, _I
have paid_. In a question we say, _Have I paid?_ putting the auxiliary
before the subject.
=197.= Conjugation of _be_ in the indicative mode, interrogative form:—
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE
am I are we was I were we
art thou are you wast thou were you
is he are they was he were they
FUTURE TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
shall I be shall we be have I been have we been
wilt thou be will you be hast thou been have you been
will he be will they be has he been have they been
PAST PERFECT TENSE
had I been had we been
hadst thou been had you been
had he been had they been
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
shall I have been shall we have been
wilt thou have been will you have been
will he have been will they have been
=198.= When we use the present and past tenses of any verb except _be_
for asking questions, we do not say _sings she?_ or _sang she?_ but _does
she sing?_ _did she sing?_ that is, we use the auxiliaries _do_ and _did_.
Conjugate the verb _see_ in the indicative mode, interrogative form.
=Exercise.=—Conjugate the verbs in Exercise 2, p. 126, in the indicative
mode, interrogative form.
=199.= The use of the negative word _not_ after a verb gives rise to
many contractions which are permissible in familiar conversation. The
contractions for which incorrect forms are often used are the following:—
isn’t
wasn’t
aren’t
weren’t
don’t
doesn’t
haven’t
hasn’t
There is no contraction for _am not_; the word _ain’t_ is incorrect.
Contractions are oftenest misused in questions. Notice the following
correct forms:—
Isn’t it too bad?
Isn’t he tall?
Isn’t she pretty?
Aren’t you cold?
Aren’t they coming?
Wasn’t it long?
Weren’t you there?
Weren’t they slow?
Don’t you believe me?
Doesn’t it hurt?
Doesn’t she work hard?
Doesn’t he like it?
Haven’t you been there?
Hasn’t he any friends?
We should be careful never to say, _you was_ or _was you_; for the
pronoun _you_, even when it denotes one person, is followed by a verb in
the plural form. We should say, “You _were_ late,” “_Were you_ late?”
“_Weren’t you_ late?”
LII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE
=200.= When we say, “If I were you, I should be a doctor,” we have a
dependent proposition, _If I were you_, which states not a fact, but an
imaginary condition. This condition is, moreover, directly contrary to
fact, for I am not you, and never can be. The verb used in expressing
such a condition is said to be in the =subjunctive= mode.
=201.= The subjunctive mode is found not only in dependent propositions
introduced by if, but in those introduced by _lest_, _whether_,
_although_, etc.
(a) Be quiet lest the baby _wake_.
(b) We cannot tell whether he _be_ the rightful heir or not.
(c) Though he _wait_ long, yet he will come at last.
In each of these sentences the subjunctive mode is used to express doubt
or uncertainty, or something imagined but not actually realized.
=202.= The subjunctive mode is so named because it is found principally
in dependent, or subjoined propositions. It is, however, found also in
independent propositions expressing a wish; as, “Long _live_ the King!”
“God _bless_ thee, dear!”
=203.= The subjunctive mode is used in the statement of something that
is uncertain; as, “If he _come_ in time, dinner will be served at six.”
This sentence means that his coming is to take place in the future, hence
we cannot tell whether it will be a fact or not. In the sentence, “If he
_comes_ in time, dinner is served at six,” we use the indicative mode
because we mean that sometimes he really does come in time.
=204.= The subjunctive mode is little used, especially in conversation;
but we find many instances of it in the Bible and in the works of
Shakespeare, hence we should understand its meaning. Nowadays, except to
express a wish, as, “Heaven _defend_ thee!” and to express a condition
contrary to fact, as, “If the ring _were_ gold, it would not discolor
your finger,” most persons use the indicative mode or some other verb
phrase. Instead of saying, “If to-morrow _be_ fair,” most persons say,
“If to-morrow _is_ fair,” or “If to-morrow _should be_ fair.” (See Lesson
LXI.)
=205.= There are four tenses in the subjunctive mode, but the forms
do not differ greatly from those of the indicative mode. There is no
interrogative form.
=206.= Conjugation of _be_ in the subjunctive mode:—
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE
I be we be I were we were
you be you be thou were you were
he be they be he were they were
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE PAST PERFECT TENSE
I have been we have been I had been we had been
thou have been you have been thou had been you had been
he have been they have been he had been they had been
=207.= Conjugation of _see_ in the subjunctive mode:—
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE
I see we see I saw we saw
thou see you see thou saw you saw
he see they see he saw they saw
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE PAST PERFECT TENSE
I have seen we have seen I had seen we had seen
thou have seen you have seen thou had seen you had seen
he have seen they have seen he had seen they had seen
=Summary.=—The =subjunctive mode= is used in an exclamative sentence
to express a wish, and in a dependent proposition to express something
contrary to fact or something uncertain.
The subjunctive mode has no future tenses.
=Exercise 1.=—Conjugate all the verbs in Exercise 2, p. 126, in the
subjunctive mode.
=Exercise 2.=—Select all the verbs in the subjunctive mode in these
sentences, and tell why that mode is used:—
1. Misery loves company—even though it be very poor company.
2. If the weather be fine, there breaks upon the eye, as
we rise higher and higher, a succession of those views of
mountain, lake and forest, which can be had only from an
elevated position.
3. The Lord be between thee and me when we are absent one from
the other.
4. If the whole world were put into one scale and my mother
into the other, the world could not outweigh her.
5. If a boy were obliged to work at nut gathering in order to
procure food for the family, he would find it very irksome.
6.
Green be the turf above thee,
Friend of my better days!
7. John convinces himself that he must watch the hawk lest it
pounce upon the chicken.
8. If chicadee seem preoccupied or absorbed, you may know that
he is building a nest.
9. If I were a millionaire, city life would be agreeable
enough, for I could always get away from it.
10.
And Death, whenever he come to me,
Shall come on the wide, unbounded sea.
11. In their hands they shall bear thee up, lest at any time
thou dash thy foot against a stone.
12.
Christ save us all from a death like this,
On the reef of Norman’s Woe!
13. If wishes were horses, beggars might ride.
14. God be merciful to us, and bless us, and show us the light
of his countenance.
15. If a man say that he hath no sin, he deceiveth himself, and
the truth is not in him.