object is =idiomatic=; that is, it is peculiar to itself in grammatical
construction. The one word _mine_ really means _my waterproof_, _his_
means _his writing_, and _yours_ means _your desk_. But we cannot say
that the noun is understood after these pronouns, for we cannot supply
it except after _his_. It is not English to say _mine waterproof_ or
_yours desk_. Instead of being understood, the nouns are included in
the pronouns. In speaking of such pronouns we may say that they are
possessive in form, but are used idiomatically as subject, object, etc.
NOTE.—The two pronouns _mine_ and _thine_ are sometimes used
to modify a noun expressed, especially in poetry; as, “Mine
eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord.” It is
worth noting that they are not used before words beginning with
a consonant sound. We do not say _mine country_, nor _thine
liberty_.
=150.= In the expression “a friend of mine,” we have in the phrase _of
mine_ a “double possessive” (see § 119); for the preposition _of_ denotes
possession, and so does the object, the possessive pronoun _mine_. In
this use there is no noun included in the pronoun. _Mine_ does not mean
_my friends_. It means _me_.
=Summary.=—The possessive pronouns _mine_, _ours_, _thine_, _yours_,
_hers_, _his_, and _theirs_ may be used idiomatically without a noun to
modify. These pronouns have then the same use that the noun would have if
it were expressed.
These pronouns may be used as the object of the preposition _of_ to form
“double possessives.”
_Mine_ and _thine_ are sometimes used to modify nouns expressed, the same
as _my_ and _thy_.
=Exercise.=—Select all the possessive pronouns in these sentences, and
tell their use:—
1. You have no uncle by your father’s side or mine.
2. To thine own self be true.
3. The people of Europe did not know that America, this great
country of ours, was in the world at all.
4. This young girl came to Wisconsin to live with an uncle of
hers who had seven sons and no daughters.
5. Early in the spring I had begun Bingo’s education. Very
shortly afterward he began mine.
6. Stand! The ground’s your own, my braves!
7. A boy who lived in a street behind ours had an awkward
three-wheeled machine that he called a “verlosophy.”
8.
He will say, “O Love, thine eyes
Build the shrine my soul abides in;
And I kneel here for thy grace.”
9. The boy saw big, clutching talons outstretched from
thick-feathered legs, while round eyes, fiercely gleaming,
flamed upon his in passing, as they searched the bush.
10. Time hath his work to do, and we have ours.
11. The sultan ordered that the princess’s attendants should
come and carry the trays into their mistress’s apartment.
12. Susie could sew like a woman, and her patchwork quilts were
masterpieces of their kind. Neither mine nor Marty’s were well
made.
13. Your worthy father was my own brother.
14. There was more joy in this little brown, battened house of
ours than in their mansion with its onyx mantels and mahogany
doors.
Are the verbs in sentences 1, 7, 10, transitive or intransitive? How do
you know?
Account for the punctuation of sentences 3, 6, 10, 12, and 14.
XLII. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS
=151.= Besides the personal pronouns that have already been considered
there are certain other forms such as _myself_ and _ourselves_, formed
by uniting the noun _self_ to a singular personal pronoun, and the noun
_selves_ to a plural personal pronoun.
These are called =compound personal pronouns=.
_First person_ myself, ourselves
_Second person_ thyself, yourself, yourselves
_Third person_ himself, herself, itself, themselves
What is the number of each of these pronouns?
=152.= Compound personal pronouns are never in the possessive case.
They never change their form for case, but are in the nominative or the
objective case according to their use. They have two main uses:—
(1) A compound personal pronoun may be used for emphasis, and is then in
apposition with the noun it makes emphatic; as, “Cæsar himself refused
the crown.” The pronoun does not always come next to the noun. We may
say, “Cæsar refused the crown himself.” The pronoun is in the same case
as the word it goes with.
(2) It may be used reflexively, that is, to show that an action comes
back to the doer of it; as, “I scratched myself with a pin.” Here the
pronoun is object of a verb, hence in the objective case.
It may also be the object of a preposition; as, “I was talking to myself.”
It may even be an indirect object; as, “She bought herself a watch.”
NOTE.—The compound personal pronoun is used as object of a
preposition in some familiar idiomatic expressions; as, “He was
_beside himself_ with joy.” “She was sitting _all by herself_.”
=Summary.=—The =compound personal pronouns= are _myself_, _ourselves_,
_thyself_, _yourself_, _yourselves_, _himself_, _herself_, _itself_, and
_themselves_.
They are commonly used for two purposes:—
(1) For emphasis, (2) reflexively.
=Exercise.=—Select and parse all the compound personal pronouns in the
following sentences. Tell their person, number, case, and use.
1. Love thyself last.
2. The men folks, having worked in the regular hours, lie down
and rest, stretch themselves idly in the shade at noon, or
lounge about after supper.
3. Very stupid people are never aware of their stupidity
themselves.
4. On cold, stormy evenings we would make ourselves toast at
the sitting room fire, and eat our supper on the little sewing
table.
5. At the more remote end of the island Legrand had built
himself a small hut.
6. A masterly retreat is in itself a victory.
7. Now make yourselves at home, and if you find an eel’s head,
you may bring it to me.
8. The little fox ground his pearly milk teeth into the mouse
with a rush of inborn savageness that must have surprised even
himself.
9. They were returning home for the holidays in high glee, and
promising themselves a world of enjoyment.
10. Pity for his gallant horse, rage and mortification at the
ridiculous plight he was in, anxiety lest he should be late
for the tournament, all combined to make the baron for a time
beside himself.
11. Rivermouth itself is full of hints and flavors of the sea.
12. I think the ugly duckling will grow up strong, and be able
to take care of himself.
13. With what awe, yet with what pride, did I look forward to
the day when I myself should enter the doorway of the high
school.
14. That I may have nobody to blame but myself should my
marriage turn out amiss, I will choose for myself.
15. Although the English and we ourselves both speak the same
tongue, we do not speak it in the same way.
16. Heaven helps those who help themselves.
Analyze sentences 1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11.
XLIII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
=153.= If we ask the question, “Who killed cock robin?” the answer may be
the declarative sentence, “The sparrow killed cock robin.” The sentences
are alike, except that in the declarative sentence _the sparrow_ is the
subject, while in the interrogative sentence _who_ is the subject. It is
clear then that _who_ is used instead of the noun _sparrow_. _Who_ is
therefore a pronoun, and since it is used in asking a question, we call
it an =interrogative pronoun=.
=154.= The other interrogative pronouns are _whose_, _whom_, _which_, and
_what_. _Whose_ is the possessive form of _who_, and is used, like other
possessive pronouns, to modify some noun expressed or understood; as,
“Whose house is the gray stone mansion on the corner?”
_Whom_ is the objective form of _who_, and is used as the object of a
verb or of a preposition; as, “Whom did he marry?” “To whom did you
speak?”
NOTE.—In conversation, the preposition governing an
interrogative pronoun is often placed at the end of the
question; as, “Whom did you come for?”
=155.= _What_ is used when we inquire for the name, not of a person but
of a thing; as, “What did he have on his head?”
=156.= _Which_ is used when we wish to know the particular one of several
persons or things; as, “Which of these moon-stones do you like best?”
=157.= In a sentence like this, “Who is that tall man?” it may be
difficult at first thought to decide whether _who_ is the subject of _is_
or the subjective complement. We can always tell by the answer. In this
case the answer is, “That tall man is Joseph Choate.” It is clear that
_Joseph Choate_ is the subjective complement, hence in the question the
word _who_, which means _Joseph Choate_, is the subjective complement.
=Summary.=—An =interrogative pronoun= is one used in asking a question.
The interrogative pronouns are _who_, _which_, and _what_.
_Who_ is declined: Nominative, _who_; possessive, _whose_; objective,
_whom_.
An interrogative pronoun has the same use in the question that the word
which takes its place has in the answer.
=Exercise.=—Select all the interrogative pronouns in these sentences.
Tell the use and case of each. Determine this by answering the question
that is asked.
Analyze sentences 1, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 15.
1. What made you so late?
2. Who is there?
3. Who is this young and handsome officer now entering the door
of the tavern?
4. Whose work is this crayon drawing of a castle in the
moonlight?
5. What do you mean by telling me such nonsense as that?
6. What may so bold a hunter kill?
7. Who should know better than I?
8. What is all this talk about the Red Flower?
9. What is gingerbread?
10. Whose is this image and superscription?
11. With whom did you take that memorable trip on Lake Superior?
12. Whose little girl are you, with your rosy cheeks and pretty
red hood?
13. Whom did the superintendent mean when he announced that the
youngest pupil in the grammar school had made one hundred in
all her examinations?
14. Which should you rather be, an artist or a poet?
15. Which shall I take, a new piano or a trip to California?
=158.= A common error in the use of interrogative pronouns is the use of
the nominative form _who_ when the objective _whom_ is required. This
error arises from the fact that the pronoun comes at the beginning of the
sentence, and is separated by intervening words from the verb or the
preposition of which it is the object, as in these sentences,—
Whom did the ball hit?
Whom do you sit with this term?
=Exercise.=—Supply the proper pronoun, _who_ or _whom_, in each of the
following sentences, and give your reasons:—
1. —— does the baby look like?
2. —— do I see in the orchard?
3. —— did you go to the station for this morning?
4. —— are you smiling at, George?
5. —— does Mr. Coburn work for now?
6. —— will open this window for me?
7. —— can we depend upon?
8. —— is that child playing with?
9. —— have you invited to your party?
10. —— can keep a secret?
XLIV. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES
=159.= We learned in Lesson IX that adjectives are used (1) to describe
objects, (2) to point them out. Adjectives are therefore divided into two
classes,—(1) =descriptive adjectives=, and (2) =limiting adjectives=.
=160.= Descriptive adjectives tell the qualities of objects. They are
very useful words, for they enable us to see things with the imagination.
In the following sentence the well-chosen adjectives make us feel that
we are looking into the very eyes of the eagle,—“His eyes, clear,
direct, unacquainted with fear, had a certain hardness in their vitreous
brilliancy, perhaps by reason of the sharp contrast between the bright
gold iris and the unfathomable pupil.”
It is also through descriptive adjectives that we are able to identify
things when we do see them. After reading this sentence we could pick out
a moose calf from a score of other animals,—“The moose calf is uncouth,
to be sure, with his high, humped fore shoulders, his long, lugubrious,
overhanging snout, his big ears set low on his big head, his little
eyes crowded back toward his ears, his long, big-knuckled legs, and the
spindling lank diminutiveness of his hind quarters.”
=161.= One variety of descriptive adjective is the adjective derived from
a proper noun; as, _Scotch_ from _Scotland_, _French_ from _France_, and
_Greek_ from _Greece_. These are called =proper adjectives=.
Proper adjectives include within themselves many other adjectives. If
we speak of a Scotch collie, a French costume, or a Grecian nose, the
listener gets the same picture that he would get if we used a long series
of other adjectives.
=162.= Many proper adjectives may be used as proper nouns, naming a class
of people, as when we speak of the Scotch, the French, the Russians, the
Americans.
What proper noun have we to name the inhabitants of Spain? of Turkey? of
Denmark? of Sweden?
What proper noun have we to designate one man who is a native of England?
of Scotland? of France? of China? Italy? Germany? What is the plural of
each of these nouns?
=Exercise.=—Supply the correct word in each of the following sentences:—
1. Three (_French_ or _Frenchmen_) spent the evening at the
house.
2. The (_French_ or _Frenchmen_) are said to be very polite.
3. Why are so many (_Scotch_ or _Scotchmen_) captains of
steamships?
4. Are the (_Irish_ or _Irishmen_) as thrifty as the Germans?
5. Are there many (_Welsh_ or _Welshmen_) in this locality?
=Summary.=—=Descriptive adjectives= are those which tell the qualities of
objects.
=Proper adjectives= are those derived from proper nouns. They always
begin with a capital letter.
=Exercise 1.=—Write a list of the proper adjectives derived from the
following proper nouns. Use them in sentences to modify appropriate nouns.
Africa
Alaska
Asia
China
Christ
Denmark
England
Germany
India
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Jew
Malta
Norway
Paris
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
Turkey
=Exercise 2.=—In the following sentences select all the descriptive
adjectives and tell what objects they describe. In so far as you can,
tell what qualities the adjectives denote, as color, size, form,
texture, surface, material, nature, etc. Account for the punctuation and
capitalization.
1. All the time the crocodile’s little eyes burned like coals
under the heavy, horny eyelids on the top of his triangular
head, as he shoved his bloated barrel body along between his
crutched legs.
2. It is a little village of great antiquity, having been
founded by some of the Dutch colonists in the early times of
the province.
3. The dog and his master hunted together, fur-wrapped boy and
savage, long-haired, narrow-eyed, white-fanged, yellow brute.
4. We always smiled to hear the judge’s wife talk about her
Turkish carpets, her little Chippendale chairs, her Wedgwood
china, and her Persian shawls.
5. This crowded, lively, and interesting thoroughfare is over
two miles long.
6. In queer little _châlets_, or Swiss huts, live the people
who attend to the cattle, and make butter and cheese.
7. The split and weatherworn rocks of the gorge had been used
since the beginning of the Jungle by the Little People of the
Rocks,—the busy, furious, black, wild bees of India.
8. At every stride the loose-hung, wide-cleft, spreading hoofs
of the moose came sharply together with a flat, clacking noise.
9. Out comes the negro pilot, and scrambles up on deck.
10. Yonder lies a Norwegian ship, with her sailors climbing the
shrouds like so many monkeys.
11. Mowgli’s voice could be heard in all sorts of wet,
starlighted, blossoming places, helping the big frogs through
their choruses, or mocking the upside-down owls that hoot
through the white nights.
XLV. LIMITING ADJECTIVES
=163.= Limiting adjectives are those which merely point out an object
without telling any quality of it. The most useful limiting adjectives
are _this_, _that_, and their plural forms _these_ and _those_. These
four words are often called =demonstrative adjectives=.
Some limiting adjectives tell number or amount, but in a somewhat
indefinite way, as _all_, _some_, _several_, _few_, _much_, _little_,
_more_, _most_.
Some tell number definitely, as _one_, _two_, _six hundred_, _three
million_, _first_, _second_, _fiftieth_.
Number words, like _one_, _two_, _three_, _four_, _five_, etc., are often
called =numeral adjectives=.
=164.= The limiting adjective _enough_ may precede or follow the noun it
modifies. We may say _enough butter_ or _butter enough_; _enough time_ or
_time enough_.
The limiting adjective _else_ always follows the noun or pronoun that it
modifies. We say _who else_, _nobody else_, _everybody else_, _nothing
else_.
=165.= When the interrogative pronouns _which_ and _what_ are used to
modify a noun, as in _which picture?_ _what city?_ they cease to be
pronouns, and become limiting adjectives. Since they are used to ask
questions, we call them =interrogative adjectives=.
NOTE.—_Which_ and _what_, when used as adjectives, are
sometimes called =pronominal adjectives=.
=166.= Three very common words, _a_, _an_, and _the_, are classed with
limiting adjectives. They are called =articles.= _The_ is a =definite
article=; _an_ and _a_ are the =indefinite article=. _A_ is really the
same word as _an_, but when it is used before a word beginning with a
consonant sound, as _bicycle_, the _n_ is dropped for the sake of a more
pleasing sound.
=167.= We use _the_ when we wish to specify a particular object, and _an_
or _a_ when we do not care to be specific. What is the difference between
these sentences?
The man on horseback came to the turn in the road.
A man on horseback came to a turn in the road.
=168.= We use _the_ before a singular noun to designate a whole class of
objects; as, “The oak is a sturdy tree,” “The cow is a domestic animal.”
=169.= We repeat the article when we wish to denote more than one person
or thing. What is the difference between these pairs of sentences?
(_a_) The secretary and treasurer came late.
(_b_) The secretary and the treasurer came together.
(_a_) I saw a red and green signal.
(_b_) I saw a red and a green signal.
=170.= We use _an_ or _a_ after the adjectives _many_ and _such_ instead
of before them; as, _many_ a man, _such_ a storm.
=171.= The sentence, “I have _few_ books,” means I have few compared
with many; but the sentence, “I have _a few_ books,” means I have a few
compared with none. What is the difference in meaning between these
sentences?
I have little time for sewing.
I have a little time for sewing.
=Summary.=—=Limiting adjectives= are those which merely point out.
Limiting adjectives that denote a definite number are called =numerals=.
_Which_ and _what_ may be used as =interrogative adjectives=.
The =articles= are _the_, _an_, and _a_.
_The_ is a =definite article=. _An_ and _a_ are =indefinite articles=.
=Exercise 1.=—Select all the limiting adjectives, including articles, and
tell what they modify. Give reasons for the articles used.
1. What business brings you here?
2. In that same village, and in one of these very houses, there
lived, many years since, a simple, good-natured fellow of the
name of Rip Van Winkle.
3. Every change of season, every change of weather, indeed,
every hour of the day, produces some change in the magical hues
and shapes of these mountains.
4. Which fan did your mother carry when she was a young lady in
Maine?
5. Lobo had only five followers during the latter part of his
reign.
6. What excuse shall I make to Dame Van Winkle?
7. The dog managed so that each fresh rush should be toward the
settlement.
8. No wild animal dies of old age.
9. Which part in the play of _Julius Cæsar_ did Edwin Booth
take?
10. When this dog of marvelous wind saw that the wolf was dead,
he gave him no second glance.
11. After much pains on my behalf and many pains on his, Bingo
learned to go at the word in quest of our old yellow cow.
12.
I only ask a hut of stone,
A very plain brown stone will do,
That I may call my own;
And close at hand is such a one
In yonder street that fronts the sun.
13. No other living thing can go so slow as a boy sent on an
errand.
14. What courage can withstand the ever-during and
all-besetting terrors of a woman’s tongue?
=Exercise 2.=—Classify the words _which_ and _what_ in the following
sentences as interrogative pronouns or interrogative adjectives. Where
they are pronouns, tell their case. Where they are adjectives, tell what
they modify.
1. What have you in your basket?
2. What manner of man is this?
3. Which of these pictures did you paint?
4. Which is it, a toadstool or a mushroom?
5. Which city has the larger population?
6. Which boy threw the stone?
7. What stone did he throw?
8. What did the man come for?
9. What do you want?
10. Which will you take?
XLVI. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
=172.= Since different objects may possess the same quality in different
degrees, there must be some means of telling this. We do it by changing
the form of adjectives. For instance, wool, snow, and feathers have
the same quality of softness, but not in the same degree, so we say
that wool is _soft_, snow is _softer_, and feathers are _softest_. This
change in the adjective soft to denote the degree of softness is called
=comparison=.
=173.= Comparison is a =property= of adjectives. There are three
=degrees= of comparison,—the =positive=, the =comparative=, and the
=superlative=.
The positive degree denotes the simple quality, the comparative degree
denotes more or less of this quality, and the superlative denotes most or
least of this quality. When we give the three forms of an adjective, we
are said to =compare= it. We compare _bold_ by saying: positive, _bold_;
comparative, _bolder_; superlative, _boldest_; or positive, _bold_;
comparative, _less bold_; superlative, _least bold_.
=174.= Comparison is denoted in three ways:—
(1) By adding the suffixes _er_ and _est_. These are added to adjectives
of one syllable, and to a few of two syllables; as, _fine_, _finer_,
_finest_; _lovely_, _lovelier_, _loveliest_.
(2) By prefixing the adverbs _more_ and _most_. This method is used in
comparing longer adjectives; as, _spacious_, _more spacious_, _most
spacious_; _disagreeable_, _more disagreeable_, _most disagreeable_.
(3) By prefixing the adverbs _less_ and _least_; as, _rough_, _less_
_rough_, _least rough_; _elegant_; _less elegant_, _least elegant_. This
is a mode of comparing adjectives on a descending scale instead of an
ascending scale.
=175.= Some adjectives cannot be compared at all; as, _asleep_, _dead_,
_correct_, _round_, _square_, _principal_. Instead of saying _rounder_,
we may say _more nearly round_.
=176.= Some adjectives are compared irregularly. The following are
examples:—
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
good better best
ill worse worst
bad worse worst
many more most
much more most
little less least
far farther _or_ further farthest _or_ furthest
=Summary.=—=Comparison= in an adjective is a change of form to express
quality or quantity in different degrees.
There are three =degrees= of comparison,—=positive=, =comparative=, and
=superlative=.
Short adjectives are compared by adding the suffixes _er_ and _est_.
Longer adjectives are compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_.
Many adjectives may be compared on a descending scale by prefixing _less_
and _least_.
=Exercise.=—Select all the adjectives, and tell the kind and the degree
of each. Compare each adjective. If any cannot be compared, state that
fact.
1. There was nothing in these woods bigger than a weasel.
2. The way led through the deepest and most perilous part of
the swamp.
3. This brother was younger and handsomer, and much more
amiable than William.
4. As she grew older, she became less exacting and more
tolerant, less certain and more hopeful, less vigorous in body,
but gentler in manner and sweeter in spirit.
5. The Hotel de Cluny is one of the quaintest, queerest,
pleasantest, and most homelike places we are likely to meet
with.
6. The other captive was of a more restless temperament,
slenderer in build, more eager and alert of eye, less
companionable of mood.
7. Least vague of all was the terror of the usually unterrified
weasel.
8. Those men are most apt to be obsequious and conciliating
abroad, who are under the discipline of shrews at home.
9. At the least flourish of a broomstick or a ladle, Wolf would
fly to the door with yelping precipitation.
10. The lynx was smaller than her mate, somewhat browner in
hue, leaner, and of a peculiarly malignant expression.
11. The women of the village used to employ Rip to do such
little odd jobs as their less obliging husbands would not do
for them.
12. The singing master’s hair was a little longer, his hands
were a little whiter, his shoes a little thinner, his manner a
trifle more polished than that of his soberer mates.
Tell the use of adjectives in sentences 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12.
=177.= Sometimes errors are made in the use of adjectives.