from the catacombs, such as the statues of the good shepherd and
S. Hippolitus now in the Vatican, or the numerous bas reliefs on
Christian sarcophagi (on which see Raoul-Rochette, Tableau des
Catacombes, c. IV. Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. B. 2, in the
description of the Christian Museum in the Vatican Library). On
another class of Christian representations the reader may consult
Buonarruoti's _Osservazioni sopra alcuni frammenti di vetro, ornati
di figure_. We shall rather call the attention of the Christian
antiquarian to the numerous frescoes painted in the chapels of the
catacombs, and illustrated by Bosio, Bottari, d'Agincourt etc.,
the latter of whom attributes some of them to the second century on
account of the similarity of their style to that of frescoes in the
tomb of the Nasones, which is situated on the Flaminian way at a short
distance from Rome; his opinion is confirmed by the fact that some of
them have been broken through, with the view of preparing a place of
burial for the bodies of martyrs slain in _subsequent persecutions_.
A list of their subjects which are _generally_ taken from the old and
new Testaments may be seen in Raoul-Rochette (c. 3, p. 157 foll. ed.
de Brusselles). Of these we may briefly notice in particular some of
the representations of Christ, of the B. Virgin, of the apostles and
martyrs. In them Christ sometimes appears as an infant on the lap
of His holy mother, Who ever pure and modest is always veiled; and
this lovely group is found not only on these paintings, but also on
bas-reliefs and glass-vessels generally anterior to the 4th century,
and consequently to the general council of Ephesus held in 431;
although it is pretended that such figures were first designed after
that period. (Instances are enumerated by Raoul-Rochette c. VI).
Constantina, daughter of Constantine, whose tomb is still preserved
at Rome, begged of Eusebius bishop of Cesarea a likeness of our Divine
Saviour (Concil. Labbe. t. VII, 493 seq): we must have recourse to
the catacombs for His most ancient portraits. See one resembling
the ordinary type of His sacred head and taken from the cemetery of
Calixtus, at the end of Raoul-Rochette's work. This type, repeated
again and again on Christian monuments during the last sixteen hundred
years or more, may suggest the hope that some traces of our Divine
Saviour's features are still preserved among us, notwithstanding
the diversity of His portraits, of which S. Augustine complained, De
Triniti l. 8, c, 4 5. Raoul-Rochette's opinion, that this likeness and
the portraits of the apostles were of Gnostic origin, is altogether
unsupported, as the Belgian editors of his work justly observe. Christ
is frequently represented also as seated amid His apostles, of whom
SS. Peter and Paul were favourite subjects of the old artists: see
Raoul-Rochette c. VI, where he mentions, after the older antiquaries,
the ancient representations of S. Ciriaca, S Priscilla, SS. Stephen,
Cyprian, Laurence, Agnes, and other martyrs. During Diocletian's
persecution, the provincial council of Eliberis in Spain decreed, that
there should be no paintings on the walls of churches: its 36th canon
was evidently intended to save sacred pictures from the profanations
perpetrated by the pagans. The faithful however, fertile in
expedients to gratify their devotion, now began to use those portable
representations of pious subjects called diptychs, because they
generally consisted of two tablets which could at pleasure be _folded_
together. They were formed of ivory or wood, and resembled the
presents of that name formerly sent by the consuls on the day of their
entrance into office: on these were usually inscribed the names and
the portraits of the new magistrates. (Symmachus lib. 2, ep. 80, all
71). The sacred diptychs, of which many are preserved in the Vatican
Library, were easily saved from the fury of the Iconoclasts. Their
folding form without their portability is preserved in many of the
ancient altar-pieces of Italian and other churches and from them the
modern altar-pieces are derived: they did not however supersede the
use of frescoes, or mosaics, as is evident from innumerable ancient
and modern ecclesiastical monuments of this city. In the preceding
chapter we laid before our readers the doctrine of the catholic church
concerning respect paid to images, p. 80.]
[Footnote 124: "He is risen; he is not here. But _go, tell_ his
disciples and _Peter_, that he goeth before you into Galilee". Mark
XV, 6 7.]
[Footnote 125: This Hebrew word, which frequently occurs in psalms
of praise, CIV, 34, CV, 45, CVI, 1, etc. has been preserved, as well
as _Amen_, and _Sabaoth_, in its original form in most liturgies.
According to S. Gregory (Ep. 64, ind. 2). who appeals to S. Jerome's
authority, it was introduced into the Roman liturgy in the time of
Pope Damasus. S. Gregory forbade it to be sung at funerals, (as it had
been at that of Fabiola: S. Jerome in Epitaphio Fabiolæ;) or during
Lent.]
[Footnote 126: Gavant and others, following Walafridus Strabo and the
abbot Berno, think that the Offertory and _Agnus Dei_ are not said,
in order to signify the silence of the holy women returning from the
sepulchre (Mark XVI, 8). Others attribute some of these omissions
to the circumstance, that there is no communion; on this day, and
therefore neither offertory or postcommunion; anciently however
communion was given on this occasion, as is evident from the Gelasian
sacramentary (See Bened. XIV, De Festis c. VIII). The kiss of peace,
as Grancolas observes, is not given, because formerly at the dawn of
easter-sunday, soon after the mass of easter-eve, the faithful used to
assemble in the church "and kissing one another with mutual charity to
say, _Surrexit Dominus_ "; (the Lord is risen) Ordo Rom. ab Hittorpio
ed. p. 55. Merati says, that the _Agnus Dei_ is omitted because it
is of recent origin, having been first introduced into the liturgy by
Pope Sergius A.D. 688 (lib. Pont.), whereas the Mass of the day is of
greater antiquity.]
[Footnote 127: Cancellieri says that the music of this _Magnificat_
was composed by Luca Marenzio. Among the compositions prior to
Palestrina, and still sung in the papal chapel, Baini reckons the
Magnificats of Carpentrasso and Morales, as well as the _Te Deum_
and _Lumen ad revelutionem gentium_ of Costanzo Festa.]
[Footnote 128: This basilic, which is the cathedral of the bishop of
Rome, was first erected by Constantine, whose statue taken from his
baths adorns the portico. It was in great part destroyed by fire in
1308; but it was restored by the munificence of the Popes and the
piety of the faithful, emulated in these days, in which we deplore the
burning of S. Paul's. In the gothic tabernacle over the high altar are
preserved the heads of SS. Peter and Paul. The mosaics of the tribune
were made by order of Nicholas IV (A.D. 1278-1292).]
[Footnote 129: This baptistery, as well as the basilica, is attributed
to the time of Constantine; it was reduced to its present state by
Urban VIII; On an ancient and interesting Christian sarcophagus taken
from the Vatican cemetery is represented a basilica with its apsis,
and near it a circular building evidently meant for the baptistery:
this is covered with a cupola surmounted by the monogram of
Christ; and over the gate are curtains drawn up on each side, See
Raoul-Rochette-Tableau des Catacombs, p. 332. The font is an ancient
urn of basalt the paintings above it, between the second order of
columns, representing, the life of S. John Baptist, are by Carlo
Maratta.]
[Footnote 130: In a missal of Pavia it is called a figure of the
column which preceded the Israelites going out of Egypt.]
[Footnote 131: The stag was a favourite subject of the early Christian
artists, who often represented it in their paintings, and afterwards
on their mosaics. The text above quoted explains its signification.]
[Footnote 132: "In most of the old rituals we find that the font was
hallowed with various ceremonies besides prayer. It was customary
to make the sign of the cross, as we learn from the testimony of
Chrysostom, Augustine, and Pseudo-Dionysius". Palmer vol. 2, p. 195.
Martene observes that the rite of pouring chrism into the water
is mentioned in all the ancient Gallican, Ambrosian, and Mozarabic
liturgies. The blessing of baptismal water is reckoned by S. Basil,
in the 4th century, among apostolical traditions. (De Spiritu. S. c.
27).]
[Footnote 133: "Some form of admission to the class of catechumens was
used in all churches at an early period, and it seems most commonly
to have consisted of imposition of hands with prayers for the person.
To this in many places were added various rites, such as, signing the
forehead of the candidate with the cross, the consecration and giving
of salt, which was entitled the sacrament of catechumens, repeated
exorcisms, or prayers and adjurations to cast out the power of Satan,
anointing with oil, and other mystical and figurative rites. In the
course of many ages, when the Christian church had overspread the face
of the world, and infidelity had become in most places extinct, the
form of admission to the class of catechumens was from a veneration
for old customs in many places conjoined to the office of baptism,
and administered at the same time with it to the candidates for that
sacrament whether they were infants or not". Palmer, vol. 2, c. 5,
sect. 1.]
[Footnote 134: "It has been customary in the Christian church from
the most remote period, for the candidates for baptism to renounce the
devil and all his works, before they were admitted to that sacrament.
This renunciation was always followed by a profession of faith in
Christ, as it is now in the English liturgy. The last interrogation
and answer "Vis baptizari, Volo" have long been used in the west.
(Martene de Antiq. Eccl. rit. tom. I, p. 180, 192). According to the
ancient custom of the Roman church, represented in the Sacramentary of
Gregory, the profession of faith occurs between the hallowing of the
water and the administration of the sacrament. This custom has long
been used in the Roman church; since the Sacramentary of Gelasius
(A.D. 494) appointed the confession of faith to be made immediately
before baptism, _though the renunciations were made some hours
before_. In primitive times the sign of the cross was not only made
on the forehead of the elect at the time of baptism, but was used very
often in other ways: this act is probably not more recent than the
apostolical age; and this sign was made in some part of almost every
Christian office. The administration of baptism was succeeded by
various rites in the primitive church; among other the newly-baptised
were clothed in white garments. Formerly also confirmation followed
immediately after baptism". I have extracted the preceding passages
from different sections of Palmer's 5th chapter, vol. 2: coming from a
clergyman of the church of England, they are important admissions, and
they dispense with the necessity of my proving the antiquity of these
various baptismal riles. The reader may see proofs of them collected
in Palmer (loc. cit.) Martene T. 1: cap. 2, etc.]
[Footnote 135: Palmer says, that in confirmation, to the rites of
prayer and imposition, of hands was added "that of anointing with an
unguent or chrism, made of oil and balsam, and hallowed by the prayers
of the bishop.--We learn from the writings of Tertullian and Origen,
that it was already customary both in the east and the west at the end
of the 2nd or beginning of the 3rd century. This chrism was intended
to signify the grace of the Holy Spirit then conferred". Palmer,
Or. Lit. vol. 2, p. 199. If this unction had not been of apostolic
origin, it would not have been customary in all churches at so early
a period.]
[Footnote 136: At S. John Lateran's, when the _Agnus Dei_ is said, the
ancient custom is preserved, which was originally established by Pope
Sergius, of saying _Miserere nobis_ three times, and not _Dona nobis
pacem_, which words were introduced into the liturgy, (according
to Innocent III, De Myst Missæ) about the 10th century, in time of
schism.]
[Footnote 137: Orders are generally conferred on the saturday of each
ember-week, besides the saturday before passion and easter sundays.
A minute detail of the numerous ceremonies of ordination can not be
expected in a work on the ceremonies of holy-week. The reader may find
them all enumerated in the Pontifical, and on their antiquity he may
consult Morinus, De Ordinationibus; Martene, De Ant. Eccl. Rit. t.
2. etc. On the service of holy saturday see the MS. Pontifical of
the Apamean church and various Ordines ap. Martene, lib. IV, c. 24.
Formerly after the mass there was general communion; and at Rome no
Vespers were said (Alcuin), and 7 altars were consecrated.]
[Footnote 138: In the afternoon the parish-priests bless with prayers
and holy water the houses and paschal food of their parishioners.
In the Ordo Romanus, besides the blessing of milk and honey, there
is a formula of benediction of a lamb and other food. Durandus
also (lib. 6 Ration.) mentions the blessing of the lamb, a custom
which is preserved at Rome till the present time. The shops of the
_pizzicaroli_ are illuminated and gaily decorated, probably because
_they_ have peculiar reasons to rejoice at the conclusion of the
_austerities_ of lent.]
[Footnote 139: For the ceremonies of Easter-sunday see The Pontifical
Mass sung at S. Peter's on Easter-sunday etc. By C.M. Baggs. D.D. Rome
1840.]
APPENDIX
PECULIAR CEREMONIES OF HOLY-WEEK AT JERUSALEM
Having spoken of the blessing of the paschal candle at Rome, we may
for a few moments turn our thoughts towards a city still more ancient,
and trodden by holier and more exalted beings than even the apostles
and martyrs of the eternal city. The justly-celebrated traveller John
Thevenot in his Voyage du Levant describes the ceremonies of holyweek
performed at Jerusalem; the distribution of palms, the washing of the
feet on Maunday-Thursday at the door of the holy Sepulchre; and the
procession to the holy places or stations performed by the Catholic
Christians. Concerning this the eloquent Pere Abbé de Geramb, in his
interesting Pelerinage at Jerusalem in 1832, informs us that "by means
of a figure in relief of the natural size, whose head, arms, and feet
are flexible, the religious represent the crucifixion, the descent
from the cross, and the burial of Jesus Christ, in such manner as
to render all the principal circumstances apparent to the senses and
striking".
Both these distinguished writers of different periods agree in
testifying, that all the devotions of the Catholics were and are still
conducted with so much order that they are admired both by Christians
and Turks, whereas those of the schismatical Christians took place
with much confusion, and with such a noise, that the Janissaries, who
had to preserve order, were obliged to strike the persons engaged in
them as well as the spectators. This statement is confirmed by the
account, which they and other travellers give, of the _holy fire_
of the Greeks and other schismatics. Benedict XIV observes that no
mention is made of the supposed miracle of the holy fire by early
Christian writers who lived at Jerusalem; as Eusebius, S. Jerome, S.
Epiphanius, or S. Cyril bishop of Jerusalem. It is however spoken of
by Bernard a Frank monk of the ninth century, and in a Pontifical
of the church of Poictiers of about the tenth century: by Hugo
Flaviniacensis in Chronico Virdunensi, in the discourse of Urban II
in the council of Claremont, and in other documents of the middle
ages mentioned by Martene (lib. IV, c. XXIV). Lupi (tom. 4, Conc. gen.
etc.) thinks it probable, that the custom of burning lights and the
paschal candle on this day was instituted, in order to return thanks
to God for a miracle (which _may_ of old have happened at Jerusalem)
and to announce it to all nations.
I shall now extract a brief account of the scene of confusion enacted
in modern times at Jerusalem on such occasions from Thevenot, in whose
work is a print representing it. "After our Catholic office was ended"
says he, "we prepared to enjoy the sight of the holy fire of the
Greeks, Armenians and Copts, whose priests make their people believe,
that on holy Saturday fire descends from heaven into the holy
Sepulchre, and on that account make each of their pilgrims, who are
very numerous, pay some money. This solemnity appears rather a comedy
or a farce than a church-ceremony, and is very unbecoming in a place
so sacred as the holy Sepulchre. After we had finished our service,
which was about eight in the morning, they, extinguished all their
lamps and those of the holy Sepulchre, and then they commenced their
folly, running round the holy Sepulchre, like mad people, crying,
howling, _et faisans un bruit de diables_; it was charming to see
them running one after another, kicking and striking one another with
cords; many of them together held men in their arms, and going round
the holy Sepulchre, let them fall, and then raised horrible shouts
of laughter, while they who had fallen ran after the others to avenge
themselves: it seemed that both old and young were downright mad. From
time to time they raised their eyes, and stretched their hands, full
of taper, to heaven, crying all together _eleison_, as if they were
wearied at the delay of the holy fire. This scene continued till
towards three in the evening, when two Greek archbishops and two
bishops habited as patriarchs, for the patriarch was not then at
Jerusalem, left their choir with all their clergy, and began
the procession round the holy Sepulchre: they were joined by the
Armenians, four of whom wore mitres: then came a Coptic bishop, with
all his clergy and people. After they had walked three times round the
holy Sepulchre, a Greek priest came out of the chapel of the Angel,
which is close to that of the holy Sepulchre, and gave notice to him
who represented the Patriarch, that the holy fire had descended from
heaven: the latter then entered into the holy Sepulchre, followed
by the representatives of the Armenian patriarch and of the Coptic
bishop. After they had remained there a short time, we saw the Greek
archbishop in an amusing posture, bending down his head, and bearing
in each hand a quantity of lighted tapers. No sooner had he appeared,
than all rushed one upon another to light their tapers from those of
the archbishop; as that is considered the best fire, which is first
lighted. The Janissaries however, who were stationed near the door
of the chapel of the Angel, did not stand with their arms folded, but
made the calpacs and turbans of the Greeks fly from one end of the
church to the other, striking around on all sides with their sticks,
to make way for the poor archbishop, who also as we may suppose
did all in his power to save himself. He then mounted in haste a
stone-altar opposite the entrance of the holy Sepulchre, where he was
immediately surrounded by the people: those also who had lighted their
tapers endeavouring to save themselves were overwhelmed by the others:
the confusion was horrible, and blows were not unfrequent. After the
Greek archbishop has come out, the Armenian appears, and saves himself
from the crowd in the church of the Armenians, and the Copt in that
of the Copts. Every one was in such a hurry to get some of the holy
fire, that in a moment more than 2000 bundles of candles flamed in
the church: and the people, crying out like persons possessed began
greater follies than before. A man carrying a drum on his back began
to run with all his might round the holy Sepulchre, and another
running in the same manner struck it with two sticks; and when he
was tired, another immediately took his place. "_Il semble qu'
on soit dans un enfer, et que ce soient tout autant de diables
déchainès_."--But enough of this unedifying scene, of which the Abbé
Geramb gives a similar account. If we contrast with it the majestic
and edifying ceremonies of the Roman church, we shall feel grateful
to God for having preserved us from such disorders. I shall merely add
from Thevenot, that the Christians are called to office at the holy
Sepulchre by boards struck with iron, as we are for two days in
holy-week: but drums and other instruments are also played there,
which make, he (adds), "une musique enragée".
The distinguished missionary and pilgrim D. Casto Gonzalez recounts
other disorders of the Greeks during Holy Week, and profanations of
the most holy sanctuaries of Palestine. In the year 1833 he exposed,
but not without great risk, the fraud of the "holy fire". On the
holy-Saturday of the Greeks the officiating Bishop accompanied by an
Armenian and a Coptic Bishop and their respective clergy had already
walked thrice round the holy Sepulchre, when the missionary ignited a
match with phosphorus, and holding it up exclaimed "Look, the heavenly
fire has fallen into my hands": he then extinguished it and lighted
it again several times to the great astonishment of the assembled
multitude. He was protected by the Turks from the dangers which
surrounded him. So manifest was the fraud of the pretended "holy fire"
that even the schismatical Armenian patriarch issued a circular letter
forbidding his spiritual subjects to be present at the disgraceful
exhibition.
The Pere Abbé de Geramb gives a glowing account of the Catholic
service and mass on holy saturday; and we most warmly recommend to our
readers the perusal of the 34th _Lettre_ of his _Pelerinage_, in which
he describes all the ceremonies of holy week at Jerusalem, where they
are invested with the peculiar charm arising from spots so sacred,
where Christ suffered, and died, and rose again. Though in other
respects the Roman ceremonies are of a more exalted nature, yet here
must we be contented to transport ourselves in imagination to those
beloved sanctuaries, and to see the _representation_ of the holy
Sepulchre at S. Maria Egiziaca. We shall conclude with the words of
the distinguished writer: "Jamais douleur n'affecta plus vivement mon
àme, que celle qui s'en empara au moment où je m'arrachai pour jamais
de l'église du saint Sepulcre. Taut que je vivrai elle sera aussi
présente à mon esprit que profondément gravée dans mon coeur; toujours
souvenir me fera tressaillir, parce que toujours, et plus qu' aucun
autre souvenir, il me rappellera Jésus, crucifié pour mon salut, pour
la salut du genre humain, à l'amour duquel nous devons repondre par le
plus vif, le plus tendre, le plus absolu de tous les amours; ce Jésus
auquel je dois l'ineffable bonheur de comprendre, de sentir cette
grande verité, que je voudrais faire comprendre et sentir a l'univers
entier, que lui seul est tout, que tout ce qui n'est pas lui, n'est
rien, n'est que neant". Pelerinage à Jerusalem, Lett. 36.