Third Annual Report of Poor-Law Commissioners—Further Amendment
Act—Fourth Annual Report—New unions and electoral
divisions—Consolidated Debts Act—Rates in aid—Fifth Annual
Report—Annuities under Consolidated Debts Act—Treasury minute—Act to
amend Acts relating to payment of advances—Medical charities—Medical
Charities Act—First Report of Medical Charity Commissioners—Census of
1851—Retrospection—Sixth Annual Report—Rate of wages—Expenditure, and
numbers relieved—Changes in Poor-Law executive—New order of
accounts—Author’s letter to Lord John Russell, 1853—Present state and
future prospects of Ireland.
The period comprised in the last chapter was one of great suffering and
privation. Famine and pestilence prevailed throughout Ireland, to an
extent only equalled by what is said to have occurred in some rare
instances among eastern nations, if indeed it has ever been equalled in
the world’s history. It was altogether a fearful visitation. I have
endeavoured to compress the chief incidents of the period, more
especially those at all connected with the administration of the Poor
Law, into one chapter, in order to place consecutively before the reader
such a condensed account of the great calamity, as will prevent the
necessity of again recurring to it. We will now turn to the brighter and
more hopeful period which followed—when famine and disease having
disappeared, the energies of the country revived, and all classes united
in making strenuous efforts to remedy the evils which had taken place,
and as far as possible to prevent their recurrence.
[Sidenote: 1850.
Third annual report of the Poor-law Commissioners for Ireland.]
The third Annual Report of the commissioners is dated 25th May 1850, and
continues the narrative of events and proceedings from the date of the
preceding Report.
[Sidenote: Decrease of relief.]
The maximum number in the workhouses during the year 1849-50, was
227,329 on the 16th June of the first-named year, and the maximum on the
out-relief lists was 784,367 on the 7th July. From these dates the
numbers went on rapidly decreasing throughout the succeeding months,
until on the 6th October the inmates of the workhouses were reduced to
the minimum of 104,266, and the number on the out-relief lists to
124,185, all orders for relief under the _2nd section_ of the Extension
Act being likewise then withdrawn. This sufficiently proves the change
which took place shortly after the date of the last Report.
[Sidenote: The crops generally sound and abundant.]
The crops in the autumn of 1849 turned out generally sound and abundant,
and famine no longer cast its blight upon the land. Yet while all other
parts of the country, including Mayo and Galway heretofore the most
depressed and suffering, rejoiced in the favourable change, we are told
that the unions in the county of Clare, especially those of Kilrush and
Scariff, continued to exhibit a lamentable extent of destitution. There
were still 30,000 persons on the out-relief lists in the Clare unions,
nearly twice the number so relieved in the whole province of Connaught;
“and the rate of mortality in the workhouses, and the number of
inquests, although less than in former seasons, attest the indigent and
suffering state of a great part of the population.” [Sidenote: Reduction
of expenditure anticipated.] A hope is nevertheless expressed “that the
ground has been laid for a further very considerable reduction of
expenditure after harvest, and that a material alleviation of the burden
of poor-rates throughout Ireland, will be experienced during the year
which will end on the 29th September 1851.”
[Sidenote: Increase of workhouse accommodation.]
The large increase of workhouse accommodation which the last Report
states to have been provided,[181] and the opinion which generally
prevailed as to the importance of limiting relief as much as possible to
the workhouse, appear to have realized the hope then expressed of
successfully contending with the difficulties of the period. The large
expenditure, amounting to 1,498,047_l._, connected with in-door relief
in 1848-9, shows the determined character of the struggle, and although
only partial success in establishing the system was obtained, events
have shown the prudence of the course then pursued. When the boards of
guardians which had been dissolved, resumed the charge of their unions
in November, as provided by the _12th and 13th Vict. cap. 4_,[182] they
not only evinced a desire to limit relief to the workhouse, but were
also with few exceptions prepared to make a further increase of their
workhouse accommodation wherever it appeared to be necessary. So that
“the change from out-door relief to the safer system of relief in the
workhouse, has (it is said) been found practicable throughout a large
part of Ireland, not excepting some districts which suffered most
severely during the famine.” [Sidenote: Decrease of out-door relief.]The
conclusion of the harvest was as usual followed by an increase of
applicants for relief, but the extent of workhouse accommodation being
now greater by 70,000 than in the previous year, out-door relief instead
of increasing actually continued to decrease until the end of December,
when the numbers so relieved amounted to 95,468, the number in the
workhouses being then 194,547. At the end of March 1850, the number on
the out-relief lists was 131,702, and in the workhouses 224,381, the
sanitary state of the houses being at the same time satisfactory. No
out-door relief whatever was then administered in 51 of the unions, and
at the date of the Report the number of unions thus exempt was increased
to 58.
-----
[181]
Ante, p. 351.
[182]
Ante, p. 355.
-----
[Sidenote: 24 new unions formed.]
The recommendations of the Boundary Commissioners have been already
noticed.[183] In carrying out these recommendations, the proposed
arrangement of the electoral divisions was generally adhered to; but
with regard to the new unions, it was not thought advisable to make the
entire of the changes recommended. The commissioners have, they say,
“refrained from forming such new unions in districts where it appeared
that there was a preponderance of opinion against it, on the part of
those who would be locally affected by the change, unless where the
necessity for new union centres appeared, in a territorial point of
view, to be placed beyond doubt.” Orders were however issued for the
formation of 24 new unions,[184] and forms of procedure were prepared
for adjusting the liabilities of townlands in unions and electoral
divisions of which the boundaries were altered, in accordance with the
provisions of the _12th and 13th Vict. cap. 104_. This Act now requires
our attention, some of its provisions being of considerable importance.
-----
[183]
Ante, p. 361.
-----
-----
[184]
These were Belmullet, Killala, Dromore West, Newport, Oughterard,
Skull, Castletown, Clonakilty, Tulla, Killadysert, Corrofin,
Ballyvaghan, Portumna, Mount Bellew, Glennamaddy, Strokestown,
Claremorris, Tobercurry, Glin, Croom, Millstreet, Mitchelstown,
Bawnboy, and Ballymahon.
-----
[Sidenote: The _12th and 13th Vict. cap. 104_.]
_The 12th and 13th Vict. cap. 104_, was passed on the 1st August 1849,
‘to further Amend the Acts for the Relief of the Destitute Poor in
Ireland;’ and the following is a summary of its provisions:—
_Section 1._—Provides that every person applying for relief, is to be
deemed chargeable to the electoral division in which during the last
three years he has been longest usually resident, whether by
occupying a tenement or usually sleeping therein;—provided that if
he have not been so usually resident for at least one of the said
three years, the expense of his relief is to be borne by the union
at large.
_Section 2._—Requires the Poor Law Commissioners in all cases where a
change is made in the boundaries of any union or electoral division,
to make such order under seal as appears to them to be necessary for
the adjustment of the liabilities existing at the time of such
change, and the proportionate share thereof to be borne by any
townland affected thereby, and likewise for indemnifying any union
electoral division or townland for any loss on exchange of property
occasioned by such alteration of boundaries.
_Sections 3, 4, 5._—On the formation of new unions, the commissioners
are empowered to prescribe the arrangements for the joint use of the
existing workhouses, until the new unions are provided with
workhouses of their own, and from time to time to alter or rescind
the same, and to enforce payment of the expenses consequent thereon;
and for the purpose of providing workhouses, ‘the Lands Clauses
Consolidation Act’ (_8th and 9th Vict. cap. 18_) is declared to be
incorporated with the Poor Relief Acts.
_Sections 6, 7, 8, 9._—In fixing the qualification of elected guardians,
the commissioners are empowered to fix a different amount for
different electoral divisions of the same union. The full number of
ex-officio guardians may be made up from non-resident justices, if
the number resident be not sufficient. Two or more electoral
divisions may be combined for the purpose of electing a guardian;
and upon the request of a board of guardians the commissioners may
appoint an assistant-guardian for such union, whom they are also
empowered to remove or discontinue.
_Sections 10, 11, 12._—Rents arising from exempted property, are to be
rated to the extent of half the poundage. Occupiers are not to
deduct from their rent more than one-half the amount of the rate
paid by them; and the provisions making void all agreements to
forego deductions from rent are repealed.
_Sections 13, 14._—The valuations are not required to be signed and
sealed by the commissioners. “To encourage the employment of labour
in improving the value of land,” the valuation is not to be
increased in consequence of improvements made under the Land
Improvement Act, within seven years after such improvements.
_Sections 15, 16, 17, 18, 19._—A short form of declaration is
prescribed, and costs are limited in actions for recovery of rates.
Judges may make rules and orders regulating proceedings in actions
for poor-rates. Civil bill decrees for poor-rates may be filed, and
have force as judgments of superior court. Judgments for poor-rates
are to be registered, and take priority as charges on the land, with
the exception of crown and quit-rents and rent-charges in lieu of
tithes. The recovery of arrears of rate limited to two years.
_Sections 20, 22, 23._—Date of audit to be stated on the accounts, and
all disallowances thereof to be inserted by the auditor. The
rate-books are to be open for inspection, and due notice is to be
given to the ratepayers. In cases of appeal, the known agent of the
appellant may sign the notices and enter into the recognizances
required by law.
_Sections 24, 25._—The names of persons relieved to be entered in books
kept for that purpose, which are to be open for inspection; and
weekly statements of the numbers relieved and chargeable to the
union, and to the electoral divisions respectively, are to be posted
on the workhouse door.
_Sections 26, 27, 28._—With consent of the commissioners the rates may
be applied, or loans may be raised on security of the rates, for
defraying the expenses of emigration; but vice-guardians are not so
to apply or borrow without the consent of the ratepayers, and the
amount borrowed is in no case to exceed 11_s._ 8_d._ in the pound,
of the yearly value of the rateable property chargeable with the
same. The money borrowed is to be applied under direction of the
commissioners, in defraying the expenses connected with the
emigration to British colonies, of poor persons resident within the
union or electoral division, on the rates whereof the same shall
have been respectively charged.
_Sections 29, 30, 31._—For the purpose of facilitating proceedings for
the recovery of rates, assistant barristers &c. may “correct or
amend any variance, clerical error, or irregularity not affecting
the substantial merits of the question,” in the notices &c. brought
before them. Fourteen days’ notice is to be given of proceeding by
civil bill against immediate lessors for recovery of rates. The
present and preceding Acts are to be construed as one Act.
[Sidenote: Emigration.]
The facilities afforded by the above Act for promoting emigration, were
productive of less effect than would otherwise probably have been the
case, owing to the financial embarrassments existing in many of the
unions. The guardians were naturally indisposed to apply the poor-rate
or to borrow money for purposes of emigration, whilst there was an
urgent pressure upon them for relief, and great difficulty in obtaining
the means of affording it. The amount expended by the unions on
emigration during the year ending 29th September 1849, was 16,260_l._,
being an increase of 13,484_l._ over that of the previous year.[185] The
number of orphan girls selected from the several workhouses, and sent
out as emigrants to Australia, had been 1,956, which added to the 2,219
so sent out in the preceding year, makes a total of 4,175 from the
commencement, under regulations jointly established by the Poor Law and
Emigration Commissioners in 1848.[186]
-----
[185]
Ante, p. 354.
[186]
Twenty ships had been despatched in the two years, from May 1848, to
April 1850, with orphan girls selected from the workhouses in Ireland,
as emigrants to the Australian colonies. Of these emigrants, 2,253
were taken to Sydney, 1,255 to Port-Philip, and 606 to Adelaide. The
remaining 61 were sent to the Cape of Good Hope.
-----
[Sidenote: Employment.]
Notwithstanding that past experience and the deductions of sound
principle were alike opposed to the notion that pauper labour could be
made a source of profit, many boards of guardians and other persons of
undoubtedly excellent intentions, are said to have advocated plans for
employing the able-bodied inmates of the workhouses in ordinary
agricultural labour, or in the draining and subsoiling of lands
belonging to private individuals, or in carrying on manufactures within
the workhouse, the produce to be disposed of to other unions, or else
sold to the public under the current market-price. But none of these nor
any similar propositions were sanctioned by the commissioners, who
nevertheless failed not to urge upon boards of guardians the importance
of enforcing work of some kind amongst the inmates, not only as tending
to promote health and keep up habits of industry, but also as a means of
securing the discipline of the establishment, and maintaining the
efficiency of the workhouse as a test of destitution.
[Sidenote: The workhouse children.]
The case of the workhouse children differs essentially from that of the
adults. The house is no longer a test, as applied to them; but a place
of refuge, supplying in a great degree the wants of home, and
responsible also for the fulfilment of home duties. Every consideration
of humanity and policy therefore establishes the propriety, not only of
providing for the education of these children, but also for their
instruction in useful occupations by which they may earn their
subsistence in after life; and much appears to have been done in these
respects with the children of both sexes in the several workhouses. The
power conferred of forming district industrial schools had not yet been
acted upon, neither under the depressing circumstances which have
existed in most parts of the country, could it be expected that the
guardians would attempt to found such institutions, which must,
especially at the outset, entail a very considerable expenditure.
[Sidenote: Amount of expenditure, and numbers relieved.]
The expenditure from the rates on the relief of the poor in the 131
unions during the twelve months ending 29th September 1849, as stated in
Table No. 1, Appendix B, was 2,177,651_l._[187] The number of inmates on
that day was 141,030 and the total number relieved in the workhouses
during the year was 932,284. The number then receiving out-door relief
was 135,019; and the total number who received out-door relief during
the year was 1,210,482.
-----
[187]
As was the case in the preceding year, the half-yearly statements made
up and audited on the 25th March and 29th September (Appendix 2 and 3)
exhibit different amounts, and make the total expenditure in the
present year 2,141,228_l._
-----
[Sidenote: 1851.
Fourth annual report of the Poor Law Commissioners for Ireland.]
The commissioners’ Report for 1850-51 is dated on the 5th May. After
giving the usual statistics, and adverting to the fact that the maximum
number on the out-relief lists in the previous year terminating on the
29th September 1850, was 148,909, whilst in the following seven months
the number had in no instance exceeded 10,935; the commissioners “notice
the still more satisfactory circumstance, that during the year ended
29th September 1850, and the seven months which had since elapsed, the
worst evils of the famine, such as the occurrence of deaths by the
wayside, a high rate of mortality in the workhouses, and the prevalence
of dangerous and contagious diseases, had undergone a very material
abatement.” This change was, they consider, owing to a combination of
favourable circumstances; but they “do not hesitate to affirm that the
extension of workhouse room had afforded the means of relieving actual
destitution, far more efficiently than could have been done by a
corresponding expenditure in out-door relief; and that life has been
preserved with more certainty, and the general condition of the
population been improved, wherever a sufficient extent of workhouse room
has enabled the guardians to meet all applications for relief, and thus
to remove from the minds of the labouring population every expectation
of the recurrence of an extensive system of out-door relief.”
[Sidenote: State of the workhouses.]
With regard to the mortality which had occurred in the workhouses, it is
remarked “that an accumulation of cases of chronic sickness among
persons who survived the famine, but whose enfeebled constitutions
afford little hope of any other result than a permanent residence in the
workhouse, had filled the workhouse hospitals and infirmaries with a
great number of sick.” Many of these poor people die in the more
inclement seasons of winter and spring, and thus the average mortality
of the workhouses is stated in the returns to be increased. Yet if not
admitted into the workhouse, larger numbers would have perished, as is
shown by the great mortality which took place in the county of Clare,
where the unions were too much impoverished to provide sufficient
workhouse accommodation for the extent of destitution that prevailed,
the condition of Clare being at this time much worse than any other part
of Ireland. The people had there suffered more, and the revival of the
potato crop had brought them less relief. [Sidenote: State of Clare.]
They exhibited in fact an exception to the improvement elsewhere happily
apparent, and nowhere more so than in Connaught, the unions in which
province were among the most forward in recovering from the effects of
the famine.
[Sidenote: Emigration.]
A portion of the fund raised by the rate-in-aid,[188] was applied to
assist the emigration of poor persons from the workhouses of some of the
overburdened unions. But in order to prevent such assistance from
operating injuriously, and serving as an inducement to persons to claim
admission to the workhouse, the commissioners directed that it should be
afforded only to those who had been inmates for one year at least.
Certain of the unions were thus relieved from the charge of maintaining
persons able to work, but unable to find employment; and by the removal
of such persons additional workhouse room was obtained, without
incurring the charge of providing additional buildings. The number thus
assisted to emigrate during the present year, was 360 adult males, 844
females, and 517 children, at an expense of 21,075_l._
-----
[188]
Ante, p. 355.
-----
[Sidenote: New unions and electoral divisions.]
Since the last Report eight more new unions[189] had been formed, which
with the 24 formed last year, and the 131 previously existing make 163
in all. The old unions in which the boundaries either of the Union or
its electoral divisions had been altered, were 86; and the number of
electoral divisions had been increased to 3,404, instead of 2,049 as
originally constituted. Some of the recommendations contained in the
boundary commissioners’ Reports, were disapproved by the guardians of
the unions to which they applied. This was particularly the case in the
north of Ireland, and in several instances the Poor Law Commissioners
deemed it expedient to yield to the objections which were made to any
change; so that instead of 50 new unions as recommended in the boundary
Reports, no more than 32 had been created; and to these, advances to the
extent of 200,000_l._ were made by the exchequer loan board, for
enabling them to provide the necessary workhouses.
-----
[189]
These were Borrisokane, Castlecomer, Donaghmore, Kilmacthomas,
Tornastown, Urlingford, Youghal, and Castletowndelvin.
-----
It was likewise considered inexpedient to proceed further in making
alterations in the unions or electoral divisions, “until the task of
consolidating the debts due for workhouse loans, relief advances,
labour-rate, and the advance of 300,000_l._ authorized by the _13th and
14th Vict., cap. 14_, had been completed.” The proceedings under this
Act are said to be far advanced. They are of considerable importance, as
is the Act itself, of which the following is an abstract—
[Sidenote: The _13th and 14th Vict. cap. 14_.]
The _13th and 14th Vict., cap. 14_, was passed on the 17th May 1850, and
after reciting the several Acts under which advances had been made, and
declaring that considerable sums in respect of such advances remained
unpaid, but that it was nevertheless expedient to authorize a further
advance of public money to assist certain distressed unions and
electoral divisions in Ireland &c., it empowers—
_Section 1._—The commissioners of the Treasury to make advances from
time to time not exceeding in the whole 300,000_l._, to such unions
as they shall think fit, such advances to be paid to the Poor Law
Commissioners, and by them applied towards the discharge of the
debts or liabilities of the union or division &c., as the Treasury
shall direct. All sums so advanced are to bear 3 per cent. interest,
and be repaid out of the poor-rates at such times as the Treasury
prescribe.
_Sections 2, 3, 4._—The commissioners of the Treasury may cause the
debts and liabilities of the several unions and electoral divisions
&c. to be ascertained, and may cause the same to be consolidated and
proportionably charged upon such unions or electoral divisions, and
may charge such an annuity upon the same as shall be equivalent to
such proportionate amount. A statement of the annuities so charged
is to be transmitted to the Poor Law Commissioners, who are to issue
orders to the guardians directing the punctual payment thereof.
_Sections 5, 6._—If payment be not so punctually made, the treasurer
of the union is to reserve a third part of the moneys collected and
lodged with him on account of the electoral division, and place the
same to a separate account, to be entitled the “Loans Repayment
Account,” until all arrears have thereby been discharged. But the
rate in aid under the _12th and 13th Vict. cap. 24_, is to be paid,
before the annuities charged under this Act.
_Sections 7, 8._—The Treasury are further empowered to make
additions to the annuities chargeable under this Act, in respect of
loans for building or enlarging workhouses; and may likewise suspend
the recovery of workhouse loans, and moneys directed to be levied by
grand-jury presentments.
The consolidation of the various claims upon the unions and electoral
divisions, and converting them into annuities on terms which, whilst
they secured the government from loss, would make the repayment as
little burdensome as possible, must no doubt have been, as was intended,
an easement and an advantage to the borrowers. The financial
difficulties of many of the western unions were however, it was
apprehended, such as would not only disable them from making any payment
for some years, but such as would render further aid necessary, in order
to keep them in operation as dispensors of relief to the destitute poor.
[Sidenote: Second rate in aid of 2_d._ in the pound.]
A statement is given in the appendix to the Report, of the appropriation
of the loan of 300,000_l._ advanced under the above statute, which was,
the commissioners say, “a most seasonable relief to many unions and
electoral divisions that were deeply embarrassed by debt in the early
part of 1850.” But in addition to this loan of 300,000_l._, a second
rate in aid of 2_d._ in the pound, amounting to 99,362_l._ 3_s._ 3_d._,
was levied under an order issued on the 23rd December 1850, “for the
further assistance of distressed unions and electoral divisions.” The
Rate-in-Aid Act would expire on the 31st of December, and it had been
hoped that the raising a second rate under it might have been avoided.
“But after the conclusion of the harvest of last year (the commissioners
say) they perceived indications of the continuance of distress in so
serious a degree in the counties of Clare and Kerry, that they could
not, with the small balance at their disposal, feel justified in
omitting to avail themselves of the power of declaring a further rate;”
and subsequent experience, they observe, confirmed the propriety of the
step thus taken. The two rates in aid amounted together to 421,990_l._
The distribution of this large sum among the distressed unions was,
under direction of the government, intrusted to the Poor Law
Commissioners, by whom an account of its application was furnished in
detail.
[Sidenote: Amount of expenditure, and numbers relieved.]
An expectation had been held out in the last Report of a very
considerable reduction of expenditure taking place in the following
year,[190] and this expectation was fulfilled. In the 163 unions the
total expenditure from the rates for the relief of the poor during the
year ending on the 29th September 1850, was 1,430,108_l._ The number of
inmates on that day was 155,173, and the total number relieved in the
workhouses during the year was 805,702. The number then receiving
out-door relief was 2,938, and the number who received out-door relief
during the year was 368,565.—It is seen therefore that, as was expected,
a very considerable decrease had taken place; but to show this clearer,
I will recapitulate the several amounts for the three preceding years.
In the year ending 29th September 1848, the total expenditure for relief
of the poor was 1,835,634_l._—in 1849 it was 2,177,651_l._—and in 1850
it was 1,430,108_l._ The total number relieved in the workhouses in
these years respectively, was 610,463—932,284—and 805,702; and the total
number who so respectively received out-door relief, was
1,433,042—1,210,482—and 368,565. The decrease in the numbers who
received in-door relief, may perhaps seem disproportionately small; but
this is accounted for by the fact of the workhouse being more
extensively used for the purposes of relief, than had been the case in
former years.
-----
[190]
Ante, p. 365.
-----
[Sidenote: Extension of workhouse accommodation.]
The generally improved circumstances of the country must doubtless be
regarded as the chief cause of the present decrease of pauperism; but
the commissioners consider that it is likewise in no small degree
attributable to the extension of workhouse accommodation. This extension
has, it is said, “enabled the administrators of relief throughout
Ireland, with very few exceptions, to meet the actual destitution
existing, without having recourse to out-door relief.” The progress of
the extension may thus be tabulated:—
Extent of Workhouse Accommodation.
┌────────┬───────────────┬───────────────┐
│ Year. │ On March 25. │ On Sept. 29. │
├────────┼───────────────┼───────────────┤
│ 1847 │ 114,129 │ 114,865 │
│ 1848 │ 154,429 │ 169,142 │
│ 1849 │ 228,458 │ 244,942 │
│ 1850 │ 276,073 │ 289,931 │
│ 1851 │ 308,885 │ — │
└────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┘
And at the date of the Report (5th May 1851), the aggregate of the
workhouse accommodation available, beyond the numbers then receiving
in-door relief, was 60,491. Improvement in the sanitary state of the
workhouses, and of the labouring population generally, is said always to
follow the increase of workhouse accommodation, and the substitution of
in-door for out-door relief; so that although a great reduction of
expenditure took place in the last year, a still further reduction may
be expected in the present.
[Sidenote: 1852.
Fifth annual report of the Poor Law Commissioners for Ireland.]
The Report of the commissioners for 1851-52 is dated on the 1st of May,
as had been theretofore generally the practice, although this date was
not adhered to in the three preceding Reports.
[Sidenote: Improved circumstances of the country.]
The transition from out-door to in-door relief was said to be now
complete throughout Ireland, accompanied by a reduction in the number of
applicants, as well as a most satisfactory decrease in workhouse
mortality, The crops generally had everywhere regained their usual state
of productiveness. Famine or fear of famine no longer prevailed, and its
effects were only perceptible in the decrease of the population, and the
consequent increased demand for labour. All in short was prosperous and
promising compared with the state of things five years ago. There was
however one exception, several of the western unions being still much
embarrassed in their finances, and continuing to require assistance.
[Sidenote: The Munster unions an exception.] This was especially the
case in Munster; for the Connaught exception, unions had passed
successfully through the ordeal, and were comparatively prosperous.
“Thus on the 23rd February 1850, while the whole number receiving
out-door relief in Ireland was 148,909, the unions in the province of
Munster contained 101,803 of that number, and those in Connaught only
19,261; and again, on the 26th April 1851, when the number on out-relief
was reduced to 10,935, the eight unions in the county of Clare comprised
6,846, and the 29 unions in the province of Connaught only 232.”
[Sidenote: Increase of workhouse relief.]
During the progress of the important change which was now taking place
in the circumstances of the country, the number of persons relieved in
the workhouses had always considerably increased in the spring and early
part of the summer. These persons were generally in a state of great
exhaustion, and the aid and shelter they received enabled them
afterwards in most cases to leave the house with their health and
strength restored. Some however remained, especially females and the
children of both sexes, by whom it appears the workhouses continued to
be unduly burdened. So long as there was an expectation of out-door
relief being administered, a considerable amount of disease and
mortality often prevailed, owing to the way in which persons really
destitute persisted in hanging upon that expectation, instead of earlier
seeking for admission to the workhouse; but when all hope for relief
otherwise than in the workhouse was removed, “the sequel has invariably
been a reduced number of applicants, a decreased rate of workhouse
mortality, and an improved sanitary state of the population.”
The increased extent of workhouse accommodation which has been noticed,
had been obtained, either by means of permanent additions to the
original workhouses, or by building new ones in the newly-formed unions,
or by the erection of a cheap kind of temporary structure to meet the
emergency; or else by hiring premises for the purpose. The latter of
these expedients had been resorted to more extensively than was
consistent either with economy or with efficient management, and most of
these premises were now given up, or shortly would be so. Anxiety is
expressed that the succeeding year should be commenced with the
workhouse establishments concentrated as far as practicable in each
union, “so as to avoid the disadvantage of using auxiliary buildings.”
Such a concentration was no doubt essential to efficient management, and
it was only by such management, the commissioners observe, and by a
further reduction of expenditure, “that some of the distressed unions in
the west can be expected to become so far solvent as to support their
own pauperism without further external aid.”
It is certainly important on many accounts that there should be only one
workhouse in a union, and that it should have been expressly constructed
for the accommodation of the classes to be relieved therein, with all
suitable means for their separation and employment. Without these
essentials, a workhouse can hardly be effective either as a test of
destitution or a medium of relief; and there is always danger of an
inefficient workhouse becoming a stimulant, instead of being a check to
pauperism.
[Sidenote: Annuities under the Consolidated Debts Act.]
Most of the unions made provision for the payment of first annual
instalment under the Consolidated Debts Act (_13th and 14th Vict. cap.
14_),[191] the arrangements under which, including the advance of
300,000_l._,[192] appear to have been all completed by the end of
September. But in the following month a Treasury minute was issued,
declaring that although “my lords” are of opinion that the present state
of the greater part of Ireland does not call for any relief from the
operation of the Act, yet they cannot doubt that there are districts in
which relief must be given—“in the case of those districts, for
instance, where the local resources are insufficient to meet the
ordinary expenditure for relief of the poor, and where it is necessary
to have recourse to assistance from the relief-in-aid fund for this
purpose, it cannot be expected that further sums for payment of the
consolidated annuities can be raised.” With regard to _postponement_,
their lordships are of opinion that it would only tend to prolong a
feeling of uncertainty as to future payments, whilst it is deemed of
great importance to restore confidence in the owners and occupiers of
land in the distressed districts, to which end the demands should be
definite both in amount and in time. It is thought therefore that a
remission of payment, either altogether or in part according to
circumstances, is preferable to postponement, and an intimation is given
of its being intended to apply to parliament with this view. Meantime
however, the Poor Law Commissioners were authorized to direct the
treasurers of the unions to retain the whole annuity payable by
electoral divisions of which the expenditure in relief was ascertained
to be 4_s._ in the pound, or more; and also to direct “so much only of
the annuity to be paid in other divisions as might, together with the
relief expenditure, amount to 4_s._ in the pound.”
-----
[191]
Ante, p. 374.
[192]
A statement of the appropriation of this loan is given in the Appendix
to the commissioners’ fourth Report.
-----
[Sidenote: The Treasury minute, October 21, 1851.]
This was doubtless a considerate, but it was at the same time a
necessary proceeding on the part of the government. The impoverished
unions, whose utmost exertions could not raise within themselves
sufficient for relieving their own urgent necessities, would of course
find it impossible to pay the consolidated annuity for which they were
made liable; whilst the continual accumulation of this charge hanging
over them would paralyze local effort, and tend to prevent the
introduction of capital from other quarters. The accumulation would for
the present be put a stop to by this Treasury minute; and if, in
consideration of their late sufferings and present difficulties,
parliament should confirm the boon, it will it is thought inspire
confidence, as well as afford present relief; and it may then be hoped,
that at no very distant day the impoverished unions would be able to
emerge from their state of depression, and join in the general race of
improvement. [Sidenote: The _15 and 16 Vict., cap. 16_.] The requisite
confirmation was given in the following year by the _15th and 16th Vict.
cap. 16_, entitled ‘An Act to amend the Acts relating to the Payment of
Advances made to Districts in Ireland.’ After reciting the _13th and
14th Vict. cap. 14_, and the Treasury minute of the 21st October 1851,
made “upon representations contained in memorials from many unions in
Ireland, of the pressure upon the local resources of several electoral
divisions on account of the necessary expenditure for the relief of the
poor, and in anticipation of a measure to be submitted to parliament”—it
is declared to be expedient that the directions contained in the said
minute should be confirmed, and it is accordingly enacted that “the sums
payable in the year 1851 in respect of the annuities mentioned in such
minute and directions, shall be remitted and deemed to be discharged
without further payment.” The remissions thus sanctioned amounted
altogether to about 75,000_l._—that is 48,000_l._. to Munster,
24,000_l._ to Connaught, and 3,000_l._ to Leinster. The remission, it
will be observed, only applied to the annuities due in 1851, and no
expectation was held out of similar indulgence in future.
[Sidenote: The medical charities.]
Some account has already been given of the inquiry into and Report upon
the medical charities in 1842, and of the bill then prepared but not
proceeded with, in consequence of the opposition made to it by the
medical profession.[193] In August 1851 however a bill, founded on that
Report, and similar in principle and in its main provisions to the bill
of 1842, was introduced and readily passed, the necessity for such a
measure, and for bringing the rating powers and machinery of the Poor
Law in aid of the medical charities, being then admitted by all parties;
and this was the object of the Act of 1851, as it had been of the bill
prepared under the author’s direction in 1842.
-----
[193]
Ante, pp. 267 and 279.
-----
[Sidenote: Medical Charities Act, _14 and 15 Vict., cap. 68_.]
On the passing of the _14th and 15th Vict. cap. 68_, the working of the
medical charities became so closely connected with the operations of the
Poor Law, that a description of the chief provisions of the Act is here
necessary—
_Sections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5._—Provide for the appointment of a medical
commissioner, being a physician or surgeon of not less than thirteen
years’ standing, to be united with the Poor Law Commissioners in the
execution of the Act. The commissioners may appoint fit persons,
being physicians or surgeons of not less than seven years’ standing,
to be inspectors, but the medical commissioner and the inspectors
are restricted from practising professionally.
_Sections 6, 7, 8, 9._—The guardians are, whenever required by the
commissioners, to divide unions into dispensary districts, having
regard to extent and population; and are to appoint a dispensary
committee, and provide necessary buildings, and such medicines and
appliances as may be required, for the medical relief of the poor. A
committee of management consisting of the dispensary committee, the
ex-officio guardians, and ratepayers of 30_l._ annual value, are to
appoint one or more medical officers, to afford advice and medical
aid to such poor persons as may be sent by any member of the
dispensary committee, or by the relieving officer or warden.
_Sections 10, 11, 12, 13._—On the declaration of a dispensary district,
all provisions for affording dispensary relief from the poor-rate or
county cess are to cease. Guardians or members of the committee of
management, are not to be concerned in furnishing medicines or goods
for the use of the dispensary, under penalty of 50_l._ The
commissioners are to frame regulations for the government of each
dispensary district, and the medical officer is required to
vaccinate all persons who may come to him for that purpose.
_Sections 14, 15._—Existing medical officers are in the first instance
to be the medical officers of the dispensaries. The medical officers
of a dispensary district are to attend at the examination of
dangerous lunatics, and are also to attend the bride-wells within
their districts.
_Sections 16, 17, 18._—The commissioners and inspectors are empowered to
examine on oath, and to summon witnesses. The giving false evidence
is declared a misdemeanour, and the refusing to obey summons &c. is
subjected to a penalty of 5_l._ Inspectors may visit dispensaries,
and attend meetings of guardians. The commissioners are to report
upon hospitals and infirmaries. They are also to execute the powers
and purposes of the Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Acts,
and to report their proceedings annually to the lord-lieutenant.
Such were the chief provisions of this Act, and the powers conferred by
it appear sufficient for procuring the establishment of dispensaries in
districts where they were much needed, and also for securing better
management with regard to medical relief. [Sidenote: First report of
Medical Charity Commissioners.]In their first Report dated 15th February
1853, the commissioners remark, that by the Medical Charities Act, a
partial and imperfect system of medical relief, unattended with
responsibility in its agents, and resting on a financial basis at once
uncertain in duration, and unequal in its pressure as a tax, has been
exchanged for a system uniform and universal, supported out of the
poor-rates, and “influenced in its administration by well-defined
responsibilities, under the direction and control of a central
authority.” The expenditure is estimated at 102,700_l._ per annum.
[Sidenote: Anticipated expenditure.]But “having regard to the diminution
of pauperism, and the improving circumstances of the country,” it is
thought probable that the cost of dispensary relief under the Medical
Charities Act, will not exceed 100,000_l._ in future years.
[Sidenote: New electoral divisions.]
A few more of the electoral divisions were divided, in addition to the
subdivisions which had been made the preceding year,[194] and the total
number of electoral divisions was now increased to 3,439, that is 1,390
more than what were originally constituted, although still short of the
number recommended by the Boundary Commissioners. The permission of
out-door relief, and the increase in the number of unions, especially
the latter, would no doubt render some increase of electoral divisions
necessary; but after the distress out of which these changes had arisen
shall have passed away, and when the country has regained its normal
state, it is not unlikely that these changes may be found burthensome,
and the machinery they have created be beyond what is really necessary
for affording relief to the destitute poor. [Sidenote: New order of
proceedings issued.] The various changes which had been made in the law,
also rendered a new order for regulating the proceedings of boards of
guardians necessary; and accordingly on the 19th January 1852, the old
order was rescinded, and a new one adapted to the altered circumstances
of the unions and the state of the law was issued.
-----
[194]
Ante, p. 373.
-----
[Sidenote: Apprenticing boys to the sea-service.
_14 and 15 Vict., cap. 35._]
In July 1851, the _14th and 15th Vict. cap. 35_ was passed, to extend
the benefits of the General Merchant Seamen’s Act relating to
apprentices bound to the sea-service by guardians of the poor in
Ireland. By this Act, the board of guardians of a union is empowered to
apprentice any boy of the age of twelve and upwards being of sufficient
health and strength, and who is or whose parents are receiving relief in
such union, and who consents to be so bound, into the sea-service for
not less than four years, or until he attains the age of twenty-one, or
has served seven years, as the case may be. The apprentice is to be
furnished with a suitable outfit at the expense of the union, and sent
to the seaport where the master or owner of the ship resides; and it is
further provided that any such boys may, if they desire it, be placed
out in the naval service. This is a well-devised Act, although it may
not be very operative, at least for a time, the Irish generally having
little predilection for the sea. The Act however supplies what was
certainly an omission in the Act of 1836, and which became more apparent
as the number of boys accumulated in the workhouses, without any means
for apprenticing or getting them out into service. But the abuses which
had resulted from the apprenticeship law in England, prevented its
introduction in any shape into the original Irish Poor Relief Act.
[Sidenote: Emigration.]
Emigration under the provisions of the Poor Law was more active during
the year 1850-51 than in any preceding year, although many unions were
prevented by their poverty from resorting to it.[195] The commissioners
had, as is before stated, applied a portion of the rate-in-aid fund in
relieving the overcrowded workhouses in the counties of Clare and Kerry,
but the nearly exhausted state of that fund disabled them from meeting
other urgent applications for similar aid. Indeed the decrease of the
population in the impoverished districts, as shown in the census
returns, together with the smaller number of applicants for relief, and
a greater demand for labour, would seem to render further aid or
stimulus to emigration both unnecessary and inexpedient. Where the
guardians and ratepayers of a district however were desirous of raising
funds for the purpose, the commissioners did not refuse to give effect
to the proposition.[Sidenote: Extent of emigration.] It appears from the
Reports of the colonial land and emigration commissioners, that the
total Irish emigration from 1847 to 1850 inclusive, was 833,692, nearly
all of which was for North America—the Canada and New Brunswick
immigration from all countries in the same period amounting to 210,904.
In 1851, the emigration from Great Britain to the United States was
267,357, and it was 244,261 in 1852, in which year the number of Irish
emigrants to New York alone was 118,134. This continuous emigration was
chiefly effected by the aid of remittances from persons who had
previously emigrated, to their friends and relatives at home, to enable
them to follow.
-----
[195]
Ante, p. 373.
-----
[Sidenote: Population census of 1851.]
The above figures show the extent of the drain upon the population of
Ireland which had been in progress during the last six years, and will
go far to account for the startling results of the census returns of
1851, which exhibit an actual decrease of considerably over a million
and a half in the previous decennial period, and make the population
less than it was in 1821. The census commissioners,[196] after stating
that the numerical decrease of the inhabitants between 1841 and 1851
amounted to 1,622,739, go on to remark—“But this being merely the
difference between the number of people in 1841 and 1851, without making
any allowance for a natural and ordinary increase of population, conveys
but very inadequately the effect of the visitation of famine and
pestilence”—“We find that the population of 30th March 1851, would
probably have numbered 9,018,799, instead of 6,522,385; and that
consequently the loss of population between 1841 and 1851 may be
computed at the enormous amount of 2,496,414 persons.” That is to say,
the population in 1851 amounted to 6,522,385, whereas under ordinary
circumstances, and with the average rate of increase, it would have
amounted to 9,018,799.
-----
[196]
See 6th part of the Report on the census of Ireland for 1851,
published in 1855.
-----
It may be convenient in the way of elucidation, to place the numbers of
the four census periods in juxtaposition, thus—
The population of Ireland was 6,801,827
in 1821
” ” in 1831 ” 7,767,401
” ” in 1841 ” 8,175,124
” ” in 1851 ” 6,522,385
How much of the present decrease was owing to emigration, and how much
was occasioned by want and disease, it is impossible to predicate with
any degree of certainty. Both causes were in operation at the same time,
and both were consequent upon the potato failure. The universal and
almost exclusive use of the potato as an article of subsistence, led to
a rapid increase of the population—its failure led to a still more rapid
decrease, accompanied by an amount of suffering and privation for which
it would be difficult to find a parallel in the history of any people.
[Sidenote: Amount of expenditure, and numbers relieved.]
The expenditure from the rates for relief of the poor in all the 163
unions now established, during the year ending on the 29th September
1851, was as had been expected, considerably less than the preceding
year, and amounted to 1,141,647_l._ The number relieved in the
workhouses on that day was 140,031, and the total number so relieved
during the year was 707,443. The number then receiving out-door relief
was 3,160, and the total number who received out-door relief during the
year was 47,914. It seems almost superfluous to add, that none of these
were relieved under the 2nd section of the Extension Act. The results of
the year as regards relief, both numerically and financially, was deemed
highly satisfactory, and it was expected that a still further reduction
would be effected in the year following.
Before entering on the proceedings of another year (which will moreover
be the limit of our inquiry), it may be well to look back for a moment
to the disastrous period through which we have latterly passed. Famine
and pestilence now happily no longer prevail, and the country has in
great measure recovered from the effects of the severe ordeal to which
it was subjected. The Poor Law has likewise nearly regained its ordinary
state, after passing through the dangers and difficulties of a most
calamitous visitation; and has risen from its trials with an increase of
reputation, and also it may be added, with a greatly increased capacity
for effecting its objects, through the large additional workhouse
accommodation that has been provided. The failure of the potato in 1845
and 1846, the partial failure in 1847, and the more general destruction
of the crop in 1848, were followed in each year by the vast efforts made
to palliate, and as far as possible to relieve the consequent
distress—first by importations of food, and employing the people on
public works—next by a partial adoption of the Poor-law principle of
relief, as it was administered under the Temporary Relief Act—and lastly
by extending the provisions of the Poor Law to meet the emergency, and
permitting relief to be afforded out of the workhouse. These
circumstances have each occupied our attention in the foregoing pages.
They are all exceptional in their nature, but are at the same time most
instructive in their results, whether viewed locally or generally—as
affecting the empire at large, or Ireland in particular.
The character of the period—the waxings and wanings of distress—the
variations in its extent, and the phases of its intensity, are all
unmistakeably indicated in the weekly returns from the several unions,
of the numbers and mortality in the respective workhouses from the
commencement of 1846, and the numbers on the out-relief lists from the
passing of the Extension Act in 1847. [Sidenote: Tables of numbers
relieved and extent of mortality. See p. 404.] These weekly returns are
given at length in the commissioners’ Reports, and from them I have
compiled two tables, which will be found at the end,[197] showing the
dates in each year when the most marked changes occurred in the numbers
relieved both in and out of the workhouses, and the extent of mortality
which took place; but always giving the maximum and minimum numbers in
each case. The cost of out-door relief in the respective weeks is also
inserted, so that the state of the country at the several periods is as
it were mapped out before the reader, and can be taken in at a glance,
requiring nothing further in the way of explanation; and to this table
the reader’s attention is requested.
-----
[197]
See p. 404.
-----
[Sidenote: 1853.
Sixth annual report of the Poor Law Commissioners for Ireland.]
The commissioners’ sixth Report is dated 2nd May 1853. After the usual
weekly summary of the in-door and out-door recipients of relief, it is
remarked that the number of out-door poor is so inconsiderable, and
liable to so little fluctuation, that “the comparative extent of
pauperism in successive years is now almost wholly dependent on the
number receiving relief in the workhouses.” This number, it is added,
“continues to fluctuate almost in the same degree as formerly,
notwithstanding the absolute decrease which has taken place; the number
in autumn not usually much exceeding one-half the number at another
period of the year.”
[Sidenote: State of Connaught and Munster.]
The satisfactory progress made by the province of Connaught in
surmounting the effects of the famine years has already been
noticed.[198] Although some of the Connaught unions were still in a
state of financial embarrassment, and subject to payment of heavy rates,
the reduction of relief in the last three years had been remarkable, the
number in the workhouses having decreased from 42,286 in April 1851, to
17,389 in April 1853. In Munster on the contrary improvement continued
to be comparatively backward, that province still containing more than
half the pauperism of Ireland.
-----
[198]
Ante, pp. 373 and 378.
-----
[Sidenote: The workhouse children.]
A large number of the children and young persons who had been admitted
during the prevalence of the famine, were discharged from the workhouses
in the course of the last two years. These must be regarded with
satisfaction as the fruits of the Poor Law, but for which, they would in
all probability have fallen victims to want and disease. The children
still remaining in the workhouses, a great proportion of whom were
likewise rescued at the time of the famine, were chiefly orphans, or
illegitimate or deserted, and without friends able or willing to take
charge of them. The number of these children in the workhouses on the
2nd April 1853 under the age of fifteen, was 82,434, of whom 5,710 were
illegitimate; and looking at the large proportion who were returned as
being orphans or deserted, the commissioners say they “cannot but feel
that the prospect of enabling a large number of them to leave the
workhouses and obtain a permanent position in society, must depend in a
great degree upon the exertion made to educate and train them in such a
manner as to enable them to do this at an early age.” A child of twelve
or thirteen is, it is observed, “more easily grafted into society, than
if he resides in a public establishment till eighteen or nineteen, when
he becomes too much accustomed to its routine to exert himself in a new
position, where more labour and individual efforts have to be exacted,
and greater hardships and privations endured.”
[Sidenote: Their education and industrial training.]
The literary education in the workhouse schools was considered to be on
the whole satisfactory. But letters alone, without industrial training,
will not, it is truly said, help a boy or girl of fifteen to get into
employment; and the commissioners therefore encouraged the formation of
agricultural schools, in connexion with the national education board.
The boys were moreover in most of the workhouses taught some kind of
trade, such as tailoring, shoemaking, carpentering &c. The girls were
taught to wash, and make and mend their own clothes, and clean their own
dormitories and day-rooms; but there is obviously more difficulty with
them than with the boys, in regard to employment. As the country
improves however, “and when the drain caused by the continued emigration
is more felt,” there can be little doubt, the commissioners say, that in
all the unions where proper attention has been paid to the education and
training of the children, there will be a demand for those educated in
the workhouses as soon as they are of an age fitted for being useful;
and in the mean time it is satisfactory to learn, that during the year
1852, no less than 5,371 of these children under fifteen years of age,
found employment out of the workhouse.
[Sidenote: Rate of wages and cost of subsistence.]
The drain of emigration just adverted to, must have given rise to an
increased amount of employment for those who remained, but this was
attended with a less apparent effect upon the rate of wages than might
have been expected. Another circumstance had however occurred closely
bearing upon wages which it is necessary to notice, for we find that the
weekly cost of maintenance in the workhouses, the average of which in
1847, exclusive of clothing, was as high as 2_s._ 1½_d._ per head, had
fallen to little more than 1_s._ per head in the years 1850, 1851, and
1852.[199] Comparing the cost of subsistence with the rate of wages, it
will therefore appear that there has been relatively a very considerable
rise in the latter, although the money-rate in 1852 and 1853 may not
appear to differ very materially from what it was in 1845. Employment
had likewise become more certain and more steady, so that the labourer’s
actual earnings during the year were probably greater than before, which
coupled with the general reduction in the price of provisions, would
enlarge his command of the necessaries and conveniences of life, and
tend to improve his condition.
-----
[199]
See table at p. 397.
-----
[Sidenote: Remittances from emigrants.]
Returns had been obtained from the several unions showing the extent of
remittances from abroad, for enabling certain of the workhouse inmates
to emigrate. From these returns it appeared, that in the last year
2,158_l._ was so remitted to enable 877 of such inmates to join their
friends in America; 136_l._ to assist 489 to go to England and Scotland;
and 221_l._ to enable 31 to proceed to Australia. When the sums remitted
were insufficient, assistance was often afforded by the guardians under
the provisions of the Poor Law, and 14,041_l._ was so expended for this
purpose in the year ending 29th September 1852. In the following year
(ending September 1853), 12,865_l._ was so expended by the unions for
the emigration of 403 men, 1,202 women, and 996 children, making
together 2,601 persons; and including the cost of free passages, about
3,500_l._ is known to have been remitted to enable more than 1,100
inmates of the workhouses to join their friends who had emigrated, or
had settled in Great Britain. Others are likewise supposed to have left
the workhouses in consequence of similar remittances, which were not
made through or known to the boards of guardians.
[Sidenote: The valuations.]
The valuations of rateable property in the several unions had, as was to
be expected, varied more or less with the changes which took place from
time to time in the circumstances of the country. In 1845 they appear to
have amounted to 13,404,403_l._, and to 13,187,421_l._ in 1847; but in
1851 the entire valuation of Ireland for the purposes of the poor-rate
was only 11,500,000_l._, so great had been the change caused by the
severe ordeal through which the country had passed. Although the
principle on which the valuation of property in the several unions was
originally founded, namely, what it would let for, was undoubtedly
correct, there were counteracting influences at work, and the valuations
made under it were rarely altogether satisfactory. Some persons
denounced them as being too high, some as being too low, and others as
being unequal or partial.
[Sidenote: Commissioner of valuations.]
In order to remedy these asserted defects, and place the valuations on
what was expected to be a better footing, the _15th and 16th Vict. cap.
63_ was passed in 1852, ‘to amend the Laws relating to the Valuation of
Rateable Property in Ireland.’ The Act declares it to be expedient to
make one uniform valuation of lands and tenements, which may be used for
all public and local assessments and other rating. The lord-lieutenant
is empowered to appoint a commissioner of valuation “who shall make or
cause to be made a valuation of the tenements and hereditaments within
every barony, parish, or other division when directed so to do.” But
further legislation was still necessary, and in the following year the
_16th and 17th Vict. cap. 7_, was passed to amend the above, and
directing the clerks of unions to prepare lists of tenements proposed
for revision by the collectors, and to transmit the same to the
commissioner of valuation, together with the opinion of the guardians
whether a revision is necessary, and the name of a person whom the
guardians recommend as fit to revise the same. The combined provisions
of these Acts are no doubt calculated to effect improvement in the
valuations; but the principle of fair letting value as originally
prescribed, must still be adhered to in whatever changes are made.
[Sidenote: 1852.
Amount of expenditure and numbers relieved.]
The expenditure for relief of the poor during the year ending on the
29th September 1852, was 883,267_l._, being 258,380_l._ less than in the
preceding year,[200] and fully realizing the expectations then held out.
The number relieved in the workhouses at the above date was 111,515 and
the total number so relieved during the year was 504,864. The number
then receiving out-door relief was 2,528, and the total number who
received out-door relief during the year was 14,911. A further reduction
was likewise still expected. “But the reduction must not, it is said, be
expected to go so far as it would have gone if 32 new unions had not
been formed, inasmuch as a certain amount of establishment charges must
be incurred to maintain the new workhouses, and the necessary staff of
officers, in whatever degree the pauperism of the districts in which
they are built may hereafter be found diminished.”
-----
[200]
Ante, p. 387.
-----
[Sidenote: 1853.
Amount of expenditure, and numbers relieved.]
The expected further reduction was again confirmed, the expenditure on
relief of the poor during the year ending on the 29th September 1853,
being 785,718_l._, or nearly 100,000_l._ less than in the previous year.
The number relieved in the 163 workhouses was 79,600, and the total
number so relieved during the year was 396,436. The number receiving
out-door relief was 2,245, and the total number who received out-door
relief during the year was 13,232—and now also, important as the
reductions which have latterly taken place assuredly are, we are again
told that still further reductions may be looked for.[201]
-----
[201]
Such in fact took place, the expenditure on relief of the poor for the
year 1854 being 760,152_l._, and for 1855 being still further reduced
to 685,259_l._
-----
A tabular statement[202] has been given of the annual expenditure and
the numbers relieved, down to the end of 1846, after which time the date
of the returns was altered to correspond with the half-yearly audits in
April and September. The following is a continuation of the statement
before given, but also including the number of persons who were relieved
out of the work-house in the successive years under the provisions of
the Extension Act—
─────────┬──────────┬────────────┬────────────┬───────────┬────────────┬──────────
│ │ │ │ Total no. │ No. │Total no.
The year │ No. of │Expenditures│ No. in the │relieved in│ receiving │ who
ending │unions in │ during the │ workhouses │ the │ out-relief │ received
Sept. 29.│operation.│ year. │on the 29th │workhouses │ on 29th │out-relief
│ │ │ Sept. │during the │ Sept. │during the
│ │ │ │ year. │ │ year
─────────┼──────────┼────────────┼────────────┼───────────┼────────────┼──────────
1847 │ 130 │ £ 803,684│ 86,376 │ 417,139│ — │ —
1848 │ 131 │ 1,732,597│124,003 │ 610,463│207,683 │ 1,433,042
1849 │ │ 2,177,651│141,030 │ 932,284│135,019 │ 1,210,482
1850 │ 163 │ 1,430,108│155,173 │ 805,702│ 2,938 │ 368,565
1851 │ │ 1,141,647│140,031 │ 707,443│ 3,160 │ 47,914
1852 │ │ 883,267│111,515 │ 504,864│ 2,528 │ 14,911
1853 │ │ 785,718│ 79,600[203]│ 396,436│ 2,245[203]│ 13,232
─────────┴──────────┴────────────┴────────────┴───────────┴────────────┴──────────
This table speaks at once to the eye, and by its ascending and its
descending numbers indicates the circumstances of the period to which
they severally refer. But in addition to the expenditure in the third
column, it must not be overlooked that since the passing of the
Consolidated Debts Act[204] in 1850, a considerably larger amount of
rates has been collected than was required for the immediate relief of
the poor. Thus the amount collected in the year ending in September 1853
was 1,000,312_l._, whereas the expenditure on relief was only
781,523_l._, the remainder being applied in payment of the consolidated
annuities, and in defraying expenses incurred under the Medical
Charities Act. At present, it is said, out of 357,858_l._ the entire
amount of the two annuities payable in 1852 and 1853, only 28,768_l._
remains unpaid; and the advances made on security of the Rate-in-aid
have been wholly repaid, with the exception of a trifling sum due on
certain newly arranged townlands. But it is expected that in a short
time “all the exceptional charges on the poor-rates will cease, and that
thenceforward the rates will be exclusively applied to the relief of the
poor, and the support of the medical charities.”
-----
[202]
Ante, p. 323.
[203]
The number in the workhouses on the 29th September 1854 was 66,506,
and at the same date in 1855 it was 56,546.—The number receiving
out-door relief on these days respectively was 926 and 655.
[204]
Ante, p. 374.
-----
[Sidenote: Further advance to the impoverished unions.]
Notwithstanding the general improvement, and the reduction of
expenditure which has been shown to have taken place, assistance was
still required by some of the western unions, and the government
consented to an advance of 30,000_l._ being made to eleven of them,[205]
to pay their debts and relieve them from financial embarrassments; but
this was done however, on the express condition that they “should not
expect further assistance, and should make rates to the satisfaction of
the Poor Law Commissioners, to meet their immediate and future wants.”
The condition and the assistance were alike well timed and judicious,
and secured the objects for which they were intended.
-----
[205]
These were Cahirciveen, Dingle, Kenmare, Kilrush, Killadysert,
Ennistymon, Scariff, Tulla, Clifden, Newport, and Oughterard.
-----
[Sidenote: Average cost of maintenance.]
The cost of subsistence in the workhouse, may be considered to afford a
fair criterion for judging of what is required for the subsistence of
the labouring classes generally, there being in fact little difference
between the food usually consumed by the peasantry, and that supplied to
the inmates of the work-houses. The average weekly cost per head is
ascertained half-yearly, when the union accounts are audited in March
and September, and the following table shows the results on these
occasions from 1847 downwards[206]—
────────────────────────────────┬────────────┬──────────┬───────────
│ Average │ Average │ Total.
│weekly cost │ weekly │
Half-year ending. │ of │ cost of │
│ provisions │clothing. │
│ and │ │
│necessaries.│ │
────────────────────────────────┼────────────┼──────────┼───────────
│ s. d. │ d. │ s. d.
1847. 25th March │ 2 1 │ 3½ │ 2 4½
29th September │ 2 1½ │ 3 │ 2 4½
1848. 25th March │ 1 7 │ 3¼ │ 1 10¼
29th September │ 1 5 │ 3¼ │ 1 8¼
1849. 25th March │ 1 4½ │ 3¼ │ 1 7½
29th September │ 1 2¾ │ 3 │ 1 5¾
1851. 25th March │ 1 0½ │ 2½ │ 1 3
29th September │ 1 0 │ 2¼ │ 1 2½
1852. 25th March │ 1 0½ │ 2 │ 1 2½
29th September │ 1 0½ │ 1½ │ 1 2
1853. 25th March │ 1 1¾ │ 1¾ │ 1 3½
29th September │ 1 2½ │ 1½ │ 1 4
1854. Week ended 22nd April[207]│ 1 9 │ │
────────────────────────────────┴────────────┴──────────┴───────────
-----
[206]
The returns for 1850 were not completed, in consequence of the
alterations which were then being made in the number and the
boundaries of the unions.
[207]
The average for the half-year ending 25th March 1854, was 1_s._
7½_d._, and for the half-year ending 29th September it was 1_s._
8½_d._ per head. For each of the corresponding periods in 1855, the
average was 1_s._ 10¼_d._
-----
[Sidenote: Cost of subsistence and rate of wages.]
In April 1854, we see there was a large increase in the cost of
workhouse maintenance, arising no doubt from the increase which had
taken place in the prices of provisions. This increase would bear hard
upon the labouring classes, unless there were a somewhat proportionate
increase in wages. To obtain information on this point, the Poor Law
Commissioners caused inquiry to be made by the inspectors in their
several districts; and we find it stated as the combined result of their
Reports—“that there is now[208] observable a material increase in the
money value of agricultural labour, to the extent of about 1_s._ per
week on the average throughout Ireland.” It appears also, that
agricultural employment was more continuous than formerly, and that in
most parts of the country the wages of artizans had improved in a still
greater ratio than those of common labourers. Unless there were some
advance in the price of labour, it is probable that the great increase
in the price of provisions would cause an increase in the numbers
applying for relief, which does not appear to have occurred; and this
may be regarded as a further proof, that on the whole the rate of wages
had about kept pace with the increased cost of subsistence.
-----
[208]
That is on the 1st May 1854.
-----
[Sidenote: Changes in the poor law executive.]
Certain changes took place in the Poor Law executive in 1852, which it
is necessary to notice. Mr. Ball resigned the office of Poor Law
Commissioner, and was succeeded by Mr. Senior. The temporary inspectors
were all discontinued. The number of these officers in 1847, on the
passing of the Extension Act, was 48; but they had been subsequently
reduced to 11, and of these 4 were now discontinued, and the remaining 7
were placed on the permanent staff, making the number of inspectors 16,
each having the charge of a larger or smaller number of unions according
to the circumstances of the district.
[Sidenote: New order of accounts.]
A new order of accounts adapted to the alterations made in the law had
been completed, and was issued in April of the present year; and the
commissioners remark in their Report that “the administration of relief
to the destitute poor in Ireland, may be now looked upon as nearly
identical with its normal state, as originally contemplated on the
passing of the _Act 1st and 2nd Vict. cap. 56_. Such a result could
hardly have been expected after the severe trials to which the country
had so recently been exposed, but it was most satisfactory, and must be
regarded as a proof of the enduring soundness of the principle on which
that measure was founded.
I have now brought the narrative of the Irish Poor Law, down to a period
coincident with my histories of the English and the Scottish Poor Laws;
and here, as originally intended, I should conclude. But in the autumn
of 1853 I again visited Ireland, and examined many of the unions,
chiefly in the south and the west, in order to see and form my own
judgment as to the working of the law, and the condition of the people.
The results of what came under my own observation, and of the inquiries
which I was enabled to make, were embodied at the time in a letter to
Lord John Russell, by whom the measure of Irish Poor Law had been
originally introduced and carried through parliament, and who always
took a lively interest in everything connected with it; and it now
appears to me that I cannot do better than give the substance of that
letter, written with all the facts and incidents fresh before me, as a
fitting close to the statements contained in the present work. The
letter is dated Dublin 16th September 1853, and omitting a short
introduction is substantially as follows—
[Sidenote: The author’s letter to Lord John Russell, September 1853.]
“Eleven years have passed since I quitted Ireland. In the interim the
country has suffered from famine and pestilence, and the Poor Law has
been subjected to a most severe trial. An examination of the present
condition of the country and state of the law cannot therefore fail of
being deeply interesting, and I should have been glad to have given more
time to it, if other claims had permitted.
“The circumstance that now first arrests attention in passing through
the country, is the comparatively small number of beggars. Formerly the
roads were lined with them, and the traveller wherever he stopped was
surrounded by clamorous miserable-looking solicitors of charity. This is
now changed. Beggars are rarely seen on the roads, less frequently in
the towns; and are not I think on the whole, more numerous than in
England. The famine may have been partly the cause of this change, but
another if not the chief cause is the workhouses, where the old the
feeble the sick and infirm poor are now supported, as the law designed,
and as sound policy required that they should be. The workhouses are
entirely occupied by this description of paupers, and the very
young—there are no able-bodied. The total number of inmates of all
classes is now 84,000, which is about the number I estimated at the
outset as requiring to be provided for. The cost of relief is moreover
about the same as I then estimated that it would probably amount to; and
it is not a little gratifying to find that our calculations in these
respects are so far verified.
“The Poor Law appears to be now thoroughly naturalized in Ireland. Your
lordship would have been delighted to have heard it spoken of as I have
done, and that by persons who did not know me, and who praised it as
having been the salvation of the country, exclaiming “what should we
have done without it!”—Complaints of the expense are it is true
sometimes heard, but these are directed rather against the inequality of
the charge than against the general amount, some electoral divisions
paying heavily, whilst others pay little or nothing, as is sometimes the
case with English parishes.
“The changes which have been made, are not I think all of them
improvements. Although the subdivision of a few of the unions might have
been necessary, this as well as the subdivision of the districts of
chargeability, has I fear been carried too far—it has added to the
working friction, and swelled the aggregate charge.
“When settlement shall be abolished in England, and union rating
established instead of parochial, as I trust will ere long be the case,
we may hope to see a similar reform extended to Ireland, which would
bring the law back nearly to what your lordship first proposed and
carried through the house of commons; and most of the changes which were
subsequently made, as well as some of those since added, have in my
judgment served to detract from its simplicity, and tended to impede its
effective operation.
“All the workhouses which I have seen are in good order and the
buildings in perfect condition, and such also I am informed is the case
with the others. It is not a little satisfactory to find this the case,
after the complaints that were made of these buildings, which are now as
much praised as they were at one time decried.
“The most pleasing circumstance connected with the workhouse is the
state of the pauper children, who are there educated and trained up in
habits of order cleanliness and industry, instead of being left as
outcasts, with every likelihood of their becoming a burthen, and
possibly a bane to the community. I wish you could have seen with me
some of these workhouse schools, and witnessed the benefits they are
conferring upon the country. In the rural districts there is little
difficulty in getting the boys out to service as soon as they are of an
age fit for it, and the girls likewise now generally obtain places,
although not so readily; but in the large towns there is still a
difficulty with these last, there being proportionally less employment
for females in Ireland than in England. A considerable number of girls
and young women have been assisted to emigrate within the last three
years, and it is very desirable that others should be so assisted and
sent out from such of the workhouses as are overstocked with this class
of inmates.
“With respect to emigration, I think that it has been already carried
farther than was desirable. There appears to be no excess of labourers
anywhere, and now in the harvest season there is evidently a want of
hands to do the work, and high wages are paid, as much in some instances
as 2_s._ and 2_s._ 6_d._ a day; but this is only during the period of
urgency. There is still a want of certain and continuous employment in
Ireland, and the people do not rely upon regular daily labour as a means
of support, although they are I think approximating to it; and the
extensive emigration which has taken place, will no doubt help forward
the change. The rage for emigrating however continues, although the
occasion for it has ceased. It pervades every class, and is strongest
with the best educated and most intelligent. I found this to be the case
among the boys in the workhouse schools. The sharp active intelligent
lads were all eager to emigrate. It was only the more dull feeble and
inert who appeared content to remain at home. Yet I know of no country
where labour can be applied with the certainty of a better return.
Labour is here in fact the thing chiefly needed. It is impossible to
pass through Ireland without seeing this, and lamenting the omission.
“It is encouraging to reflect however, that were there less room for
improvement in this and other respects, there would be less incentive to
exertion; and when the rage for emigration which still prevails shall
have subsided, as subside it will, we may with greater confidence expect
that the energies and increased intelligence of the people will be
turned to the improvement of their own country, in which they will
assuredly find a rich reward, and in furtherance of which they will, in
the Poor Law, have a valuable auxiliary.”
Such were the impressions derived from what came within the limit of my
own observation and inquiry, on again visiting Ireland in the autumn of
1853. That these impressions were not more favourable than the
circumstances warranted, is proved by the progressive ameliorations
which have since taken place, of the extent of which generally, the
proceedings under the Poor Law may be regarded as an index; and these
have shown a continual reduction, both in expenditure and in the numbers
relieved. The total cost of relief in the year ending 29th September
1855, including every item of charge, was no more than 685,259_l._; and
the total number of persons relieved on that day was 57,201, of whom 655
(being exceptional cases) were relieved out of the workhouse.[209] This
reduction in expenditure has moreover taken place, notwithstanding the
greatly increased cost of maintenance in the workhouses as compared with
what it was in 1850 and 1851,[210] making a difference on the whole of
probably not less than 150,000_l._; so that but for this increase, the
entire cost of relieving the poor in 1855 might perhaps not have
exceeded half a million, and in the event of prices falling to their
former level, and other circumstances proving favourable, it may
hereafter possibly range at about that amount.
-----
[209]
The weekly cost of the out-relief so given was 40_l._ 4_s._ 4_d._
[210]
Ante, p. 397.
-----
At present however the expenditure under the Irish Poor Law contrasts
favourably with what is taking place under the English and Scottish
laws—in Ireland it averages 2_s._ per head on the population, whilst in
Scotland the average amounts to 4_s._,[211] and in England to 5_s._
6_d._ per head—or if we take the valuations in the three countries as a
standard of comparison, it will appear that the expenditure on relief of
the poor in Ireland amounts to 1_s._ 2½_d._, in Scotland to 1_s._ 4_d._,
and in England to 1_s._ 5½_d._ in the pound. These comparisons are I
think satisfactory, and it is encouraging also to find the commissioners
declaring in their last Report,[212] that—“a material diminution of
pauperism in Ireland is still going on”—and that—“the improvement in the
rate of wages and the increased constancy of employment have not only
been sustained, but have further advanced and acquired a still more
permanent and healthy aspect.” Emigration likewise, both spontaneous and
that conducted at the expense of the poor-rates,[213] is considerably
lessened, and seems likely ere long to be reduced within its natural
limits. The future therefore appears in every way hopeful for
Ireland—may the Irish people on their part, not be wanting in due effort
for securing the benefits of which there is at present so fair a
promise!
-----
[211]
See the tenth Report of the board of supervision.
[212]
The ninth, dated May 1st 1856.
[213]
The amount expended from the poor-rates in 1855, to assist in the
emigration of 830 poor persons from different unions, was 6,859_l._ In
the previous year the amount had been 22,651_l._, including 10,000_l._
from the rate in aid, to assist in the emigration of 1,500 young
females from the workhouses in the south and west of Ireland.
-----
TABLES OF THE NUMBERS RELIEVED IN AND OUT OF THE WORKHOUSE, WITH THE
EXTENT OF MORTALITY, ETC., REFERRED TO AT PAGE 389.
┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│Numbers relieved in the workhouses │
│ houses in each of the weeks ending │
│ on the dates in the first column │
│ respectively; together with the │
│ number and the rate per 1,000 of │
│ the deaths. │
├──────────┬────────────┬──────┬──────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ Weeks │Total number│Deaths│ Rate │
│ ending │ in the │in the│ per │
│ │workhouses. │week. │1,000.│
│ │ │ │ │
├──────────┼────────────┼──────┼──────┤
│ 1846.│ │ │ │
│ 4 April│ 50,861│ 159│ 3.0│
│ 4 July│ 50,693│ 146│ 2.9│
│ 7 Nov.│ 74,175│ 312│ 4.2│
│ │ │ │ │
│ 1847.│ │ │ │
│ 2 Jan.│ 98,762│ 1,206│ 12.2│
│ 6 Mar.│ 115,645│ 2,590│ 22.0│
│ 3 July│ 101,439│ 1,239│ 12.2│
│ 4 Sept.│ 75,376│ 589│ 7.8│
│ 13 Nov.│ 102,776│ 523│ 5.1│
│ │ │ │ │
│ 1848.│ │ │ │
│ 1 Jan.│ 117,568│ 1,362│ 11.6│
│ 12 Feb.│ 135,467│ 1,316│ 9.7│
│ 1 July│ 139,397│ 620│ 4.5│
│ 9 Sept.│ 107,320│ 350│ 3.3│
│ 2 Dec.│ 172,980│ 787│ 4.5│
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ 1849.│ │ │ │
│ 13 Jan.│ 191,445│ 1,477│ 7.7│
│ 3 Mar.│ 196,523│ 1,846│ 9.4│
│ 5 May│ 220,401│ 2,730│ 12.4│
│ 16 June│ 227,329│ 2,009│ 8.8│
│ 6 Oct.│ 140,266│ 488│ 3.5│
│ 1 Dec.│ 180,641│ 471│ 2.7│
│ │ │ │ │
│ 1850.│ │ │ │
│ 5 Jan.│ 203,320│ 792│ 3.9│
│ 2 Feb.│ 230,348│ 994│ 4.3│
│ 2 Mar.│ 237,939│ 1,150│ 4.8│
│ 4 May│ 243,224│ 1,247│ 5.1│
│ 22 June│ 264,048│ 1,126│ 4.3│
│ 3 Aug.│ 219,231│ 808│ 3.7│
│ 28 Sept.│ 155,173│ 526│ 3.4│
│ 7 Dec.│ 191,341│ 501│ 2.6│
│ │ │ │ │
│ 1851.│ │ │ │
│ 4 Jan.│ 206,468│ 654│ 3.2│
│ 22 Feb.│ 251,836│ 1,201│ 4.8│
│ 22 Mar.│ 248,501│ 1,512│ 6.1│
│ 7 June│ 263,397│ 1,264│ 4.8│
│ 2 Aug.│ 222,038│ 789│ 3.6│
│ 27 Sept.│ 140,458│ 386│ 2.8│
│ │ │ │ │
│ 1852.│ │ │ │
│ 3 Jan.│ 168,248│ 407│ 2.4│
│ 21 Feb.│ 196,966│ 594│ 3.0│
│ 5 June│ 187,003│ 541│ 2.9│
│ 18 Sept.│ 111,117│ 261│ 2.3│
│ 25 Dec.│ 134,476│ 281│ 2.1│
│ │ │ │ │
│ 1853.│ │ │ │
│ 19 Feb.│ 160,774│ 627│ 3.9│
│ 30 July│ 113,099│ 272│ 2.4│
│ 1 Oct.│ 79,410│ 202│ 2.5│
└──────────┴────────────┴──────┴──────┘
┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│Number of destitute persons relieved out of the workhouses │
│ under the 1st and 2nd sections of the Extension Act (_10th │
│ and 11th Vict., cap. 31_) respectively, in each of the │
│ weeks ending on the dates in the first column; together │
│ with the weekly cost of such relief. │
├──────────┬────────────┬────────────┬─────────┬──────────────┤
│ │ Numbers │ Numbers │ │ │
│ │ relieved │ relieved │ │ │
│ Weeks │ under │ under │ Total │Weekly cost of│
│ ending. │Section 1 of│Section 2 of│ │ relief. │
│ │ Extension │ Extension │ │ │
│ │ Act. │ Act. │ │ │
├──────────┼────────────┼────────────┼─────────┼──────────────┤
│ 1848.│ │ │ │ £. s. d. │
│ 5 Feb.│ 337,665│ 107,811│ 445,476│12,788 9 0│
│ 4 Mar.│ 425,949│ 228,763│ 654,712│17,564 18 2│
│ 1 April│ 408,923│ 235,076│ 643,999│17,092 6 6│
│ 6 May│ 485,364│ 266,430│ 751,794│18,786 18 5│
│ 1 July│ 490,902│ 342,987│ 833,889│21,800 14 10│
│ 2 Sept.│ 279,567│ 96,523│ 376,090│10,335 14 5│
│ 7 Oct.│ 192,401│ 7,202│ 199,603│ 5,925 4 2│
│ 2 Dec.│ 246,125│ 31,859│ 277,984│ 7,845 12 10│
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ 1849.│ │ │ │ │
│ 6 Jan.│ 327,733│ 75,622│ 423,355│11,170 7 5│
│ 3 Mar.│ 422,693│ 170,012│ 592,705│15,051 14 3│
│ 2 June│ 402,184│ 239,229│ 642,413│19,263 7 1│
│ 7 July│ 492,503│ 291,864│ 784,367│21,757 8 3│
│ 1 Sept.│ 425,197│ 50,796│ 276,793│ 6,493 13 11│
│ 13 Oct.│ 114,316│ 1,647│ 115,963│ 2,653 7 2│
│ 3 Nov│ 102,247│ 13│ 102,260│ 2,336 11 11│
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ 1850.│ │ │ │ │
│ 5 Jan.│ 104,305│ 345│ 104,650│ 2,159 0 3│
│ 23 Feb.│ 148,909│ │ 148,909│ 3,216 8 8│
│ 1 June│ 127,727│ 128│ 127,855│ 2,805 9 2│
│ 3 Aug.│ 73,129│ 40│ 73,169│ 1,617 7 5│
│ 14 Sept.│ 3,794│ │ 3,794│ 96 14 2│
│ 19 Oct.│ 2,249│ │ 2,249│ 63 13 6│
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ 1851.│ │ │ │ │
│ 4 Jan.│ 2,713│ 6│ 2,719│ 76 14 0│
│ 22 Feb.│ 9,103│ 20│ 9,123│ 229 4 6│
│ 3 May│ 11,145│ 7│ 11,153│ 268 17 4│
│ 5 July│ 19,454│ 28│ 19,482│ 486 4 11│
│ 4 Oct.│ 3,084│ │ 3,084│ 75 10 4│
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ 1852.│ │ │ │ │
│ 3 Jan.│ 3,170│ │ 3,170│ 88 6 3│
│ 6 Mar.│ 3,396│ │ 3,396│ 100 0 10│
│ 3 July│ 3,579│ │ 3,579│ 102 19 0│
│ 9 Oct.│ 2,491│ 1│ 2,492│ 74 1 3│
│ 25 Dec.│ 2,998│ │ 2,998│ 87 12 10│
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ 1853.│ │ │ │ │
│ 26 Feb.│ 4,152│ │ 4,152│ 116 16 10│
│ 30 July│ 3,092│ │ 3,092│ 96 5 2│
│ 8 Oct.│ 1,977│ │ 1,977│ 61 16 10│
└──────────┴────────────┴────────────┴─────────┴──────────────┘
INDEX.
Able-bodied disorderly persons and vagrants to be compelled to provide
their own subsistence by strict workhouse discipline, 182.
Absconding from a workhouse, punishment for, 227.
Abuses of out-door relief, impossibilities of avoiding, 204.
Accounts, new order of issued in 1853, 398.
Acre, amount per, paid by farmer in relieving mendicancy, 192.
Act of 1 and 2 Vict., cap. 56, 222 _et seq._
——- make further provision for the relief of the destitute poor in
Ireland, 330.
——- to make provision for the punishment of vagrants, &c., 332.
——- to provide for the execution of the laws for relief of the poor in
Ireland, 333.
——- for a rate-in-aid, summary of, 355, 356.
——- to amend the previous acts for the relief of the poor in Ireland,
summary of, 367-9.
——- for a further advance of public money for distressed unions,
summary of, 374, 375.
——- for the regulation of medical charities, summary of, 382, 383.
Actions under the Irish Poor-Law Act, preliminary notice of to be
given, 231;
to recover poor-rates, regulations as to, 368.
Adoption by government of the author’s first Report in December 1836,
188.
Agents empowered to sign notices of appeal, 369.
Agricultural labourers in Great Britain and Ireland, comparative
proportions of, 131.
Agriculture, recommendation to encourage by legislative grants, 88;
efforts of the Poor-Law Board to improve, 269.
Almsgiving, desirableness of bringing under a system, 149;
prevalence of in Ireland, 182;
discontinuance of anticipated, 183.
Alms, spontaneous, amounts bestowed by small farmers and cottars, 149.
Amended orders for the election of guardians, 302.
Amendment of the new poor-law, act for, 291.
Amount, total, contributed by England in 1847-8-9, for the relief of
Ireland, 356.
Amsterdam, account of the workhouse in, 212.
Amusements, love of, and reckless pursuit of by the Irish peasantry,
163.
Anglo-Saxons taught by Irish missionaries, 2.
Annuities under the Consolidated Debts Act, arrangements for paying,
380;
partial remission of, 381.
Apathy of the Irish peasantry, 162;
poverty not a real excuse for, _ibid._
Appeals, how and before whom to be brought, 231, 233.
Apprenticeship of poor children recommended for Ireland, 183, 184.
Architect engaged to erect workhouses, 243.
Ardent spirits, recommendations of the Commissioners of Inquiry for
lessening the inordinate use of, 146.
Assessment, instructions to the assistant commissioners relating to,
240.
Assistant barristers allowed to correct clerical errors in actions for
the recovery of poor-rates, 369.
Assistant commissioners, in 1833, appointment of and instructions for,
121;
enactment for the appointment of, 223;
duties of, _ibid._;
exertions of, 241;
additional provided, 246;
reports of, 247;
appointment of additional, 338.
Assistant guardians may be appointed by the commissioners at the
request of the guardians, 368.
Asylums for lunatics and idiots, the erection of in each of the four
provinces recommended, 83.
Audit of accounts, and half-yearly reports of, infirmaries and
hospitals recommended, 101;
report as to, 276.
Auditing of poor-law accounts, 222.
Auditors, enactment for the appointment of, 230;
appointment of four, 298;
regulations as to, 332.
Author’s first Report, Nov. 1836, 159;
second Report, Nov. 1837, 196;
third Report, 212;
second visit to Ireland in 1837, 195;
departure for Ireland as chief commissioner, 234;
departure from Ireland in 1842, 284;
visit to Ireland in 1853, 398.
Auxiliary workhouses, hired buildings ill adapted for, 379.
Average cost per head of paupers in the workhouses, 301;
of maintenance of the poor in workhouses, 396;
rate per head paid for the relief of the poor by the population of
England, Scotland, and Ireland, 403.
Badging the poor, act for, 51.
Ballinasloe union agricultural society, notice of, 269.
Barracks to be converted into workhouses, if suitable, 237, 239.
Bastardy, recommendation that no law should be enacted for Ireland,
183.
Bay and coast fisheries in Ireland, facilities for, 89.
Beadles and constables authorized to seize beggars and vagabonds in
Cork, and commit them to the workhouse, 43.
Becket’s murder, notice of, 4.
Bedford Level Corporation, a board on the principle of recommended, to
carry into effect a system of national improvement in Ireland, 137.
Beggars, act for the punishment of, 22.
Beggar’s curse, superstitious dread of the Irish peasantry of, 206.
Begging, not to be prohibited, where persons have asked for, and failed
in procuring, relief, 193.
Belfast, assistant-commissioners sent to, 234, 236.
Belgium, visit of the author to, 211 _et seq._;
report of the management of the poor in, 213.
Bicheno, Mr., remarks of upon the evidence submitted by the Inquiry
Commissioners, 151.
Bill, directions for the preparation of, embodying the measures
proposed in the author’s first Report, 188;
introduced to parliament in Feb. 1837, 189;
discussion on the first reading of, 194;
second reading of, and proceedings in committee on, 194, 195;
dropped in consequence of the death of William IV., 195;
of the Irish Poor Law of 1837-8 introduced to the house of commons by
Lord John Russell, 210;
passing of, 211;
introduced into the house of lords, 211;
for the relief of the Irish poor read a first time in the house of
lords, 217;
a second time, 218;
division upon in committee, 220;
read a third time and passed, 221.
Board of Charitable Bequests, recommendation to transfer the functions
of to the Poor Law Commissioners, 146.
——- of Education, recommendation for the appointment of, 111.
——- of Improvement, proposed duties of, 138.
—— of Works, proposed duties of, 138, 139.
—— of Works, efforts of to supply employment to the poor during the
distress in 1846, 314;
numbers employed under, 315, 316.
Boards of guardians, enactment for the appointment of, 223;
enactment constituting them corporations, 224;
enactment giving the commissioners power to dissolve, 332;
thirty-two dissolved in 1847, 341;
five in 1849, 360.
Bogs, Irish, act for reclaiming, 75.
Boundaries of unions, where changed, the commissioners to adjust the
liabilities, 368.
Boundary commission, appointment of to regulate the size of unions,
361;
recommendation of, to form fifty new unions, 362.
Boyne, the battle of, 10.
Bread and cheese, contrast of the English labourer’s meal of, with the
Irish labourer’s potato-bowl, 62.
Britain, strangers from, resort to the Irish schools, 2.
British Association, amount collected by to relieve the distress in
Ireland occasioned by the potato disease, 321;
number of persons relieved by in 1848, 346.
—— capitalists, inquiry into the circumstances which have prevented
their investing in Irish agriculture, 123.
Building of workhouses, means taken to secure a fair payment for, 254;
inspection of by the chief commissioner, 260.
Buildings and repairs of tenements, consequences of throwing the
expense on the tenants, 89.
Bureau de Bienfaisance, notice of, 216.
Burgesses, recommendation of Spenser that they should be nominated, 9.
Burke, quotation from, 139.
‘Burning corn in the straw,’ act against, 32;
punishment for, 33.
Cabinet, the author’s report on the state of the north of Ireland in
1837, considered by, 209.
Cabins, wretched construction of, in Ireland, 62, 64.
Caledonian Canal, beneficial effects of employing Highland labourers
on, cited, 107.
Capital, amount of, sunk upon the land in England, 60;
causes of the scarcity of, in Ireland, 88;
inducements required for the investment of, 208.
Carrick-on-Shannon, death of a poor man in the union of, from having
been refused relief, 296, 297.
Castlereagh union, board of guardians dissolved by the commissioners,
305.
Cattle, improvident care of, 32;
reared in Donegal to pay the rent, 201.
Cemeteries, guardians empowered to provide, 332.
Census of Ireland in 1851, decrease of population shown by, 386, 387.
Central authority, necessity for, in administering the poor-laws, 176.
Certificates to be given servants on leaving their employment, 41.
Certiorari, actions under the Irish Poor Law Act not removable by,
except into the Court of Queen’s Bench, Dublin, 231, 233.
Chapels for workhouses, guardians empowered to provide, 332.
Character and habits of Irish poor in English poorhouses, 158.
Charitable institutions, establishment of, 13;
recommendation to allow them to subsist as they are, 185.
Charity, private, tendency of, to encourage mendicancy, 140.
Charles the First, the Roman catholics of Ireland adhere to his cause,
10.
Chief commissioner of the Irish Poor Law Board, enactment for the
appointment of, in 1847, 333.
Children, punishment for the desertion of, 30;
required age of, for admission into the Dublin Foundling Hospital,
85, 86;
indiscriminate admission of, 85 _note_;
enactment making them chargeable, if able, for the support of their
parents, 227;
number of, in the Dublin Foundling Hospital, 249;
amount expended in feeding, 388;
number of, in the workhouses in 1851, 390.
Cholera, appearance of, in 1849, 350.
Cholesbury, the case of, cited, 136.
Christian monasteries, state of, in Ireland at an early period, 2.
Church collections for the relief of distress, 106.
—— holidays, meat eaten by the poor only on, 132.
Churchwardens to remove from their parish, or to confine in bridewell,
wandering beggars and vagabonds, 86.
Cities, towns, &c., of 10,000 inhabitants may be divided into wards for
the purpose of electing guardians, 233.
Clare, distressed state of, 365;
mortality in, 372.
Clergy of various persuasions to furnish religious instruction to the
children of their own faith, 112;
favourable to a system of poor-laws, 167.
Clergymen to preach sermons for the support of houses of industry, 55;
of whatever denomination not to be poor-law guardians, 175.
Clerks of workhouses to keep register books, 226.
Clothes of vagabond beggars to be washed and cleansed, 86.
Clothing of the labourers in Ireland, inferiority of, in Ireland, 63.
Coals imported into Cork, a duty imposed on, in 1735, for the support
of the workhouse, 43.
Cod-fishery, facilities for, on the coasts of Ireland, 89;
success of the encouragement of in Scotland, _ibid._, 90.
Corn, clamourings for a prohibition of the export of, in 1855, 17.
Collection of rates, no difficulty found in the, 277.
Colonization by Irish labourers, recommended to be undertaken by
government in 1830, 107.
Comforts and conveniences, the providing of, not the proper object of a
poor-law, 203.
Commission appointed in 1833 to inquire into the condition of the
poorer classes in Ireland, 118;
first Report of, in 1835, _ibid._ _et seq._;
heads of inquiry adopted, 119;
second Report of, in 1836, 125 _et seq._;
third Report of, in 1836, 131 _et seq._
Commissioners to inquire into the nature and extent of Irish bogs,
appointment of, 75;
utility of, 76;
Reports of, _ibid._
—-—-— of 1833, names of, 118.
—-—-— of Inquiry, differences of opinion among, as to the nature of
their Report, 129.
—-—-— to appoint guardians if not duly elected, 224.
—-—-— empowered to levy a rate-in-aid for the relief of distressed
unions, 356.
—-—-— of valuation, commissioners empowered to appoint one, 393.
Commissions for the Poor Laws, difficulty of union of purpose if
separate are appointed for England and Ireland, 188.
Committee of the house of commons on the poor in Ireland, Report of, 82
_et seq._
Compulsory and voluntary relief, agitation of the question as to the
advantages and disadvantages of, 129.
—— rates, enormous amount asserted to be necessary for relieving all
cases of distress, 149.
Con-acre, use to be derived from, in diminishing the number of small
holdings, 166.
Condition of the poor, variations of in different parts of Ireland, 97.
Confinement more irksome to an Irishman than an Englishman, 171.
Connaught, the province of, probably an ecclesiastical formation, 3;
unions, satisfactory state of, in 1851, 378;
and Munster, state of, in 1851, 390.
Consolidation of farms, good and evil effects of, 97;
of small holdings in Donegal, desirableness of, 202;
new Poor Law likely to assist in effecting, _ibid._
Constables to be appointed presidents of every town within the English
pale, by an Act in 1465, 16;
to make privy search for rogues, vagabonds, and idle persons, 29.
Contracts made by guardians not valid unless conformable to the rules,
230.
Contributions called voluntary frequently a real and unequal tax, 147.
Convicted persons, of felony fraud or perjury, ineligible for
guardians, 293.