inquired what was wanted. His uncle explained matters, adding that I
was well acquainted with some of his Indian friends who had visited
him a short time before, and was going back to the same people. After
some deliberation he said that the whites had lied about him and
he did not like to talk to them; some of the Indians had disobeyed
his instructions and trouble had come of it, but as I was sent by
Washington and was a friend of his friends, he would talk with me. He
was hunting now, but if we would come to his camp that night he would
tell us about his mission.
With another hand-shake he left us, and we drove on to the nearest
ranch, arriving about dark. After supper we got ready and started
across country through the sagebrush for the Paiute camp, some miles
away, guided by our Indian. It was already night, with nothing to be
seen but the clumps of snow-covered sagebrush stretching away in every
direction, and after traveling an hour or more without reaching the
camp, our guide had to confess that he had lost the trail. It was two
years since he had been there, his sight was failing, and, with the
snow and the darkness, he was utterly at a loss to know his whereabouts.
To be lost on a sage plain on a freezing night in January is not a
pleasant experience. There was no road, and no house but the one we had
left some miles behind, and it would be almost impossible to find our
way back to that through the darkness. Excepting for a lantern there
was no light but what came from the glare of the snow and a few stars
in the frosty sky overhead. To add to our difficulty, the snow was cut
in every direction by cattle trails, which seemed to be Indian trails,
and kept us doubling and circling to no purpose, while in the uncertain
gloom every large clump of sagebrush took on the appearance of a
wikiup, only to disappoint us on a nearer approach. With it all, the
night was bitterly cold and we were half frozen. After vainly following
a dozen false trails and shouting repeatedly in hope of hearing an
answering cry, we hit on the expedient of leaving the Indian with the
wagon, he being the oldest man of the party, while the rest of us each
took a different direction from the central point, following the cattle
tracks in the snow and calling to each other at short intervals, in
order that we might not become lost from one another. After going
far enough to know that none of us had yet struck the right trail,
the wagon was moved up a short distance and the same performance was
repeated. At last a shout from our driver brought us all together. He
declared that he had heard sounds in front, and after listening a few
minutes in painful suspense we saw a shower of sparks go up into the
darkness and knew that we had struck the camp. Going back to the wagon,
we got in and drove straight across to the spot, where we found three
or four little wikiups, in one of which we were told the messiah was
awaiting our arrival.
On entering through the low doorway we found ourselves in a circular
lodge made of bundles of tulé rushes laid over a framework of poles,
after the fashion of the thatched roofs of Europe, and very similar
to the grass lodges of the Wichita. The lodge was only about 10 feet
in diameter and about 8 feet in height, with sloping sides, and was
almost entirely open above, like a cone with the top cut off, as in
this part of the country rain or snow is of rare occurrence. As already
remarked, the deep snow at the time was something unusual. In the
center, built directly on the ground, was a blazing fire of sagebrush,
upon which fresh stalks were thrown from time to time, sending up a
shower of sparks into the open air. It was by this means that we had
been guided to the camp. Sitting or lying around the fire were half a
dozen Paiute, including the messiah and his family, consisting of his
young wife, a boy about 4 years of age, of whom he seemed very fond,
and an infant. It was plain that he was a kind husband and father,
which was in keeping with his reputation among the whites for industry
and reliability. The only articles in the nature of furniture were a
few grass woven bowls and baskets of various sizes and patterns. There
were no Indian beds or seats of the kind found in every prairie tipi,
no rawhide boxes, no toilet pouches, not even a hole dug in the ground
for the fire. Although all wore white men’s dress, there were no pots,
pans, or other articles of civilized manufacture, now used by even
the most primitive prairie tribes, for, strangely enough, although
these Paiute are practically farm laborers and tenants of the whites
all around them, and earn good wages, they seem to covet nothing of
the white man’s, but spend their money for dress, small trinkets,
and ammunition for hunting, and continue to subsist on seeds, piñon
nuts, and small game, lying down at night on the dusty ground in their
cramped wikiups, destitute of even the most ordinary conveniences in
use among other tribes. It is a curious instance of a people accepting
the inevitable while yet resisting innovation.
Wovoka received us cordially and then inquired more particularly as to
my purpose in seeking an interview. His uncle entered into a detailed
explanation, which stretched out to a preposterous length, owing to a
peculiar conversational method of the Paiute. Each statement by the
older man was repeated at its close, word for word and sentence by
sentence, by the other, with the same monotonous inflection. This
done, the first speaker signified by a grunt of approval that it had
been correctly repeated, and then proceeded with the next statement,
which was duly repeated in like manner. The first time I had heard two
old men conversing together in this fashion on the reservation I had
supposed they were reciting some sort of Indian litany, and it required
several such experiences and some degree of patience to become used to
it.
At last he signified that he understood and was satisfied, and then in
answer to my questions gave an account of himself and his doctrine, a
great part of the interpretation being by Dyer, with whom he seemed
to be on intimate terms. He said he was about 35 years of age, fixing
the date from a noted battle[7] between the Paiute and the whites near
Pyramid lake, in 1860, at which time he said he was about the size
of his little boy; who appeared to be of about 4 years. His father,
Tävibo, “White Man,” was not a preacher, but was a _capita_ (from the
Spanish _capitan_) or petty chief, and was a dreamer and invulnerable.
His own proper name from boyhood was Wovoka or Wüvoka, “The Cutter,”
but a few years ago he had assumed the name of his paternal
grandfather, Kwohitsauq, or “Big Rumbling Belly.” After the death of
his father he had been taken into the family of a white farmer, David
Wilson, who had given him the name of Jack Wilson, by which he is
commonly known among the whites. He thus has three distinct names,
Wovoka, Kwohitsauq, and Jack Wilson. He stated positively that he was
a full-blood, a statement borne out by his appearance. The impression
that he is a half-blood may have arisen from the fact that his father’s
name was “White Man” and that he has a white man’s name. His followers,
both in his own and in all other tribes, commonly refer to him as “our
father.” He has never been away from Mason valley and speaks only his
own Paiute language, with some little knowledge of English. He is not
acquainted with the sign language, which is hardly known west of the
mountains.
When about 20 years of age, he married, and continued to work for Mr
Wilson. He had given the dance to his people about four years before,
but had received his great revelation about two years previously. On
this occasion “the sun died” (was eclipsed) and he fell asleep in the
daytime and was taken up to the other world. Here he saw God, with all
the people who had died long ago engaged in their oldtime sports and
occupations, all happy and forever young. It was a pleasant land and
full of game. After showing him all, God told him he must go back
and tell his people they must be good and love one another, have no
quarreling, and live in peace with the whites; that they must work,
and not lie or steal; that they must put away all the old practices
that savored of war; that if they faithfully obeyed his instructions
they would at last be reunited with their friends in this other world,
where there would be no more death or sickness or old age. He was then
given the dance which he was commanded to bring back to his people.
By performing this dance at intervals, for five consecutive days each
time, they would secure this happiness to themselves and hasten the
event. Finally God gave him control over the elements so that he could
make it rain or snow or be dry at will, and appointed him his deputy
to take charge of affairs in the west, while “Governor Harrison” would
attend to matters in the east, and he, God, would look after the
world above. He then returned to earth and began to preach as he was
directed, convincing the people by exercising the wonderful powers that
had been given him.
In 1890 Josephus, a Paiute informant, thus described to the scout
Chapman the occasion of Wovoka’s first inspiration: “About three years
ago Jack Wilson took his family and went into the mountains to cut
wood for Mr Dave Wilson. One day while at work he heard a great noise
which appeared to be above him on the mountain. He laid down his ax
and started to go in the direction of the noise, when he fell down
dead, and God came and took him to heaven.” Afterward on one or two
other occasions “God came and took him to heaven again.” Wovoka also
told Chapman that he had then been preaching to the Indians about
three years. In our conversation he said nothing about a mysterious
noise, and stated that it was about two years since he had visited
heaven and received his great revelation, but that it was about four
years since he had first taught the dance to his people. The fact that
he has different revelations from time to time would account for the
discrepancy of statement.
He disclaimed all responsibility for the ghost shirt which formed so
important a part of the dance costume among the Sioux; said that there
were no trances in the dance as performed among his people—a statement
confirmed by eye-witnesses among the neighboring ranchmen—and earnestly
repudiated any idea of hostility toward the whites, asserting that his
religion was one of universal peace. When questioned directly, he said
he believed it was better for the Indians to follow the white man’s
road and to adopt the habits of civilization. If appearances are in
evidence he is sincere in this, for he was dressed in a good suit of
white man’s clothing, and works regularly on a ranch, although living
in a wikiup. While he repudiated almost everything for which he had
been held responsible in the east, he asserted positively that he had
been to the spirit world and had been given a revelation and message
from God himself, with full control over the elements. From his uncle
I learned that Wovoka has five songs for making it rain, the first of
which brings on a mist or cloud, the second a snowfall, the third a
shower, and the fourth a hard rain or storm, while when he sings the
fifth song the weather again becomes clear.
I knew that he was holding something in reserve, as no Indian would
unbosom himself on religious matters to a white man with whom he had
not had a long and intimate acquaintance. Especially was this true
in view of the warlike turn affairs had taken across the mountains.
Consequently I accepted his statements with several grains of salt, but
on the whole he seemed to be honest in his belief and his supernatural
claims, although, like others of the priestly function, he occasionally
resorts to cheap trickery to keep up the impression as to his
miraculous powers. From some of the reports he is evidently an expert
sleight-of-hand performer. He makes no claim to be Christ, the Son of
God, as has been so often asserted in print. He does claim to be a
prophet who has received a divine revelation. I could not help feeling
that he was sincere in his repudiation of a number of the wonderful
things attributed to him, for the reason that he insisted so strongly
on other things fully as trying to the faith of a white man. He made
no argument and advanced no proofs, but said simply that he had been
with God, as though the statement no more admitted of controversy than
the proposition that 2 and 2 are 4. From Mr J. O. Gregory, formerly
employed at the agency, and well acquainted with the prophet, I learned
that Wovoka had once requested him to draw up and forward to the
President a statement of his supernatural claims, with a proposition
that if he could receive a small regular stipend he would take up his
residence on the reservation and agree to keep Nevada people informed
of all the latest news from heaven and to furnish rain whenever wanted.
The letter was never forwarded.
From a neighboring ranchman, who knew Wovoka well and sometimes
employed him in the working season, I obtained a statement which seems
to explain the whole matter. It appears that a short time before
the prophet began to preach he was stricken down by a severe fever,
during which illness the ranchman frequently visited and ministered to
him. While he was still sick there occurred an eclipse of the sun, a
phenomenon which always excites great alarm among primitive peoples. In
their system the sun is a living being, of great power and beneficence,
and the temporary darkness is caused by an attack on him by some
supernatural monster which endeavors to devour him, and will succeed,
and thus plunge the world into eternal night unless driven off by
incantations and loud noises. On this occasion the Paiute were frantic
with excitement and the air was filled with the noise of shouts and
wailings and the firing of guns, for the purpose of frightening off the
monster that threatened the life of their god. It was now, as Wovoka
stated, “when the sun died,” that he went to sleep in the daytime and
was taken up to heaven. This means simply that the excitement and alarm
produced by the eclipse, acting on a mind and body already enfeebled
by sickness, resulted in delirium, in which he imagined himself to
enter the portals of the spirit world. Constant dwelling on the subject
in thought by day and in dreams by night would effect and perpetuate
the exalted mental condition in which visions of the imagination would
have all the seeming reality of actual occurrences. To those acquainted
with the spiritual nature of Indians and their implicit faith in dreams
all this is perfectly intelligible. His frequent trances would indicate
also that, like so many other religious ecstatics, he is subject to
cataleptic attacks.
I have not been able to settle satisfactorily the date of this eclipse.
From inquiry at the Nautical Almanac office I learn that solar eclipses
visible in Nevada and the adjacent territory from 1884 to 1890 occurred
as follows: 1884, October 18, partial; 1885, March 16, partial; 1886,
March 5, partial; 1887, none; 1888, none; 1889, January 1, total or
partial; 1890, none. The total eclipse of January 1, 1889, agrees best
with his statement to me on New Year’s night, 1892, that it was about
two years since he had gone up to heaven when the sun died. It must
be noted that Indians generally count years by winters instead of by
series of twelve calendar months, a difference which sometimes makes an
apparent discrepancy of nearly a year.
In subsequent conversations he added a few minor details in regard
to his vision and his doctrine. He asked many questions in regard to
the eastern tribes whose delegates had visited him, and was pleased
to learn that the delegates from several of these tribes were my
friends. He spoke particularly of the large delegation—about twelve in
number—from the Cheyenne and Arapaho, who had visited him the preceding
summer and taken part in the dance with his people. Nearly all the
members of this party were personally known to me, and the leader,
Black Coyote, whose picture I had with me and showed to him, had been
my principal instructor in the Ghost dance among the Arapaho. While
this fact put me on a more confidential footing with Wovoka, it also
proved of great assistance in my further investigation on my return to
the prairie tribes, as, when they were satisfied from my statements
and the specimens which I had brought back that I had indeed seen and
talked with the messiah, they were convinced that I was earnestly
desirous of understanding their religion aright, and from that time
spoke freely and without reserve.
I had my camera and was anxious to get Wovoka’s picture. When the
subject was mentioned, he replied that his picture had never been made;
that a white man had offered him five dollars for permission to take
his photograph, but that he had refused. However, as I had been sent
from Washington especially to learn and tell the whites all about him
and his doctrine, and as he was satisfied from my acquaintance with his
friends in the other tribes that I must be a good man, he would allow
me to take his picture. As usual in dealing with Indians, he wanted
to make the most of his bargain, and demanded two dollars and a half
for the privilege of taking his picture and a like sum for each one
of his family. I was prepared for this, however, and refused to pay
any such charges, but agreed to give him my regular price per day for
his services as informant and to send him a copy of the picture when
finished. After some demur he consented and got ready for the operation
by knotting a handkerchief about his neck, fastening an eagle feather
at his right elbow, and taking a wide brim sombrero upon his knee. I
afterward learned that the feather and sombrero were important parts
of his spiritual stock in trade. After taking his picture I obtained
from him, as souvenirs to bring back and show to my Indian friends in
Indian Territory, a blanket of rabbit skins, some piñon nuts, some tail
feathers of the magpie, highly prized by the Paiute for ornamentation,
and some of the sacred red paint, endowed with most miraculous powers,
which plays so important a part in the ritual of the Ghost-dance
religion. Then, with mutual expressions of good will, we parted, his
uncle going back to the reservation, while I took the train for Indian
Territory.
As soon as the news of my arrival went abroad among the Cheyenne and
Arapaho on my return, my friends of both tribes came in, eager to
hear all the details of my visit to the messiah and to get my own
impressions of the man. In comparing notes with some of the recent
delegates I discovered something of Wovoka’s hypnotic methods, and
incidentally learned how much of miracle depends on the mental
receptivity of the observer.
The Cheyenne and Arapaho, although for generations associated in the
most intimate manner, are of very different characters. In religious
matters it may be said briefly that the Arapaho are devotees and
prophets, continually seeing signs and wonders, while the Cheyenne
are more skeptical. In talking with Tall Bull, one of the Cheyenne
delegates and then captain of the Indian police, he said that
before leaving they had asked Wovoka to give them some proof of his
supernatural powers. Accordingly he had ranged them in front of him,
seated on the ground, he sitting facing them, with his sombrero between
and his eagle feathers in his hand. Then with a quick movement he
had put his hand into the empty hat and drawn out from it “something
black.” Tall Bull would not admit that anything more had happened,
and did not seem to be very profoundly impressed by the occurrence,
saying that he thought there were medicine-men of equal capacity among
the Cheyenne. In talking soon afterward with Black Coyote, one of the
Arapaho delegates and also a police officer, the same incident came
up, but with a very different sequel. Black Coyote told how they had
seated themselves on the ground in front of Wovoka, as described by
Tall Bull, and went on to tell how the messiah had waved his feathers
over his hat, and then, when he withdrew his hand, Black Coyote looked
into the hat and there “saw the whole world.” The explanation is
simple. Tall Bull, who has since been stricken with paralysis, was
a jovial, light-hearted fellow, fond of joking and playing tricks on
his associates, but withal a man of good hard sense and disposed to be
doubtful in regard to all medicine-men outside of his own tribe. Black
Coyote, on the contrary, is a man of contemplative disposition, much
given to speculation on the unseen world. His body and arms are covered
with the scars of wounds which he has inflicted on himself in obedience
to commands received in dreams. When the first news of the new religion
came to the southern tribes, he had made a long journey, at his own
expense, to his kindred in Wyoming, to learn the doctrine and the
songs, and since his return had been drilling his people day and night
in both. Now, on his visit to the fountain head of inspiration, he was
prepared for great things, and when the messiah performed his hypnotic
passes with the eagle feather, as I have so often witnessed in the
Ghost dance, Black Coyote saw the whole spirit world where Tall Bull
saw only an empty hat. From my knowledge of the men, I believe both
were honest in their statements.
As a result of the confidence established between the Indians and
myself in consequence of my visit to the messiah, one of the Cheyenne
delegates named Black Sharp Nose, a prominent man in his tribe, soon
after voluntarily brought down to me the written statement of the
doctrine obtained from the messiah himself, and requested me to take it
back and show it to Washington, to convince the white people that there
was nothing bad or hostile in the new religion. The paper had been
written by a young Arapaho of the same delegation who had learned some
English at the Carlisle Indian school, and it had been taken down on
the spot from the dictation of the messiah as his message to be carried
to the prairie tribes. On the reverse page of the paper the daughter
of Black Sharp Nose, a young woman who had also some school education,
had written out the same thing in somewhat better English from her
father’s dictation on his return. No white man had any part, directly
or indirectly, in its production, nor was it originally intended to be
seen by white men. In fact, in one part the messiah himself expressly
warns the delegates to tell no white man.
+Chapter X+
THE DOCTRINE OF THE GHOST DANCE
You must not fight. Do no harm to anyone. Do right always.—_Wovoka._
The great underlying principle of the Ghost dance doctrine is that
the time will come when the whole Indian race, living and dead, will
be reunited upon a regenerated earth, to live a life of aboriginal
happiness, forever free from death, disease, and misery. On this
foundation each tribe has built a structure from its own mythology, and
each apostle and believer has filled in the details according to his
own mental capacity or ideas of happiness, with such additions as come
to him from the trance. Some changes, also, have undoubtedly resulted
from the transmission of the doctrine through the imperfect medium of
the sign language. The differences of interpretation are precisely such
as we find in Christianity, with its hundreds of sects and innumerable
shades of individual opinion. The white race, being alien and secondary
and hardly real, has no part in this scheme of aboriginal regeneration,
and will be left behind with the other things of earth that have served
their temporary purpose, or else will cease entirely to exist.
All this is to be brought about by an overruling spiritual power
that needs no assistance from human creatures; and though certain
medicine-men were disposed to anticipate the Indian millennium by
preaching resistance to the further encroachments of the whites, such
teachings form no part of the true doctrine, and it was only where
chronic dissatisfaction was aggravated by recent grievances, as among
the Sioux, that the movement assumed a hostile expression. On the
contrary, all believers were exhorted to make themselves worthy of the
predicted happiness by discarding all things warlike and practicing
honesty, peace, and good will, not only among themselves, but also
toward the whites, so long as they were together. Some apostles have
even thought that all race distinctions are to be obliterated, and that
the whites are to participate with the Indians in the coming felicity;
but it seems unquestionable that this is equally contrary to the
doctrine as originally preached.