right-hand man of Smohalla himself, was Kotai′aqan, already mentioned,
the son of the great war chief Kamai′äkan. It is even asserted that he
was the originator of the system. However this may be, it is certain
that he had much to do with formulating both the dogmas and the ritual.
In temper he was more gentle than Smohalla, and more disposed to meet
civilization half-way. On his death, about 1890, he was succeeded by
his stepson, Tīanä′ni, or “Many Wounds,” who filled the office until
about October, 1892, when he was murdered near his home by two drunken
Indians. He was succeeded in the chieftainship by a younger son of
Kotai′aqan named Sha′awĕ (or Shaw-wawa Kootiacan), and in his priestly
functions by a man known to the whites as Billy John.
The regular services take place on Sunday, in the morning, afternoon,
and evening. Sunday has been held sacred among the Nez Percés and
neighboring tribes for more than sixty years, as the result of the
teachings of the Hudson Bay officers. The prairie tribes also, having
learned that Sunday is the great “medicine day” of the whites, now
select it by preference for their own religious ceremonies of the
Ghost dance and the mescal. There are also services during the week,
besides special periodic observances, such as the “lament” for the
dead, particularly the dead chiefs, in early spring; the salmon dance,
when the salmon begin to run in April, and the berry dance, when the
wild berries ripen in autumn. The description of the ceremonial of the
salmon dance will answer for the others, as it differs chiefly only by
the addition of the feast.
[Illustration: +Fig. 65+—Charles Ike, Smohalla interpreter.]
As already stated, the house has the door at the eastern end, as is
the common rule in all Indian structures. On the roof, at the eastern
end of the building at Paʾkiut, are the flags, the center one blue,
representing the sky; another one white, representing the earthly
light, and the third yellow, representing the heavenly light of the
spirit world. Blue, white, and yellow are the sacred colors of this
system, as also of that of the Shakers, to be described later. On
entering, the worshipers range themselves in two lines along the sides
of the building, the men and boys standing along the northern wall,
the women and girls along the southern wall, and all facing toward the
center. The first man entering takes his place on the north nearest the
door; the next one stands just beyond him, and so on; while the women
and girls, when their turn comes, make the whole circuit along the
northern side, and then, turning at the farther end, take their places
in reverse order along the southern wall. In the open space between the
rows is a floor-walker, whose business it is to see that everyone is in
the right place. All are dressed as nearly as possible in the finest
style of the old Indian costume, buckskin and shell ornaments, their
faces painted yellow, white, or red with Indian paints, and carrying
eagle feathers in their right hands (plates +XC+, +XCI+; figure 66).
[Illustration: +Fig. 66+—Diagram showing arrangement of worshipers at
Smohalla service.]
At the farther end, facing the door, sits the high priest, while just
behind him stands his “interpreter,” and on his left are seated on the
ground the three drummers with their large drums in front of them. The
high priest carries a large bell in his left hand and a smaller one in
his right.
Dishes of fresh-cooked salmon and jars of water, together with a
plentiful supply of other food, are ranged in front of the devotees.
After a preliminary ceremony in the nature of a litany, in which
the principal articles of their theology are recited in the form of
question and answer by the whole body of worshipers, the high priest
gives the command, “Take water,” when everyone raises a cup of water
to his lips. Next comes the command, “Now drink,” and each one takes a
sip. At the words, “Now the salmon,” each takes up a portion of fish,
which he puts into his mouth at the next command, “Now eat.” Last comes
the command, “Now help yourselves,” which is the signal for a general
attack on the provisions.
When everyone has satisfied his hunger, the remains of the feast are
cleared away and the “dance” begins. At a signal given by a single
stroke of the bell in the left hand of the high priest all stand up
in line on either side of the building. At another stroke of the bell
all put their right hands on their breasts. Another tap of the bell
and the right hand is brought out in front of the body. Another, and
they begin to move their right hands backward and forward like fans in
front of the breast, and thus continue throughout the dance, keeping
time also to the singing by balancing alternately upon their toes and
heels, as already described, without moving from their places. Ritual
songs are sung throughout the remainder of the service, in time with
the movements of the dancers and the sounds of the drums, and regulated
by the strokes of the bell.
Between songs anyone who wishes to speak steps out into the open
space. With a single tap of the bell the high priest then summons his
“interpreter,” standing behind him, who comes forward and stands beside
the speaker, a few feet in front and at the right of the high priest.
The speaker then in a low tone tells his story—usually a trance vision
of the spirit world—to the interpreter, who repeats it in a loud voice
to the company. At the end of the recital the high priest gives the
signal with the bell, when all raise their right hands with a loud
“Ai!” (Yes!). The high priest himself sometimes discourses also to the
people through the interpreter; at other times directly.
Each song is repeated until the high priest gives the signal with the
bell to stop. Most of the songs consist—in the native language—of seven
lines. At the end of the first line the high priest taps once with the
bell; at the end of the second line he taps twice, and so on to the
end of the song, when he rings the bell hard and continuously, and all
raise their hands with a loud “Ai!” Then the song leader, who stands
with a feather fan between the high priest and the drummers, starts the
next song.
The first song is given by all standing motionless, with the right hand
on the breast and with eyes cast downward. It may be rendered:
Verily, verily, Our Brother made the body.
He gave it a spirit and the body moved.
Then he counted out the words for us to speak.
Another begins:
Verily, Our Brother put salmon in the water to be our food.
Another begins:
O, brothers! O, sisters!
When first the light struck this world, it lighted the world forever.
Our Brother (_Nämi Piäp_) is the term used in referring to the creating
spirit, instead of “our father,” as we might expect them to say.
On leaving, at the close of the ceremony, the man nearest the high
priest passes around in front of him and down along in front of the
line of women, and as he reaches the door he turns around and bows to
the high priest. Each man in turn thus files around and passes out,
after which the women—first the one nearest the high priest and then
the others in regular order—pass out in the same manner. While the
worshipers are thus going out, the high priest, standing up, rings
continuously the small bell in his right hand, while with the larger
bell in his left he gives a single stroke as each one passes through
the door.
_Tribes of the Columbia region_
The following synopsis will give a good general idea of the location
and numbers of the tribes of the Columbia region from the British
line down to the Cascades, including all those under the influence
of the Smohalla religion. Except when derived from such well-known
authorities as Lewis and Clark, Stevens, Gibbs, etc., the information
given is the result of personal investigation and work with Yakima
and Pälus Indians. The general boundaries of the tribes west of the
Cascade range, including the adherents of the Shaker religion, are
also indicated on the accompanying map (plate +LXXXVIII+), but our
information in regard to this region is too meager to be definite.
+Kutenai+ (Kitunahan stock).—_Synonyms_: Arcs Plats, Cotonné, Cottonoi,
Coutanie, Flatbow, Kitunaha, Kootenai, Koutaine, Kutneha, Skalzi,
Tushepaw (Lewis and Clark, 1805), White-tailed Deer People (Clark,
Indian Sign Language). The Kutenai, properly Kituna′qa, form a distinct
linguistic stock, and live chiefly on the Canadian side, around Kutenai
river and lake, but extend across the line into northern Idaho and
northwestern Montana. Their extension southward dates from their treaty
of peace with the Flatheads about ninety years ago. In company with the
Flatheads they were accustomed formerly to come down from the mountains
in the fall to hunt the buffalo on the headwaters of the Missouri. They
are mentioned by Lewis and Clark in 1805 under the name of Tushepaw,
with bands distinguished as Ootlashoot, Micksucksealton (?), and
Hohilpo living in the mountains and on Clark’s fork within United
States territory. According to Gatschet, Tu′shipa is a collective term
applied by the Shoshoni to the tribes living north of them, including
the Nez Percés and others, as well as the Kutenai. A part of the
Kutenai joined with the Flatheads and Upper Pend d’Oreilles in a treaty
with the government in 1855 and are now on Flathead (Jocko) reservation
in Montana. They are probably all Catholics. Others, living in northern
Idaho, have never entered into treaty relations, and may be followers
of Smohalla. The best estimates for the last fifty years give those
within the United States a population of from 400 to 450.
+Pend d’Oreille+ (Salishan stock).—_Synonyms_: Calispel, Coospellar
(Lewis and Clark), Kahlispelm, Kalispelines, Kalispelusses, Kellespem,
Kullas-Palus, Ku′shpĕlu (a Yakima or Pälus form), Papshpûn-ʿlĕma
or “people of the great fir trees” (Yakima name), Pend d’Oreilles
or “ear-rings” (French name), Ponderas. The Pend d’Oreilles held
the country along the river and lake of the same name, in Idaho and
Washington, immediately southwest of the Kutenai. They are commonly
distinguished as Upper, on the lake, and Lower, on both banks of the
river. They are the Coospellar mentioned by Lewis and Clark in 1805.
They formerly crossed the mountains annually to hunt buffalo on the
Missouri. Since 1844 they and most of the other Salishan tribes of
this region have been under the influence of Catholic missionaries.
The Upper Pend d’Oreilles joined with the Flatheads and Kutenai in a
treaty with the government in 1855, and are now on Flathead reservation
in Montana. Some of the Lower band joined them there in 1887. Others
are on the Cœur d’Alêne reservation in Idaho, a few are with Moses on
the Columbia in Washington, and the rest are still in their original
country, never having entered into treaty stipulations. The whole tribe
numbers about 1,000 souls.
+Colville+ (Salishan stock).—_Synonyms_: Chaudière (French name),
Chualpay, Kettle Falls, Quiarlpi or “basket people” (Hale),
Schrooyelpi, Schwogelpi, Schwoyelpi, Swielpee, Wheelpoo (Lewis and
Clark). They originally occupied the country on Colville and Kettle
rivers and on both sides of the Columbia from Kettle falls down
to Spokane river, in Washington, and extending north into British
territory to about the lower Arrow lake. They are mentioned by Lewis
and Clark under the name of Wheelpoo. Kettle falls on the Columbia,
within their territory, was the great salmon fishing resort for all the
tribes of this region, and here, in 1846, was established the Catholic
mission of Saint Paul. As a result of this missionary work, all of
these Salishan tribes, excepting the Sanpoil, Nespelim, Mitaui, and a
part of the Spokan are now Catholics. In 1854, according to Stevens,
the original Shwoyelpi were nearly extinct and their places had been
filled by Indians from neighboring tribes. Without ever having entered
into any treaty with the government, they were assigned in 1872 to
Colville reservation, Washington, which had been set apart for the
tribes of that section. They were reported to number 616 in 1870, and
only 301 in 1892.
+Lake+ or +Senijextee+ (Salishan stock).—These owned the country on
both sides of the Columbia, in Washington, from about Kettle falls
northward into British Columbia to the vicinity of Arrow lake. They are
now on Colville reservation in Washington and number about 350, with
perhaps a few others across the boundary. They may be identical with
the Lahannas of Lewis and Clark.
+Spokan+ (Salishan stock).—_Synonyms_: Lartielo (Lewis and Clark),
Sarlilso (Gibbs), Sinhumanish, Sinkoman (Kutenai name), Spokihnish,
Spokomish, Zingomenes. They are commonly distinguished as Upper
Spokan or Sineeguomenah, Middle or Sintootoo, and Lower or
Chekisschee (_Winans, Comr., 1870_). Spokan is the name given them
by the Cœur d’Alênes; Sinkoman is their Kutenai name, while the
Lartielo or Sarlilso of Lewis and Clark is simply a bad misprint for
Sintootoo, the name of the middle band. They are closely connected,
linguistically and politically, with the Sanpoil and Nespelim. The
lower Spokan are now Protestants, the rest are Catholics. They formerly
owned the whole basin of Spokane river in Washington and extending into
Idaho. They are now on Spokane reservation in Washington and the Cœur
d’Alêne reservation in Idaho, and number in all about 900 or 1,000.
+Cœur d’Alêne+ (Salishan stock).—_Synonyms_: Pointed Hearts, Qʾma′shpăl
or “kamas people” (so called by the Yakima), Skeechaway, Skeetsomish
(Lewis and Clark), Skitsămŭq (Pälus name), Skitswish, Stietshoi.
They occupied the lake and river bearing their name in Idaho and the
adjacent headwaters of the Spokane. A part of this territory they
held jointly with the Spokan, whose language they speak. In 1892 they
numbered 427, on Cœur d’Alêne reservation in Idaho.
+Sanpoil+ (Salishan stock).—_Synonyms_: Hai-ai′nĭma (Yakima name),
Hihighenimmo (Lewis and Clark), Ipoilq (another Yakima name), Nʾpochle
(Stevens), Sans Puelles, Sinapoils, Sinipouals, Sinpaivelish,
Sinpohellechach, Sinpoilschne, Siur Poils. The name by which this
tribe is commonly known is sometimes written as a French form Sans
Poils, meaning “without bristles,” or “hairless,” but it is more
probably an Indian word. They occupy the country on Sanpoil river in
Washington, now included within Colville reservation, and are closely
allied with the Nespelim. These two tribes are the most aboriginal in
eastern Washington, and adhere strictly to their primitive customs and
religion. The two tribes are thus described by Winans, the government
farmer, in 1870:
They have never received any presents from the government, although
they have been frequently asked to do so. They seem suspicious
of the whites, are the least civilized and most independent of
any of the tribes of the territory. They are rich in horses and
cattle, possessing all the comforts they know how to enjoy, and it
appears their only fear is that they will be interfered with by the
government. They are perfectly contented with their condition, and
would not accept anything from the government if offered, except a
religious instructor and doctor.
Some years later they were brought under the reservation system and
a change came o’er the spirit of their dream. In 1892 we are told
officially that “the Sanpuell Indians are the worst people that I
have anything to do with.... They are surly, ignorant, and filthy,”
notwithstanding which they still “have the same religious prejudice as
the Nespelims about receiving aid from the government.” Of the Nespelim
the same intelligent witness tells us that “they are a peculiar class
of Indians, having a religion of their own.” The religion of the
two tribes is aboriginal, and is similar to the Smohalla doctrine
in principle, although not in ceremonial. In 1892 the Sanpoil were
estimated at 300.
+Nespelim+ (Salishan stock).—_Synonyms_: Inspellum, Sinspeelish. On the
north bank of the Columbia, in Washington, along Nespelim river and
down to the junction of the Okinagan, and on the opposite side of the
Columbia down to about Grande Coulée. They speak the same language as
the Sanpoils, and in aboriginal habit, religion, and organization are
closely identified with them. They are within the limits of Colville
reservation and were reported to number only 62 in 1892.
+Okanagan+ (Salishan stock).—_Synonyms_: Oakinacken, Okinakane,
Okiwahkine. They occupy the whole basin of Okanagan river in
Washington, extending north into British Columbia, and including
Similkameen river. The Okanagan were an important tribe or confederacy
divided into a number of bands, some of which have also at times been
considered as belonging to the Spokan, while others are commonly
recognized as distinct tribes. Ross gives them “twelve tribes,”
as follows: Skamoynumach, Kewaughtchenunaugh, Pisscow (Piskwaus),
Incomecane′took, Tsillane (Chelan), Intie′took (Entiatook),
Battlelemuleemauch or Meatwho (Mitaui), Inspellum (Nespelim),
Sinpohellechach (Sanpoil), Sinwhoyelppetook (Colville), Samilkanuigh
(Similkameen), and Oakinacken (Okanagan). They are now included within
the Colville agency, and are Catholics. They were estimated at 340 in
1870 and reported as numbering 405 in 1892.
+Mitaui+ (Salishan stock).—_Synonyms_: Battlelemuleemauch, Meatwho,
Meshons, Meteowwee (Lewis and Clark), Methows, Mithouies. They formerly
lived on the west side of the Columbia, including the basins of the
Methow, Lake Chelan, and Entiatook river. Lewis and Clark met some
of them in 1805 below the mouth of the Wallawalla. They are closely
connected with the Piskwaus and Isle de Pierres. They now reside in
Nespelim valley on Colville reservation, confederated with the Isle
de Pierres under Chief Moses. The two tribes were reported at 390 in
1892. A few others live in the neighborhood of Kittitas near the Yakima
tribe. See _Piskwaus_.
+Isle de Pierre+ (Salishan stock).—_Synonyms_: Columbias, Linkinse,
Sinkiuse. They originally occupied the country in Washington from
the Columbia eastward to the Grande Coulée, extending from about the
mouth of the Grande Coulée down nearly to Crab creek. Isle de Pierre
is the French name of Rock island in the Columbia at the mouth of the
Wenatchee. For a long time, under their noted chief Moses, they refused
to recognize the authority of the government or to go on a reservation.
Now, however, they are settled in Nespelim valley, on Colville
reservation. They were reported to number 390 in 1892 and are described
as “true, genuine Indians in every sense of the word.” Their chief,
Moses, the enemy and rival of Smohalla, was thus described in 1870:
“Moses, the head chief, has been a great warrior. He was foremost in
the fights of 1858 with Colonels Steptoe and Wright, and was severely
wounded a number of times, but not dying, the Indians believe he has a
charmed life. He is medium sized, about 45 years old, noble looking,
straight as an arrow, and never breaks his word. He has more influence
than any other chief east of the Cascade mountains in the territory.
He comes nearer being such a chief as we read of than any I have
ever met. He is kindly disposed toward the whites and invites them to
come and settle in his country.” (_Winans._) Linguistically they are
probably nearest related to the Piskwaus.
+Wa′napûm+ (Shahaptian stock).—_Synonyms_: Columbia River Indians,
Sokulks. This is the tribe of which Smohalla is the chief and high
priest. They are a small band, numbering probably less than 200 souls,
and closely connected linguistically and politically with the Yakima,
Pälus, and Nez Percés. Wanapûm is the name by which they are known to
these cognate tribes, and signifies “river people;” from _wana_ or
_wala_, “river” (particularly Columbia river), and _pûm_ or _pam_,
“people or tribal country.” Together with the other non-treaty tribes
of this region they are known to the whites under the indefinite name
of “Columbia River Indians.” They are identical with the Sokulk met by
Lewis and Clark at the mouth of Snake river and described as living
farther up on the Columbia. The name Sokulk seems to be entirely
unknown among the Yakima and Pälus of today. The Wa′napûm range along
both banks of the Columbia, in Washington, from above Crab creek down
to the mouth of Snake river. Their village, where Smohalla resides, is
on the west bank of the Columbia, at the foot of Priest rapids, in the
Yakima country. It is called Pʿnä, signifying “a fish weir,” and is a
great rendezvous for the neighboring tribes during the salmon fishing
season. Haying never made a treaty or gone on a reservation, they are
not officially recognized by the government.
+Pä′lus+ (Shahaptian stock).—_Synonyms_: Palouse, Pelloatpallah
Chopunnish (Lewis and Clark), Peloose, Polonches, Sewatpalla. The Pälus
owned the whole basin of Palouse river in Washington and Idaho, and
extended also along the north bank of Snake river to its junction with
the Columbia. They were, and are, closely connected with the Wanapûm
and the Nez Percés. Pälus, the name by which the tribe is commonly
known, is properly the name of Standing Rock, at the junction of
Palouse and Snake rivers. They can not explain the meaning. They have
four villages: Almotu, on the north bank of Snake river in Washington,
about 30 miles above the mouth of Palouse river; Pälus, on the north
bank of Snake river just below the junction of the Palouse; Ta′sawĭks,
on the north bank of Snake river about 15 miles above its mouth; and
Kasĭ′spä or Cosispa (meaning “at the point,” from _kăsĭ′s_, a point,
and _pä_, the locative), at Ainsworth in the junction of the Snake and
Columbia. This last village has a slight difference in dialect and is
sometimes regarded as belonging to the Wanapûm. Although the Pä′lus are
mentioned as parties to the Yakima treaty of 1855, they have never as
a tribe recognized any treaty limitations or come upon a reservation.
They are aboriginal in their ideas and among the most devoted adherents
of the Smohalla doctrine. They were estimated at 500 in 1854, but, not
being officially recognized, it is impossible to give their present
number.
+Pĭskwaus+ or +Winä′tshipûm+ (Salishan stock).—_Synonyms_: Piscaous,
Piscous, Pisquose. The name by which this tribe is commonly known
is properly the name of a fishing place on Wenatchee river, and is
probably Salishan, but may be from the Yakima _pĭsko_, signifying “a
bend in the river.” The Yakima call the river Winätshi, signifying a
“river issuing from a cañon,” and the tribe Winätshipûm. The Piskwaus
proper, on Wenatchee river, with their connected bands or tribes living
in the same neighborhood, west of the Columbia in Kittitas and Okanogan
counties, Washington, are a southern extension of the Mitaui and speak
the same language. Under the name of Piskwaus, Stevens includes “the
Indians on the Columbia between the Priests’ and Ross rapids, on the
Pisquose or Winatshapam river; the Enteatkeon, Chelaun lake, and the
Mithaw on Barrier river. The name of Pisquouse, however, properly
refers to a single locality on the river known to the Yakamas as
Winatshapam. The Pisquouse themselves, as has before been remarked, are
so much intermarried with the Yakamas that they have almost lost their
nationality. These bands were formerly all united under one principal
chief, Stalkoosum, who is said to have been a man of great note among
them. He was killed a few years since in a fight with the Blackfeet,
since which there has been no head of the tribe.” (_Stevens, Comr.
Rept., 1854._) The Piskwaus and smaller connected tribes took part in
the Yakima treaty of 1855, but do not live on the reservation. Most
of them live on the Wenatchee and the north branch of Yakima river in
Kittitas county. They are all Catholics. There is no official statement
of their number. Smaller tribes or bands connected with the Piskwaus
proper and speaking the same language are: