family, breeds from northern Mackenzie and the southern part of the
Ungava Peninsula south to southern Montana, northern Pennsylvania,
and Massachusetts. The winter range extends from the southern part
of the breeding range south to the Gulf coast and northeastern
Mexico. It is therefore a common migrant in many sections. Since it
is a ground-feeding bird and is readily attracted to the vicinity of
dwellings, it has been banded in large numbers, the total to November
14, 1949, being nearly 283,500. It would be expected that these would
yield a comparable number of return records that would furnish basic
data relative to the migrations of the species. Such, however, is
not the case. Banded white-throated sparrows are rarely recaptured
at stations between the breeding and wintering grounds. Operators of
stations in the winter area, as Thomasville, Ga., and Summerville,
S. C., have obtained return records showing that these birds do come
back to the exact winter quarters occupied in previous seasons. The
fact that they do not again visit banding stations on their migration
routes indicates some unusual aspects of their travels, which it is
hoped will eventually be discovered by banding studies. Problems
of this type constitute definite challenges to the student of bird
migration.
=Migration of the yellow-billed loon=
The semiannual movements of the yellow-billed loon present an unusual
problem in migration. It breeds along the Arctic coast, probably
from Cape Prince of Wales eastward to Franklin Bay, and also in the
interior of northern Canada south to Clinton-Colden, Aylmer, and
Artillery Lakes, where it is rather common. It has been reported
as already present by May 25 at the mouth of the Liard River, in
southwestern Mackenzie. This coincides with the time that first
arrivals are noted fully 700 miles north, at Point Barrow, Alaska.
The problem has been to ascertain the route used by these birds to
their principal nesting grounds in the interior.
For a long time it was believed that this big diver did not winter in
large numbers anywhere on the Pacific coast, and it had been supposed
that the spring route extended 2,000 miles northeastward from a
wintering ground somewhere in eastern Asia to Bering Strait, then 500
miles still northeast to round Point Barrow, then 500 miles east to
the coast of Mackenzie, and finally 700 miles south--in spring--to
the region near the eastern end of Great Slave Lake.
The yellow-billed loon is a powerful flier, and it is probable that
this suggested route is correct for those birds that breed in the
northern coastal regions. A reasonable doubt may be entertained,
however, whether the breeding birds of Great Slave Lake and
contiguous areas reach their breeding grounds by the 700-mile flight
south from the Arctic coast. Within recent years it has been found
that these birds are fairly common in the maze of channels and
islands off the coast of southeastern Alaska as late as the last of
October and in February. Possibly they are present there during the
period from November through January also, or they may at that time
move farther off shore and so escape detection. If this region is
an important wintering ground, as seems probable, then it is likely
that the breeding birds of the interior reach their nesting grounds
by a flight eastward across the mountains, a trip that is well within
their flying ability, rather than by a circuitous route around the
northern coast. The air-line distance from southeastern Alaska to the
mouth of the Liard River is in fact less than the distance to that
point from the mouth of the Mackenzie.
Differing routes to various parts of a large breeding or wintering
ground, and used by large groups of individuals of other species,
are not unknown. For example, the redhead duck is one of the common
breeding ducks of the Bear River marshes of Utah, where a great many
have been banded each summer. The recovery records of banded redheads
show that while many travel westward to California, others start
their fall migration in the opposite direction and, flying eastward
across the Rocky Mountains, either turn southeast across the plains
to the Gulf of Mexico, or deliberately proceed in a northeasterly
direction to join the flocks of this species moving toward the
Atlantic coast from the prairie regions of southern Canada.
_Conclusions_
The migration of birds as it is known today had its beginning in
times so remote that its origins have been entirely obscured, and
it can be interpreted now only in terms of present conditions. The
causes underlying migration are exceedingly complex. The mystery
that formerly cloaked the periodic travels of birds, however, has
been largely dispelled through the fairly complete information that
is now available concerning the extent and times of the seasonal
journeys of most of the species. Many gaps, however, still remain
in our knowledge of the subject. Much has been learned, and present
knowledge is being placed on record, but it must be left to future
study to clear away many of the uncertainties that continue to make
bird migration one of the most fascinating subjects in the science of
ornithology.
Each kind of bird seems to have its own reaction to its environment,
so that the character of movement differs widely in the various
species, and seldom do any two present the same picture. In
fact, bird migration has been described as a phase of geographic
distribution wherein there is a more or less regular seasonal
shifting of the avian population caused by the same factors that
determine the ranges of the sedentary species. If this view is
correct, then it must be recognized that the far-reaching works of
man in altering the natural condition of the earth's surface can so
change the environment necessary for the well-being of the birds as
to bring about changes in their yearly travels. The nature and extent
of the changes wrought by man on the North American Continent are
easily apparent. Forests have been extensively cut away and their
places have been taken by second growth or cultivated land, and wide
stretches of prairie and plain have been broken up, irrigated, and
devoted to agriculture. These great changes are exerting a profound
effect upon the native bird populations, and the various species may
be either benefited or adversely affected thereby.
The Federal Government has recognized its responsibility to the
migratory birds under changing conditions brought about by man, and
by enabling acts for carrying out treaty obligations, it is now
giving most species legal protection under regulations administered
by the Fish and Wildlife Service. Much is being done by legislation
for the welfare of the birds. The effectiveness of these conservation
laws, however, is increased in the same measure that the people of
the country become acquainted with the facts in the life histories of
the migrants and interest themselves personally in the well-being of
the various species. Long before the white man came to America the
birds had established their seasonal lanes of migration throughout
the Western Hemisphere. The economic, inspirational, and esthetic
values of these migratory species dictate that they be permitted
to continue their long-accustomed and still-mysterious habits of
migration from clime to clime.
Appendix I--_List of Birds Mentioned in the Text_
Common name Scientific name
American egret _Casmerodius albus egretta_
Arctic tern _Sterna paradisaea_
Atlantic brant _Branta bernicla hrota_
Atlantic golden plover _Pluvialis dominica dominica_
Bank swallow _Riparia riparia_
Barn swallow _Hirundo rustica erythrogaster_
Bartramian sandpiper or _Bartramia longicauda_
upland plover
Belted kingfisher _Ceryle alcyon_
Black-and-white warbler _Mniotilta varia_
Black-billed cuckoo _Coccyzus erythropthalmus_
Black brant _Branta bernicla nigricans_
Black-capped chickadee _Parus atricapillus atricapillus_
Black-crowned night heron _Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli_
Black duck _Anas rubripes_
Black-headed grosbeak _Pheucticus melanocephalus_
Blackpolled warbler _Dendroica striata_
Black-throated blue warbler _Dendroica caerulescens_
Bluebird _Sialia sialis_
Blue goose _Chen caerulescens_
Blue jay _Cyanocitta cristata_
Bluethroat _Cyanosylvia suecica_
Blue-winged teal _Anas discors_
Bobolink _Dolichonyx orizivorus_
Bobwhite _Colinus virginianus_
Bohemian [greater] waxwing _Bombycilla garrulus pallidiceps_
Brewer's blackbird _Euphagus cyanocephalus_
Broad-winged hawk _Bueto platypterus_
Bronzed grackle _Quiscalus guiscula versicolor_
Brown [tree] creeper _Certhia familiaris_
Cackling [Canada] goose _Branta canadensis minima_
California quail _Lophortyx californica_
Canada goose _Branta canadensis_
Canvasback _Aythya valisineria_
Cape May warbler _Dendroica tigrina_
Cardinal _Richmondena cardinalis_
Carolina chickadee _Parus carolinensis_
Carolina wren _Thryothorus ludovicianus_
Chimney swift _Chaetura pelagica_
Chipping sparrow _Spizella passerina_
Chuck-wills-widow _Caprimulgus carolinensis_
Clark's nutcracker _Nucifraga columbiana_
Cliff swallow _Petrochelidon pyrrhonota_
Common tern _Sterna hirundo_
Cooper's hawk _Accipiter cooperi_
Coot [American] _Fulica americana_
Cowbird _Molothrus ater_
Crossbill _Loxia curvirostra_
Crow _Corvus brachyrhynchos_
Duck hawk [peregrine falcon] _Falco peregrinus_
Eastern fox sparrow _Passerella iliaca iliaca_
Eider _Somateria mollissima_
Emperor goose _Philacte canagica_
Evening grosbeak _Hesperiphona vespertina_
European blackbird _Turdus merula merula_
Field sparrow _Spizella pusilla_
Forster's tern _Sterna forsteri_
Frigate [man-o'-war] bird _Fregata magnificens_
Golden-crowned kinglet _Regulus satrapa_
Golden plover _Pluvialis apricaria_
Golden-winged warbler _Vermivora chrysoptera_
Goshawk _Accipiter gentilis_
Grackle _Quiscalus quiscula_
Gray-cheeked thrush _Hylocichla minima_
Greenland wheatear _Oenanthe oenanthe leucorhoa_
Harris's sparrow _Zonotrichia querula_
Hermit thrush _Hylocichla guttata_
Herring gull _Larus argentatus_
Horned lark _Eremophila alpestris_
Horned owl _Bubo virginianus_
House finch _Carpodacus mexicanus_
Ipswich sparrow _Passerculus princeps_
Jacksnipe [see Wilson's snipe] _Capella gallinago delicata_
Junco _Junco hyemalis_
Kentucky warbler _Oporonis formosus_
Kingbird _Tyrannus tyrannus_
Knot _Calidris canutus_
Kodiak fox sparrow _Passerella iliaca hyperborea_
Lapland longspur _Calcarius lapponicus_
Lapwing _Vanellus vanellus_
Lesser yellowlegs _Totanus flavipes_
Little blue heron _Florida caerulea_
Loggerhead shrike _Lanius ludovicianus_
Long-billed marsh wren _Telmatodytes palustris_
Mallard _Anas platyrhynchos_
Maryland yellowthroat _Geothlypis trichas trichas_
Meadowlark _Sturnella magna_
Migratory quail _Coturnix coturnix_
Mockingbird _Mimus polyglottos_
Mourning dove _Zenaidura macroura_
Myrtle warbler _Dendroica coronata_
Nighthawk _Chordeilies minor_
Noddy tern _Amous stolidus_
Northern phalarope _Lobipes lobatus_
Northern robin _Turdus migratorius migratorius_
Orchard oriole _Icterus spurius_
Ovenbird _Seiurus aurocapillus_
Pacific [American] golden _Pluvialis dominica fulva_
plover
Parasitic jaeger _Stercorarius parasiticus_
Peregrine falcon [duck hawk] _Falco peregrinus_
Pine Grosbeak _Pinicola enucleator_
Pine warbler _Dendroica pinus_
Pintail _Anas acuta tzitzihoa_
Pipit _Anthus spinoletta_
Poor-will _Phalaenoptilus nuttallii_
Purple finch _Carpodacus purpureus_
Purple martin _Progne subis_
Purple sandpiper _Erolia maritima_
Raven _Corvus corax_
Red-eyed vireo _Vireo olivaceus_
Redhead _Aythya americana_
Red-legged kittiwake _Rissa brevirostris_
Redpoll _Acanthis flammea_
Redstart _Setophaga ruticilla_
Red-tailed hawk _Buteo jamaicensis_
Red-winged blackbird _Agelaius phoeniceus_
Robin _Turdus migratorius_
Rock wren _Salpinctes obsoletus_
Rose-breasted grosbeak _Pheucticus ludovicianus_
Ross's goose _Chen rossi_
Ross's gull _Rhodostethia rosea_
Rosy finch _Leucosticte tephrocotis_
Rough-legged hawk _Buteo lagopus_
Ruby-throated hummingbird _Archilochus colubris_
Ruffed grouse _Bonasa umbellus_
Rusty blackbird _Euphagus carolinus_
Sanderling _Crocethia alba_
Scarlet tanager _Piranga olivacea_
Scaup _Aythya marila_
Screech owl _Otus asio_
Sharp-shinned hawk _Accipiter striatus_
Shumagin fox sparrow _Passerella iliaca unalaschensis_
Slate-colored junco _Junco hyemalis_
Snow bunting _Plectrophenax nivalis_
Snow goose _Chen hyperborea_
Snowy heron _Leucophoyx thula_
Snowy owl _Nyctea scandiaca_
Song sparrow _Melospiza melodia_
Sooty fox sparrow _Passerella iliaca fuliginosa_
Sooty tern _Sterna fuscata_
Sora or Carolina rail _Porzana Carolina_
Southern robin _Turdus migratorius achrusterus_
Starling _Sturnus vulgaris_
Swainson's hawk _Buteo swainsoni_
Swamp sparrow _Melospiza georgiana_
Townsend's fox sparrow _Passerella iliaca townsendi_
Tree sparrow _Spizella arborea_
Tufted titmouse _Parus bicolor_
Turkey vulture _Cathartes aura_
Turnstone _Arenaria interpres_
Upland plover [Bartramian _Bartramia longicauda_
sandpiper]
Valdez fox sparrow _Passerella iliaca sinuosa_
Vesper sparrow _Pooecetes gramineus_
Western palm warbler _Dendroica palmarum palmarum_
Western tanager _Piranga ludoviciana_
Western wood pewee _Contopus richardsonii_
White-breasted nuthatch _Sitta carolinensis_
White-throated sparrow _Zonotrichia albicollis_
White-winged scoter _Melanitta fusca_
Widgeon _Mareca americana_
Williamson's sapsucker _Sphyrapicus thyroideus_
Wilson's [common] snipe _Capella gallinago delicata_
Winter wren _Troglodytes troglodytes_
Woodcock _Scolopax rusticola_
Wood thrush _Hylocichla mustelina_
Worm-eating warbler _Helmitheros vermivorus_
Wrentit _Chamaea fasciata_
Yakutat fox sparrow _Passerella iliaca annectens_
Yellow-billed cuckoo _Coccyzus americanus_
Yellow-billed loon _Gavia adamsii_
Yellow-headed blackbird _Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus_
Yellow palm warbler _Dendroica palmarum hypochrysea_
Yellow warbler _Dendroica petechia_
Appendix II--_Bird Banding_
Frequent reference has been made in this bulletin to bird banding
as a means for obtaining information on the migrations and life
histories of birds. Since 1920 this work in North America has been
under the direction of the Fish and Wildlife Service in cooperation
with the Dominion Wildlife Service of Canada. Each year birds to the
number of a quarter of a million or more may be marked with numbered
bands.
As anyone interested in birds, either game or nongame, may have a
marked individual come into his hands, there are several pertinent
details that should be remembered if the recovery record is to have
maximum value in advancing the science of ornithology.
1. The reporting letter should be addressed to: Bird Banding Office,
Patuxent Research Refuge, Fish and Wildlife Service, Laurel, Md.
2. In the letter print the full number of the band, including the
series designation and the serial number. The series designation may
be a single letter or a two- or three-digit number and may be stamped
to the left or over the serial number. The series designation, if
a number such as "48" or "50," is not a date and should not be
so interpreted. Full numbers are correctly written as: A-678901;
48-345920; 141-543678; 20-167; 496-00517; etc.
3. If the bird is alive and uninjured, read the number carefully
without removing the band, and release the bird. It may be reported
again. If it is dead, remove the band and, after flattening it out,
attach it to the letter with scotch tape or surgical adhesive tape.
Should it be desired as a souvenir, it will be returned upon request.
4. Give in the report the exact date, the location (town, county,
State, etc.) and the manner in which the bird was obtained, that is,
whether it was shot, found dead, trapped, etc.
5. Print your own name and permanent address clearly on the letter.
6. Keep a record of the band number and refer to it should there be
any subsequent correspondence about it with the Service. The number
is always the clue to any record of a banded bird.
Some bands may bear the inscription "Notify F. and Wildlife Service,
Washington, D. C." or "Notify Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.,"
and on the smaller sizes these may be abbreviated to "F. and W. Serv.
Wash. D. C." or "Biol. Surv. Wash. D. C."
All reports of the recovery of banded birds will be acknowledged with
the name of the bird, the date and place where it was banded, and the
name and address of the bander.
The banding of birds is done by regular officers of the United
States and Dominion Services, by biologists and technicians of the
States and Provinces, and by volunteer cooperators who are specially
licensed under the provisions of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. The
banding of migratory waterfowl is largely restricted to Federal and
State officers and is done chiefly in refuge areas. Most nongame
birds are banded by volunteer cooperators who are scattered over the
United States, Canada, and Alaska. The bands are furnished without
charge by the Service but each station operator supplies his own
traps and other equipment.
To participate in this work, certain rules must be adhered to.
Applicants for banding permits:
1. Must be at least 18 years of age.
2. Must be thoroughly competent to identify positively all local
birds.
3. Must have their ability vouched for by three recognized
ornithologists or by other banders.
Application blanks for the Federal permits required may be obtained
from the Bird Banding Office, Patuxent Research Refuge, Fish and
Wildlife Service, Laurel, Md., or, in Canada, from the Chief,
Dominion Wildlife Service, Ottawa, Ontario.
_Bibliography_
Since almost every faunal paper on birds has a bearing on the subject
of migration, only a few can be listed in this publication. Those
included were selected to aid the student wishing to pursue the
subject further and to cover not only all cited in the text but also
others consulted and used in its preparation.
Allard, H. A.
1928. Bird migration from the point of view of light and length of
day changes. Am. Naturalist 62, pp. 385-408.
Austin, O. L., Jr.
1928. Migration-routes of the Arctic tern (_Sterna paradisaea_
Brunnich). Northeastern Bird Banding Assn. Bull., vol, 4, pp.
121-125.
Baird, S. F.
1866. The distribution and migration of North American birds. Am.
Jour. Sci., vol. 41, pp. 78-90, 184-192, 337-347.
Bergtold, W. H.
1926. Avian gonads and migration. The Condor, vol. 28, pp. 114-120.
Bissonette, Thomas Hume
1936. Normal progressive changes in the ovary of the starling
(_Sturnus vulgaris_) from December to April. The Auk, vol. 53,
pp. 31-50, illus.
1939. Sexual photoperiodicity in the blue jay (_Cyanocitta
cristata_). Wilson Bull., vol. 51, pp. 227-232, pis. 9-11.
Clark, Austin H.
1925. Animal flight. Sci. Monthly, vol. 20, pp. 5-20. Clarke, W. E.
1912. Studies in bird migration. 2 vol., illus. London. Cooke, May
Thacher
1937. Flight speed of birds. U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 428, 13 pp.
1945. Transoceanic recoveries of banded birds. Bird-Banding, vol.
16, No. 4, pp. 123-129.
Cooke, W. W.
1888. Report on bird migration in the Mississippi Valley in the
years 1884 and 1885. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Econ. Ornith. Bull.
2, 313 pp., illus.
1904. Distribution and migration of North American warblers. U. S.
Dept. Agr., Div. Biol. Survey Bull. 18, 142 pp.
1904. The effect of altitude on bird migration. The Auk, vol. 21,
pp. 338-341.
1905a. Routes of bird migration. The Auk, vol. 22, pp. 1-11.
1905b. The winter ranges of the warblers (_Mniotiltidae_). The Auk,
vol. 22, pp. 296-299.
1906. Distribution and migration of North American ducks, geese,
and swans. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Biol. Survey Bull, 26, 90 pp.
1908. Averaging migration dates. The Auk, vol. 25, pp. 485-486.
1910. Distribution and migration of North American shore birds. U.
S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Biol. Survey Bull. 35, 100 pp., illus.
1913a. Distribution and migration of North American herons and
their allies. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Biol. Survey Bull. 45, 70
pp., illus.
1913b. The relation of bird migration to the weather. The Auk, vol.
30, pp. 205-221, illus.
1914. Distribution and migration of North American rails and their
allies. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 128, 50 pp. illus,
1915a. Bird migration. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 185, 47 pp., illus.
1915b. Bird migration in the Mackenzie Valley. The Auk, vol. 32,
pp. 442-459, illus.
1915c. Distribution and migration of North American gulls and their
allies. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 292, 70 pp., illus.
1915d. The yellow-billed loon: A problem in migration. The Condor,
vol. 17, pp. 213-214.
Coues, E.
1878. Birds of the Colorado Valley, a repository of scientific and
popular information concerning North American ornithology. U. S.
Dept. Interior Misc. Pub. II, 807 pp., illus.
DeLury, Ralph E.
1938. Sunspot Influences. Jour. Royal Astron. Soc. of Can., pt. 1,
March 1938, pt. 2, April 1938, 50 pp.
Dixon, Joseph
1916. Migration of the yellow-billed loon. The Auk, vol. 33, No. 4,
pp. 370-376.
Eaton, Richard Jefferson
1933-34. The migratory movements of certain colonies of herring
gulls. Bird-Banding, vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 165-176; vol. 5, No. 1,
pp. 1-19; vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 70-84.
Earner, Donald S.
1945. The return of robins to their birthplaces. Bird-Banding, vol.
16, No. 3, pp. 81-99.
Furlong, W. R.
1933. Land-birds in a gale at sea. Bird Lore, vol. 35, No. 5, pp.
263-265.
Gätke, H.
1895. Heligoland as an ornithological observatory, the results
of fifty years' experience. (Transl. from the German by R.
Rosenstock). 599 pp., illus. Edinburgh.
Gordon, Donald A.
1948. Some considerations of bird migration: continental drift and
bird migration. Science, vol. 108, pp. 705-711.
Griffin, Donald R.
1940. Homing experiments with Leach's petrels. The Auk, vol. 57,
No. 1, pp. 61-74.
1943. Homing experiments with herring gulls and common terns.
Bird-Banding, vol. 14, No. 1 and 2, pp. 7-33.
1944. The sensory basis of bird navigation. Quart. Rev. of Biol.,
vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 15-31.
Grinnell, J.
1931. Some angles in the problem of bird migration. The Auk, vol.
48, pp. 22-32.
Gross, A. O.
1927. The snowy owl migration of 1926-27. The Auk, vol. 44, pp.
479-493, illus.
1947. Cyclic invasions of the snowy owl and the migration of
1945-46. The Auk, vol. 64, No. 4, pp. 584-601.
Harrison, T. H.
1931. On the normal flight speeds of birds. Brit. Birds, vol. 25,
pp. 86-96. Jaeger, Edmund C.
1948. Does the poor-will "hibernate"? The Condor, vol. 50, p. 45.
1949. Further observations on the hibernation of the poor-will. The
Condor, vol. 51, pp. 105-109.
Lewis, Harrison F.
1937. Migrations of the American brant (_Branta bernicla hrota_).
The Auk, vol. 54, pp. 73-95.
Lincoln, F. C.
1917. Bohemian waxwing (_Bombycilla garrula_) in Colorado. The Auk,
vol. 34, p. 341.
1922. Trapping ducks for banding purposes: with an account of the
results obtained from one waterfowl station. The Auk, vol. 39,
pp. 322-334, illus.
1924a. Banding notes on the migration of the pintail. The Condor,
vol. 26, pp. 88-90.
1924b. Returns from banded birds, 1920 to 1923, U. S. Dept. Agr.
Bull.
1268, 56 pp., illus.
1926. The migration of the cackling goose. The Condor, vol. 28, pp.
153-157, illus.
1927a. Notes on the migration of young common terns. Northeastern
Bird Banding Assoc. Bull., vol. 3, pp. 23-28, illus.
1927b. Returns from banded birds, 1923 to 1926. U. S. Dept. Agr.
Tech. Bull. No. 32, 95 pp., illus.
1928. The migration of young North American herring gulls. The Auk,
vol. 45, pp. 49-59.
1934a. Distribution and migration of the redhead (_Nyroca
americana_). Trans. 20th Am. Game Conf., pp. 280-287, map.
1934b. The operation of homing instinct. Bird-Banding, vol. 5, No.
4, pp. 149-155.
1935a. Ancestral highways of the sky. American Forests, vol. 41,
No. 4, pp. 157, 159, and 196, 4 figs.
1935b. The migration of North American birds. U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir.
363, 72 pp., 29 figs., bibliog.
1935c. The waterfowl flyways of North America. U. S. Dept. Agr,
Cir. 342, 12 pp., illus.
1936. Trans-Atlantic flight of gull-billed tern. The Auk, vol. 53,
No. 3,