and carry water. Those of the most barbarous tribes share the labours
of the field; but nowhere are they employed as in India, where there
is scarcely any difference between the toils of the sexes. A man by
the Mohammedan law is allowed to chastise his wife by beating. Custom,
however, is more chivalrous and merciful than the written code,
and lays it down as disgraceful for a man to avail himself of this
privilege of his sex.
Though many women of the higher ranks learn to read, and exhibit
considerable talents for literature, it is reckoned immodest for
a female to write, as that accomplishment might be made use of to
intrigue by correspondence with a lover.
Many families have all their household affairs, and many even their
general customs, controlled by women. These sometimes correspond for
their sons. It is usually the mother who enjoys this influence, but
the wives also frequently rise to ascendancy; and all the advantages
conferred on him by the Mohammedan law frequently fail to save a man
from sinking to a secondary position in his own house. All domestic
amusements indulged in by men are, among the lower and more estimable
orders, shared by the women.
In towns, these envelope themselves in an ample white wrapper, like
the Arab burnouse, which covers them to the feet, and altogether
conceals their figure. A network in the hood, spread over the face,
enables them to see, while their features are invisible to others.
When on horseback, those of the upper classes wear large white cotton
wrappers on their legs, which completely hides the shape of the limb.
Frequently, also, they travel in hampers, large enough to allow
of their reclining, which are strung like paniers over a camel’s
back, and covered with a case of broad cloth. They are hot almost to
suffocation during the sultry season. Females are allowed to go about
seated in this manner, and form a large proportion in the crowds which
throng the public ways. Scrupulously concealed as their features are,
they are thus subject to little restraint; and, compared with their sex
in the neighbouring regions, though they do not occupy an honourable,
they are by no means in an unhappy position.
In the rural districts they are still more free, and go without a veil.
Walking through the village or the camp, they are subject to no other
restraint than the universal opinion that it is indecent to associate
with the other sex. Should a strange man approach, they immediately
cover their faces. At home, they seldom enter the public room of
their house if an Afghan with whom they are not intimate is there.
With Armenians, Persians, and Hindoos, indeed, they do not hold this
reserve; for they consider them as of no importance; and the pride
of her race is, in these cases, a sufficient guardian to the woman’s
virtue. When their husbands are from home, also, they receive guests,
and entertain them with all the liberal courtesy required by the sacred
laws of hospitality.
But the modesty and chastity of the country women, especially of
those belonging to the simple shepherd tribes, has been remarked and
admired by almost every traveller. “There are no common prostitutes,”
says Mountstuart Elphinstone, “except in the towns, and very few
even there, especially in the west, which is the colder region;
it is considered very disreputable to frequent their company.” In
Afghanistan, however, as in all other parts of the East, and in many
states of antiquity, the imperfect education of the women is a cause
of profligacy among the men. The wives and concubines who fill a rich
man’s harem are usually ignorant, insipid, and unacquainted even with
the forms of conversation. The prostitutes, on the other hand, are
generally well versed in the science of the world, polished in their
manners, practised in the arts of seduction, and afford amusement
of such interest and variety that men, with four wives and numerous
female slaves at their command, frequently seek the society of these
accomplished women.
An able and judicious writer has observed that, as far as he
recollected, he saw among no people in the East, except the Afghans,
any traces of the sentiment which we call love, that is, according to
European ideas. There, however, it not only exists, but is extremely
prevalent. One sign of this is exhibited in the numerous elopements,
which are always attended with peril, and are risked through love. It
is common also for a man in humble circumstances to pledge his faith
to a particular girl, and then start off to some remote town, or even
to Lower India, where, by industry or trade, he might acquire wealth
enough to purchase her from her friends. One traveller met at Poonah a
young man who had contracted one of these engagements. He had formed
an attachment with the daughter of a Mullah, who reciprocated his
affection. Her father gave his consent willingly to the marriage; but
said that his daughter’s honour would suffer if she did not bring as
large a price as the other women of her family. The young people were
much afflicted, for the man owned only one horse. However, his mistress
gave him a needle used for applying antimony to the eye, and with this
pledge of her affection he was confidently working to accumulate the
fortune which was required to purchase her. These romantic amours are
most common among the country people, especially where the women are
partially secluded--accessible enough to be admired, but withdrawn
enough to excite the lover’s attachment by some difficulty. Among the
higher orders such unions are less frequent, though with them also
they occasionally occur. It was an affair of love between a chief of
the Turkolaunis and a Khan of the Euzufzies that gave rise to a bloody
war which lasted many years. Many of the songs and tales sung and told
among the Afghans have love for their plot and spirit, and that passion
is expressed in the most glowing and flowery language. Such a trait in
a nation’s manners is highly favourable, and, joined with many others,
renders the Afghan one of the most admirable races of the East.
An exceptional feature in the manners of that region is exhibited
by the Moolah Zukkee, a sect of infidel pedants, who are more
unprincipled, dissolute, and profligate than any other class in the
country. They resemble in their conduct the Areois of the South Sea
Islands, doubt the truth of a future state, are sceptical as to the
existence of a God, and have released themselves from every fear of
hell. They have taken full advantage of this, and indulge in the vilest
lusts without check or shame. This is the more extraordinary as the
Afghans are represented, on the whole, as a devout and pious people.
The inhabitants of Afghanistan are divided into the stationary and
wandering population--the dwellers in tents, and the dwellers in
houses. It is a curious fact that the dwellers in tents, who live
chiefly to the West, are the more chaste and moral. It is among these,
however, that the intercourse of the sexes is confined less by law than
by public opinion. Men and women dance together, but in modest measures.
The slaves we have alluded to are divided into the home-born and the
foreign. The beautiful girls are purchased for the harems of the rich;
the others are sold as menials, or attendants on the rich women. The
habit of buying concubines is unfortunately becoming more common.
Intercourse with the voluptuaries of Persia has seduced them into many
Persian vices. Naturally they are, perhaps, one of the least voluptuous
nations in Asia; but their manners are becoming visibly corrupted,
and this decay of their ancient simplicity is felt and regretted by
themselves. Corps of prostitutes and harems full of concubines will do
the work of the sword among them, and their spirit of independence,
which never yielded even before English bayonets, will evaporate, if
they long continue to decline in their morals and manners. Luxury has
subdued more great nations than the sword.
In the Vizeeree country, to the north of the Sherauni district, one
very extraordinary custom prevails; it is quite peculiar to that tribe;
the women have the right of choosing their husbands. When a woman has
fixed on any man whom she desires to marry, she sends the drummer of
the camp to pin a handkerchief on his cap, with a pin which she has
previously used to fasten up her hair. The drummer goes on his mission,
cautiously watches his opportunity, and executes the feat in public,
naming the woman. The man is obliged immediately to take her as his
wife, if he can pay her price to her father[71].
OF PROSTITUTION IN KASHMIR.
In Kashmir we find the Hindu system of manners considerably modified
by various circumstances. The people are not oppressed by that rigid
code of etiquette, which in India isolates every caste and almost
every family. Naturally addicted to pleasure, they find much of their
enjoyment in the society of the female sex, and from the earliest
times have been celebrated for their love of singers and dancers.
Formerly, when the valley was more populous and flourishing than at
present, its capital city was the scene of eternal revel, in which
morals stood little in the way of those gratifications to which the
sensual ideas of the richer orders inclined them. Now, under a vile
and monstrous despotism, the inhabitants relieve themselves from
a continual struggle with misfortune by indulging in gross vices.
Formerly they were corrupted by luxury; now they decay through misery,
and drown the sense of hopeless poverty in the gratification of their
animal passions.
The situation of the female sex in Kashmir differs from that occupied
by them among the Hindus of Bengal. They are far more free, and appear
more licentious. The women of this delightful and romantic valley
have long been celebrated for their grace and beauty. Their renown
extended on the one side as far as the plains of Central Asia, and on
the other beyond the borders of the Ganges. They were formerly much
sought after by the Mogul nobility of Delhi, to whom they bore strong
and handsome sons; and even after that monarchy had declined from its
original opulence and power, its luxurious kings solaced themselves in
their humiliation by concubines and dancing girls from Kashmir. Nor has
the beauty which in those early ages attracted to the women of this
country the admiration of all the East, faded in any degree. They are
still described as the flowers of Oriental grace--not so slender as the
Hindus of Bengal, but more full, round, voluptuous, and fascinating.
Since few except those belonging to the very highest classes wear a
veil, travellers have enjoyed abundant opportunities of observing the
characteristics of the sex. The face is of a dark complexion, richly
flushed with pink; the eyes are large, almond-shaped, and overflowing
with a peculiar liquid brilliance; the features are regular,
harmonious, and fine; while the person, as we have said, is plump
and round, though the limbs are often models of grace. Such is the
portrait we are led to draw by the accounts of the best writers. They
agree, however, in adding, that among all, except the dancers, singers,
and prostitutes, with probably those few women who are shut up in
harems, art has done nothing to aid nature. The eyes, unsurpassed for
brightness, with full orbs, and long black lashes, shine often from a
dirty face, expressing a mind flooded with sensual desires, and utterly
unadorned by education or accomplishments. Among the poorer classes,
especially, filth, poverty, and degradation render many of the women
repulsive, in spite of their natural beauty. It is remarkable that the
inhabitants of the boats on the lakes possess among them the handsomest
women in the valley.
The customs of marriage, courtship, and the general habits of the
women, resemble so closely what have already been described in treating
of India, that we need not enter into any particular account of
them. The life of the woman belonging to a chief of high rank is a
monotonous seclusion. She sits, enveloped in full wrappings of shawls
and robes, amid all the luxury and brilliance of an Oriental harem,
with every appliance of ease and comfort, but not the liberty which
the humbler orders enjoy. Wives of all classes, indeed, are subject to
their husbands, but those of the nobles are most under control. They
often experience in its full bitterness the curse of slavery under a
capricious despot. The authority of the man is absolute.
Mikran Singh, a chief of the valley, was a few years ago, during the
reign of the Maharaja Runjit Singh, guilty of a horrible act, which
illustrates in a striking manner the condition of women in that
country. His wife happened to be in the Punjab, and, while there,
was accused by some enemies of a criminal intrigue. She was sent
to her husband in Kashmir. Her son flung his dagger at the feet of
Mikran Singh, and threw himself at his knees, begging mercy for his
mother. The man promised to forgive her; but, as soon as occasion
offered, ordered her to be forced into a bath the temperature of which
was rapidly increased with the purpose of suffocating her. She was
tenacious of life, and struggled long with her tortures, filling the
palace with shrill and piercing shrieks. Many people fled from the
neighbourhood that they might not listen to these fearful cries. At
length, to put an end to this horrid scene, the husband sent his wife a
bowl of poison, which she drank and immediately died.
Women of the middle and lower classes affect no concealment, and never
wear a veil. They experience less caprice from their husbands, and are
perhaps more free than females in Hindustan formerly were. Widows have
long been released from the disgusting obligation of burning at the
funeral pyre of their husbands. The custom, indeed, was at no time very
prevalent in the valley, and since the decree of abolition, published
by Aurungzebe in 1669, it has never been revived. Women in Kashmir
bear a fair proportion to the men, and are proverbially fruitful. The
depopulation of the country is owing to no natural causes, but to the
rapacious despotism under which it suffers. British government would
soon, without a doubt, restore it to its ancient flourishing condition,
as well as reform its manners.
Travellers in Kashmir always remark the dancing girls, for which it
was formerly renowned. The village of Changus, near the ancient city
of Achibul, was at one time celebrated for a colony of them. They
excelled, in singing, dancing, and other accomplishments, all the other
girls of the valley. When Vigne visited it some years ago, the village
had fallen to decay, and its famous beauties had disappeared. Old men,
however, remembered and spoke of them with regret. One, whose name was
Lyli, still lived in the recollection of many. A few dancers of another
class remained, but were inferior in their natural charms and arts to
those of the city, and were obliged to be content with engagements in
the humbler or country districts.
These women may be divided into classes. Among the highest we
might find some that are virtuous and even modest, as we may among
singers and actresses in Europe. Others frequent entertainments at
the houses of rich men and public festivals, receiving large sums
for their attendance, and occasionally consent to prostitute their
persons for a valuable gift. Others are regular professional harlots,
indiscriminately prostituting themselves to any who desire their
society. Many of these are widows, who are forbidden to marry again,
and are devoted to the service of some god, whose temple and priests
they enrich by the gains of their disreputable calling.
The Watul or Gipsy tribe of Kashmir is remarkable for the loveliness of
its females. Living in tents or temporary huts, these Gipsies pass from
spot to spot; and many of their handsomest girls are sold as slaves
to furnish the harems of the rich, or enter the train of some company
of dancing girls. These are bred and taught to please the taste of
the voluptuary, to sing licentious songs in an amorous tone, to dance
in voluptuous measures, to dress in a peculiar style, and to seduce
by the very expression of their countenances. Formerly many of these
women amassed large sums in their various callings; but now that the
prosperity of the valley has decreased, the youngest and most beautiful
seek their fortunes in the cities of Agra and Delhi; which, though
decaying, still retain traces of the imperial luxury and profligacy
which once rendered them the splendid capitals of the East.
The bands of dancing girls are usually attended by divers hideous
duennas and men, whose conspicuous ugliness makes the loveliness of the
women appear more complete through contrast. Baron Hugel, whose ideas
are purely German, did not find his sense of the beautiful satisfied by
the women, and especially the public women, of Kashmir; but every other
traveller, from Bernier to Vigne, expatiates upon the subject. The
Baron does not, in other respects, inspire us with the idea that he is
an authority on such a question.
The Nach girls are under the surveillance of the Government--which
licenses their prostitution--and lead in general a miserable life. They
are actual slaves, cannot sing or dance without permission from their
overseer, and must yield up to him the most considerable part of their
profits. Some of them still ask large sums, especially from strangers.
One troop demanded from our German author a hundred rupees for an
evening’s performance.
The education of a superior Nach girl should commence when she is no
more than five years old. Nine years, it is said, are required to
perfect them in song and dance. They dress usually in trowsers of
rich-coloured silk, loosely furled round the limb, fitting tight at
the ancle, and confined round the waist by a girdle and tassels, which
hang down to the knee. Over these is draped a tunic of white muslin,
reaching half-way down the leg; but when dancing they wear a full
flowing garment of soft light tissue of various colours, intermixed
with gold. Some have been seen with ornaments on their persons to
the value of 10,000 or 12,000 rupees. Some, also, with all these
adornments, neglect to be clean, and omit perfume from among the graces
of their toilette. Their songs are often full of sentiment and fancy,
finely expressed, and accompanied by pleasing music. Their dances are
not chaste or modest; but neither are they obscene or gross.
Among the poorer orders exist a swarm of prostitutes, frequenting low
houses in the cities or boats on the lakes; but of their modes of life
we have no account. Probably the manners of prostitutes differ little
throughout the world. It is certain that they are largely patronised by
the more demoralised part of the population. The traveller Moorcroft,
who gave gratuitous advice to the poor of Serinaghur, had at one time
nearly 7000 patients on his list. Of these a very large number were
suffering from loathsome diseases, induced by the grossest and most
persevering profligacy. Altogether the manners of Kashmir appear very
corrupt[72].
OF PROSTITUTION IN INDIA.
We shall have to view the Hindus under two aspects--as they were under
their former oppressors, and as they are under the administration
of the Company. The change of rule has wrought, and is working,
a change in the manners and institutions of the people perfectly
wonderful to contemplate. Climate and position have much to do with
national characteristics, but government has more. India under the
English no more resembles India under the Mogul, than the England
of the nineteenth century resembles the England of the Heptarchy. A
beneficent revolution in her fortune has occurred, which is developing
an extraordinary reform in the customs and ideas of her native race.
Consequently a distinction must be observed between the old and the
new state of things. It will be necessary, also, to distinguish those
provinces which are absolutely under our sway from those which are
independent, or only related to us by subsidiary alliances. A strong
contrast is exhibited by these different communities, which, as
far as the welfare of the people is concerned, differ as much from
each other as the slave states of western Africa differ from the
population of Cape Colony. In the one a wise and beneficent government
is administered for the happiness of the people; in the other, an
imbecile yet savage tyranny makes them look with jealousy on their more
fortunate neighbours. This is an important consideration, and by no
means irrelevant to our subject, for it illustrates the influence of
laws and institutions upon the manners and morals of a nation.
The state of women among the Hindus is not elevated, and as long as
their ancient teachers of religion are revered, such must be the case.
The female sex is held absolutely dependent on the male, and, as among
the Chinese, the father before marriage, the husband afterwards, and
the son in widowhood, are the natural protectors assigned by the sacred
law. Nothing is to be done by a woman of her purely independent will.
She must reverence her lord, and approach him with humble respect. She
is bound to him while he desires it, whatever his conduct may be, and,
if she rebel, is to be chastised with a rope or cane on the back part
of her person, “and not on a noble part, by any means.”
Writers with a particular theory to support frequently quote the
institutes of Menu, to show that a contempt of women is inculcated, and
hard usage of them encouraged by the precepts of that singular code.
Indolence, vanity, irascible humours, evil dispositions, and
lasciviousness, are enumerated as the vices which are declared
natural to them. “A woman is chaste, when there is neither place,
time, nor person, to afford her an opportunity to be immoral,” says
the “Hetopadera,” which is quoted in application to the whole sex,
though it applies only as Professor Wilson--the great authority on
this subject--observes, to that class of idle, intemperate, profligate
females, to be found in every society. Passages undoubtedly occur in
the laws and in satirical compositions levelled at the whole sex; but
the Hindus themselves usually describe them as amiable, modest, gentle,
chaste, full of wit, and excelling in every grace. They are allowed
to inherit property; they are permitted under certain circumstances
to exercise power, though by indirect means; and they certainly exert
great influence over the men. In no state of ancient times, except
the polished republics of Greece and Rome, were women held in so much
esteem as among the Hindus.
Debarred as they are from the advantages of education, not allowed to
eat with their husbands, and forbidden from mixing in society, the
Hindu women, of course, are degraded below their just position; but
it is not true that they are abject slaves, or are generally treated
with barbarity. Among the more wild and barbarous tribes, as well as
the more ignorant classes in all parts of India, men frequently beat
their wives; but, from the few revelations of the Zenana which have
been made, it would appear that its inmates are generally treated with
considerable deference and attention. The contact of Mohammedan with
Hindu manners has certainly, however, had an effect on the latter,
which has depreciated the rank and estimation of the female sex.
Nowhere, indeed, where polygamy is allowed, can women hold their true
position. In India, however, though permitted, it was not encouraged
by the religious law, and sanctioned in particular cases only, as
barrenness, inconstancy, aversion, or some other similar cause. The
wife, also, must be consulted, and her consent obtained to the second
match. She still held the principal rank in the family, for the new
comer could not take her place while she remained in the household.