THE GRAVES OF THE PONTIFFS
Volumes would be required in which to describe a monastery such as
Tashi-lunpo in all its details, its intricate conglomeration of stone
buildings connected with one another by passages, corridors, staircases,
and terraces, or separated by narrow deep lanes or small open squares;
its many temple halls with an innumerable host of images; its monks'
cells, lecture halls, mortuary chapels, kitchens, factories, warehouses
for provisions and materials; its complicated organization in spiritual
and temporal affairs, its festivals and ceremonies. Such a description
could only be compiled by an intimate acquaintance with the Lamaist
hierarchy and Church, and this knowledge could only be attained by the
ardent study of a whole lifetime; for those who would penetrate deeply
into the mysteries of Lamaism must gain a thorough knowledge of Buddhism
and its relations to Brahminism and Hinduism, and understand the
influence which Sivaism has exerted on the religion of the Tibetans, and
must be familiar with the elements of the ancient Bon religion and its
fetichism and Shamanism, which have crept in and corrupted the Lamaistic
form of Buddhism. Such a task lies beyond the scope of this work for
many reasons, not least because I have only a dim conception of the
essentials of Lamaism.[1] I shall therefore content myself with
depicting the system from its picturesque side, and describing the
outward ordinances I had an opportunity of observing personally. I shall
write the names phonetically, without all the silent consonants which
render a conscientious translation unintelligible to those who have not
devoted much time to the study of the Tibetan language.
[Illustration: 127. THE KANJUR-LHAKANG IN TASHI-LUNPO.
Sketch by the Author.]
Tashi-lunpo must not be conceived as a single vast block of buildings,
but as a cloister town within an enclosing wall, a town of at least a
hundred separate houses, very irregularly built and grouped, joined
together in rows divided by narrow lanes (Illustration 118). On the
south side of the Tsangpo a rocky spur projects from the mountains
eastwards into the valley of the Nyang-chu; below and to the east of
this cliff lies Shigatse in the broad valley on the northern, left bank
of the river, while the monastery is built on the lower part of the
southern slope of the ridge, and therefore faces south. Looking from the
plain to the south of the monastery at this conglomeration of white
houses, one notices at once some striking features which facilitate the
orientation. On the extreme right is a high thick wall without windows,
from the top of which large pictures are exposed to view during certain
summer festivals. A little to the left of it, the grand white façade of
the Labrang, with its solid, simple, and tasteful architecture, rises
above all the cloister town, and in front of and below the Labrang five
buildings, quite alike in appearance, catch the eye--massive towers with
golden roofs in the Chinese style. They form a line running from west to
east, and are the mausoleums of the five earlier Tashi Lamas. The
remaining space within the wall around and below them is occupied by all
the other houses, and wherever you stand on their flat roofs the first
and the last objects you see are these mausoleums; for Tashi-lunpo has
also a system of aerial streets and places, as they may be called, that
is, the roofs protected by low parapets. In the deep lanes one is quite
unable to find the way unless one is very familiar with them, for only
the nearest high walls can be seen, consisting either of an unbroken
smooth surface or interrupted by large long windows in black frames. The
walls all slope a little inwards, so that all the lanes between the
houses are narrowest at the bottom. The pavement is irregular, worn, and
smooth; some lanes and open squares are not paved at all. All these
constructions are solidly and firmly built, and planned so as to defy
time as well as the rude climate of Tibet.
Tashi-lunpo was founded in the year A.D. 1445 by Ge-dun-dup, the nephew
of Tsong Kapa, who in the year 1439 was installed as Grand Lama of the
Gelugpa sect, though he did not yet bear the title of Dalai Lama. The
present Grand Lama of Lhasa, Ngavang Lobsang Tubden Gyamtso, who has now
held the office for thirty-four years, is the thirteenth in succession.
This number is not to be compared with the long list of Roman Popes. The
first Panchen Rinpoche of Tashi-lunpo was named Panchen Lobsang Chöki
Gyaltsan, and held the dignity of pope from 1569 to 1662, or
ninety-three years--certainly a world record. His mortuary chapel,
Chukang-sher, or the East Tomb, is the one to which we shall first
direct our steps.
Its façade faces the rectangular court where the ceremonies are
performed, its portal stands at a level with the uppermost platform for
spectators, and above the door hang large white awnings beneath a
symbolic decoration--a wheel between two gilded stags. The roof is made
of gilded copper sheeting, and is divided into two sections by a
platform with a parapet (Illustration 124).
The interior of the mausoleum is a cubical room, illuminated only by the
daylight, which enters through the portal and mingles effectively with
the pale gleam of the butter-fed wicks in a row of silver saucers and
brazen bowls. The middle bowl is larger than the others, is like a
caldron, and has a cover with a round hole through which a sacrificial
flame rises from the melting butter. Before this cordon of butter lamps,
on a rather higher super-altar, stand a row of pyramidal figures of
baked paste, painted in front with various colours and representing
different Lamaistic symbols. Behind them is a row of bowls and chalices
of solid gold and silver, donations of wealthy pilgrims. They contain
pure water, meal, barley, rice, and other edible offerings.
The tomb itself, in the interior, is a _chhorten_ in the form of a
pyramid with steps, ledges, and cornices, and may be 20 to 23 feet high.
All the front is decorated with gold and silver in arabesques and other
designs, and is studded with precious stones. At the very top stands a
_gao_, a yard high, somewhat like a sentry-box, with a front of lotus
leaves, and in it sits a statue of the deceased wearing the usual mitre,
with which Tsong Kapa is always represented, and of which we saw so many
specimens during the festival. A number of long silken _kadakhs_ have
been placed in the uplifted hands of the statue, and hang down over the
monument in long festoons and streamers. This is also draped with a
multitude of _tankas_, temple banners which are painted in Lhasa and
Tashi-lunpo, and represent scenes from the life of the founder of the
religion and of the Church fathers. Among and behind them also hang
standards and pennants of coloured cloth narrowing to a point at the
bottom, and all are old, dusty, and dingy (Illustrations 125, 126).
This _chhorten_ with its richly decorated front and its motley
surroundings stands alone in the cubical chapel, and a narrow,
pitch-dark passage runs round it; at the back, by the light of a paper
lantern, the solid foundation of masonry, on which the monument rests,
may be seen. The pilgrims circle round it, the more times the better,
and the orthodox "Gelugpa," members of the "sect of virtue," always walk
in the direction of the hands of a watch, that is, they turn on entering
to the left. The monks, who act as guides, insist that we also shall
conform to this regulation.
Now we cross again the court of ceremonies, and are conducted slowly
through narrow corridors to a somewhat lighter gallery, where we can
look down into a _dukang_, a hall where the high office is performed
five times a day. Red mattresses, much the worse for wear, lie in rows
on the smooth stone floor, on which the monks sit cross-legged during
the mass. In the middle of the shorter side stands a papal throne, with
back and arms, and covered with yellow silk--it is the seat of the Grand
Lama, who on certain occasions teaches and preaches here.
[Illustration: 128. PORTAL OF THE MAUSOLEUM OF THE THIRD TASHI LAMA IN
TASHI-LUNPO.
Sketch by the Author.]
Then we are led to the Yalloa-champa, a holy apartment with a curtain
formed of a network of iron rings, through which we catch a glimpse of
some dark idols and a quantity of Chinese porcelain bowls. Illuminated
by butter lamps and draped with long silken cloths, here stands a figure
of Dolma, one of the two wives of Srong Tsan Ganpo, the first Tibetan
king, both very popular in Tibet, and immortalized in most Lama temples.
It is said of the statue here that it once exchanged words of wisdom
with a monk. In another compartment we find Tsong Kapa's statue veiled
in silken draperies, and also a figure of the second Tashi Lama, the
Panchen Lobsang Yishe.
The library is called Kanjur-lhakang, and here the bible of the Tibetans
in 100 to 108 folios, the Kanjur, is kept, studied, and explained. It
contains a collection of canonical works which were translated from the
Sanscrit originals in the ninth century. The hall is as dark as a
subterranean crypt, its red-painted wooden pillars are hung with
unframed pictures, _tankas_, painted with minute artistic detail, and on
the walls also a host of gods are depicted in colours. At the upper,
shorter side is a row of altars, with images of gods in niches, and
figures of Tashi Lamas and other great priests. Before these, too,
butter lamps are burning, and smooth bright brazen bowls are filled to
the brim with offerings. The illumination is scanty and mystical as
everywhere in Tashi-lunpo; it seems as though the monks needed darkness
to strengthen their faith in the incredible and supernatural literature
that they read and study here (Illustration 127).
Proceeding westwards along the lane which runs in front of the
mausoleums, we look into the monument of the second supreme pontiff and
then into that of the third. They were named Panchen Lobsang Yishe
(1663-1737) and Panchen Lobsang Palden Yishe (1737-1779). The mausoleums
are built after the pattern of the one already described, but between
the entrance pillars of the third hangs a shield bearing the name of the
Emperor Kien Lung in raised characters. Köppen gives in his book some
interesting information about the relations of the great Manchu Emperor
with this Tashi Lama. Kien Lung (1736-1795) sent many letters to the
Grand Lama from the year 1777 inviting him to come to Pekin, but the
latter suspected treachery and made all kinds of excuses. But the
Emperor was so persistent that at length in July of the year 1779 the
prelate had to set out. After a journey of three months he reached the
monastery Kum-bum. Wherever the holy caravan passed crowds of pilgrims
collected to worship the Grand Lama and offer him presents. He passed
the winter at Kum-bum, and made daily several thousand impressions of
his hand on paper, which were well paid for as relics. One rich chief
alone is said to have presented him with 300 horses, 70 mules, 100
camels, 1000 pieces of brocade, and 150,000 shillings in silver.
Escorted by princes, governors, officials, and soldiers, and also by the
chief court lama of the Emperor, Chancha Khutukhtu, he reached, after a
further journey of two months, Kien Lung's summer residence, where he
was received with magnificent pomp and state and brilliant fêtes. The
Son of Heaven was pleased to allow himself to be instructed by the holy
man in the truths of religion. While the Emperor was visiting the tombs
of his ancestors in Mukden, the Tashi Lama made his triumphal entry into
Pekin, where all, from the imperial princes to the mob in the streets,
wished to see him and receive his blessing. Even the imperial favourites
insisted obstinately on seeing His Holiness, on which occasion he sat
dumb and motionless behind a transparent curtain, casting down his eyes
so as not to be polluted by the sight of beautiful women.
[Illustration: 129. The Namgyal-lhakang with the figure of Tsong Kapa,
in Tashi-lunpo.
Water-colour Sketch by the Author.]
But all this worldly glory came to a sudden and deplorable end. The
Tashi Lama fell ill and died, and it was affirmed that the powerful
Emperor had caused him to be poisoned, because he suspected him of a
design to free himself from the supremacy of China with the help of the
Governor-General of India; for it was to this third Tashi Lama that
Warren Hastings had sent Bogle as ambassador six years previously. If
our friend, the present Tashi Lama, had thought of this circumstance he
would perhaps have preferred to omit his visit to India. The Emperor
pretended to be inconsolable, had the body embalmed, and masses said
for three months over the golden sarcophagus, and then the body was
carried on men's shoulders all the way to Tashi-lunpo, the journey
lasting seven months, and was there deposited in the splendid mausoleum
to which we paid a flying visit (Illustration 128).
Our next visit is to the so-called Namgyal-lhakang, the temple of Tsong
Kapa, a large pillared hall with a huge statue of the reformer; before
it and its companion images stand the usual battery of lamps, sacred
vessels, and Lamaistic emblems. The temple watchman, housed in a small
recess in the entrance hall, is a jovial septuagenarian who has lived
sixteen years in Mongolia, and always comes out to inquire after my
health when I pass the temple of Tsong Kapa on my way from or to the
western buildings of Tashi-lunpo (Illustrations 129, 163).
Tsong Kapa's name is as famous and as highly revered in the Lamaistic
Church as that of Buddha himself: I cannot recall to mind that his
statue is absent in one of the many temples I have visited in Tibet. He
was born in Amdo in the year 1355, and of course his birth was attended
by all kinds of supernatural circumstances. At the age of three years he
decided to retire from the world, and therefore his mother cut off his
hair, which became the roots of the famous miraculous tree in Kum-bum
(the temple of the "hundred thousand statues"), on the leaves of which
Father Huc read with his own eyes holy inscriptions. Unfortunately my
own visit to Kum-bum was in the winter of 1896 when the holy tree was
leafless. After a thorough course of study Tsong Kapa formed the
resolution of reforming the dissolute and corrupted Lamaism, and in
several public conferences he silenced, like Luther, all his opponents.
The number of his followers rapidly increased, and in the year 1407 he
founded the monastery Galdan, near Lhasa, becoming its first abbot, and
subsequently the equally large and famous monasteries Brebung and Sera.
Tsong Kapa introduced celibacy among the monks of his sect, which he
called "Gelugpa," the sect of virtue, and whose badge was the yellow
cap; for yellow was the sacred colour of the old Buddhist monks. Among
other precepts he enunciated was the regulation that the virtuous monks
should retreat into solitude at certain times, to give themselves up to
meditation and study, and prepare themselves for disputations. At the
present day the yellow-caps are much more numerous in Tibet than the
red-caps. Tsong Kapa died in the year 1417, and lies buried in Galdan,
where his sarcophagus or _chhorten_ stands in the open air. He is
regarded as an incarnation of Amitabha, and at the same time of Manjusri
and Vajrapani, and he still lives on, therefore, in the person of our
friend the present Tashi Lama, after living in the other five Tashi
Lamas in succession, whose graves we have just visited. No wonder, then,
that he is in exceptionally high repute in Tashi-lunpo.
As we were sitting before the statue, contemplating Tsong Kapa's kind
smiling features under the usual pointed mitre, young lamas appeared
with fruits, sweetmeats, and tea, and with greetings from the Tashi
Lama, who hoped I would not overtire myself. Some monks sat by the wall
in the semi-darkness reading aloud from their holy scriptures, which lay
before them on small stools; they held in the hand a _dorche_, the
symbol of power, and a bell which they rang from time to time
(Illustration 130). When we again went out into the sunshine the Indian
elephant of the Tashi Lama was taking exercise in the lane; he is the
only one of his species in the whole country, and is said to be a
present from a wealthy merchant, who brought him from Siliguri.
The fourth Tashi Lama, Panchen Tenbe Nima (1781-1854) has also a
mausoleum, similar to those of his predecessors. At either side of the
entrance are seen on the walls of the ante-chamber painted portraits,
double life size, of the "four great kings," Namböse, Yukorshung,
Pagyepo, and Chenmigsang, whose duty it is to ward off the demons and
prevent them from disturbing the peace of the temple. They are painted
in staring colours and have a hideous appearance, are armed with sword,
bow, and spear, and surrounded by a confusion of clouds, waves and
tongues of flame, tigers, dragons, and other wild beasts. These four
figures are hardly ever absent from the entrance to a temple in Tibet,
and one of these four guardian kings is represented in relief on each of
the four sides of the five mausoleums.
[Illustration: 130. READING LAMA WITH DORCHE (THUNDERBOLT) AND DRILBU
(PRAYER-BELL).]
[Illustration: 131. LAMA WITH PRAYER DRUM.
Sketches by the Author.]
Our guides told us that this mausoleum was erected the same year in
which the fourth Tashi Lama died. On either side of the chapel proper is
a smaller shrine, to the left the Yamiyang-lhakang, with several images,
and an altar front decorated with gilded sphinxes having red wings on
the back, nape of the neck, and paws. On the right stands the
Galdan-lhakang, with an image of Tsong Kapa projecting from the petals
of a lotus flower, which indicates his heavenly origin.
Lastly, we turn our steps to the chapel in which the fifth Tashi Lama,
Panchen Tenbe Vangchuk (1854-1882) sleeps his last sleep. As this
mausoleum is only about twenty years old, it looks fresher and cleaner
than the others, and is particularly richly and gorgeously decorated
without and within. The front of the _chhorten_ glitters with gold,
turquoise, and coral. A glass candelabrum from India looks out of place
amid the pure Lamaist convent style, as also some common balls of blue
glass and looking-glass--cheap wares, such as are seen in country
gardens and in front of village inns. They hang from a ledge in front of
the sarcophagus receptacle. On the altar stand the usual votive vessels,
many of them strikingly elegant and tasteful. A large bowl on a tall
foot is of gold, and contains a burning wick. On the right, on nails,
hang simple gifts of poor pilgrims--cheap _kadakhs_ like gauze bandages,
bangles, necklaces, amulet cases, rosaries--all of the cheapest kind,
and all presents from pilgrims who, carried away by their enthusiasm,
offered up the insignificant ornaments they happened to be wearing. Here
we see the impression of a child's foot on a tablet of stone in a red
and yellow frame; a full description in raised letters informs us that
it is the print of the foot of the present Grand Lama when he was a
child six months old. To this tomb gifts flow more profusely than to the
others, for there are still many people living who remember the
deceased.
The first four tombs were secured by many solid complicated locks, were
opened to admit us, and were closed again when we left. But the chapel
of the fifth Grand Lama stood open to the public, and a string of
pilgrims passed to and from it. The monks accompanying us wished to
drive them away, but I would not suffer them to be disturbed; it was,
moreover, interesting to observe their worship for a while. Murmuring
"Om mani padme hum," they stand with bent head before the sepulchral
monument, fall on their knees, let their hands slide forward over the
stone floor until they lie full-length, touching the ground with their
foreheads; then they get up and repeat this gymnastic feat again and
again. Afterwards they bow before the idols, lay a handful of rice or
meal in the offerings bowls, and go round the dark passage about the
monument.
In each of these monuments the Grand Lama is interred at the top, in the
pyramid behind his own image. From the street in front of the mausoleums
you ascend some stone steps to a portal which gives access to a paved
forecourt surrounded by a gallery resting on wooden pillars. Within the
pillars the walls are adorned with frescoes representing smiling gods
and dancing goddesses like nymphs and odalisks, historical and legendary
personages, wild animals, allegorical figures, and the circular disc
which betokens the universe with the worlds of the gods, men, and
devils. The walls in the forecourt of the fifth tomb were remarkable for
the fresh bright colours of their bold effective decoration, while those
in the others had suffered from the action of time, and in parts were so
much obliterated that they were almost past restoration. When age has
set its mark equally on the whole painted surface the picture gains in
beauty, for its colours are more subdued and less crude, but the worst
is, that frequently the whole decoration has fallen off. A large bronze
bell hangs in front of each mausoleum.
[Illustration: 132. Entrance to the Tomb of the Fifth Tashi-Lama in
Tashi-lunpo.
Water-colour Sketch by the Author.]
The outer courts are so small that the elegant portals cannot exhibit
their full beauty; they are too near, and they are seen much
foreshortened. From the outer court of the fifth tomb a wooden staircase
leads up to the entrance hall; the staircase consists of three
divisions, and has therefore four banisters, the two in the middle being
closed at the top and bottom by ropes. The middle steps may only be used
by the Tashi Lama himself, while those at either side are free to
Tom, Dick, and Harry, and therefore are much worn--almost hollowed out.
When the visitor reaches the top of the staircase, he has the door of
the mausoleum in front of him, and to the right and left the short sides
of the entrance hall, each with a figure of one of the four spiritual
kings, while the two others are painted on the wall at either side of
the massive door-posts. The entrance hall opens on the forecourt, and
its richly carved lintel and beams are supported by two red polygonal
wooden pillars with carved and painted elongated capitals. Before the
door hangs heavy drapery of a coarse pattern. The very massive heavy
panels of the door are lacquered dark brick-red, shine like metal, and
are ornamented with mountings, shield-shaped plaques, and rings of
yellow brass partly blackened with age. A pair of tassels hang from the
rings of the shields. When the two doors are opened the mysterious gloom
of the sepulchral chamber and the flickering lamps are exposed to view
(Illustrations 132, 133).
Our first inspection of Tashi-lunpo was now ended, and, satiated with
strange impressions, we betook ourselves in the twilight to our tents in
Kung Gushuk's garden. Darkness fell sooner than usual, for a storm was
gathering in the west, and it came down on us before we reached our
camp.
FOOTNOTE:
[1] I would especially recommend the following works to those who
desire to make a thorough study of Lamaism: Köppen's _Die
Lamaistische Hierarchie und Kirche_; Waddell's _The Buddhism of
Tibet_; and Grünwedel's _Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet und in
der Mongolei_. I have borrowed much of the historical and ritualistic
information in the following pages from these works.