1685-1742.
Errant Tribes of the Bay -- The Goose Hunt -- Assemblage at
Lake Winnipeg -- Difficulties of the Voyage -- Arrival at the
Fort -- Ceremony followed by Debauch -- Gifts to the Chief --
He makes a Speech to the Governor -- Ceremony of the Pipe --
Trading Begun.
The tribes to the west of the Bay led an erratic life. They were
without horses, and it was their custom never to remain above a
fortnight in one spot, unless they found plenty of game.
When they had encamped, and their lodges were built, they dispersed to
hunt, meeting in the evening when they had procured enough to maintain
them during the day. It was not their custom to travel more than three
or four miles from their lodges, but when scarcity of game was
encountered they would remove a league or two farther off. In this
fashion they traversed the whole forest region, hardly missing a
single day winter or summer, fair or foul, but always employed in some
kind of chase.
[Sidenote: The Indians as hunters.]
The Indians were ruthless slaughterers of animals at the earliest
period at which they were known to the servants of the Company.
Whether they happened to be under the pinch of necessity or enjoying
themselves in all the happiness of health and plenty, it was their
custom to slay all they could. They boasted a maxim that the "more
they killed, the more they had to kill." Such an opinion, although
opposed to reason and common sense, was clung to with great
pertinacity by them. The results of this indiscriminate slaughter were
obvious; and to such a pitch of destitution were the tribes often
brought that cannibalism was not infrequent amongst them.
The species of game, such as marten, squirrel and ermine, got by traps
and snares, were generally caught by the women and children. When the
men had slain their elks, deer, or buffalo, or foxes, they left it
where it fell, leaving the squaws to fetch it to the lodges the next
day, taking care to cut off the titbits or tender morsels, such as
tongues, for their own immediate pleasure.
[Illustration: MODERN TYPE OF INDIAN.]
A great part of the factory provisions consisted of geese killed by
the Indians. For this purpose the factors supplied the latter with
powder and shot, allowing them the value of a beaver skin for every
ten geese killed. Accordingly, after the Indian had got his supply, he
set off from his tent early in the morning into the marshes, where he
sat himself down with great patience, difficult of imitation by the
Company's men, and there, sheltered by willows, waited for the geese.
These were shot flying, and so dexterous were the braves at this
sport that a good hunter would kill, in times of plenty, fifty or
sixty a day. Few Europeans were able to endure the cold, hunger and
adversity which often marked these excursions.
[Sidenote: Meeting at Lake Winnipeg.]
The nations coming from a distance to York Factory were wont to
assemble in May at Lake Winnipeg to the number of perhaps fifteen
hundred. The chief would then harangue the men, representing their
wants, and exhort the young men to exert themselves to the utmost to
reach the fort with all their skins and to secure good terms from the
white men. Each family then made a feast, in the course of which they
fixed upon those of their number who were to undertake the journey.
During the progress of the wassail which then reigned, it was
customary for speeches to be made, new alliances formed and old ones
strengthened. The morrow was spent in building the birch bark canoes,
in which the northern tribes had attained great proficiency; and being
at last ready for the voyage, the leaders of the expedition were
chosen, and all was ready to start.
It was never exactly ascertained how many actually participated in
these trading expeditions; the number was regulated by the
circumstance of the tribes being at peace or at war, and also whether
disease raged amongst them. It may be taken, roughly speaking, that
six hundred canoes containing one thousand persons, not counting
women, came down annually to York Factory, with furs to trade.
No regularity marked their voyage, each striving to be foremost,
because those proceeding first had the best chance of procuring food.
During the voyage each leader canvassed, with all manner of art and
diligence, for braves to join his party. Some were influenced by
presents, and others by promises, for the more canoes each petty
leader had under his command the greater he appeared at the factory.
[Sidenote: Difficulties of the journey.]
Throughout their progress the Indians were obliged to go ashore for
several hours daily, which caused great delay in their progress.
Their canoes were small, holding only two men and a pack of one
hundred beaver skins, with not much room for provisions. Had their
canoes been larger their voyages would undoubtedly have been less
protracted, and they would have been able to transport a greater
cargo. Often great numbers of skins were left behind.
A good hunter of these nations could kill six hundred beavers in the
course of a season; he could carry down to the factory rarely more
than one hundred, using the remainder at home in various ways.
Sometimes he hung them upon branches of trees by way of votive
offering upon the death of a child or near relation; often they were
utilized as bedding and bed coverings; occasionally the fur was burnt
off, and the beast roasted whole for food at banquets.
These annual journeys were beset by much hardship and suffering even
at the best of times.
The testimony of at least one Governor is significant. "While," said
he, "it is the duty of every one of the Company's servants to
encourage a spirit of industry among the natives, and to use every
means in their power to induce them to procure furs and other
commodities for trade ... at the same time, it must be confessed that
such conduct is by no means for the real benefit of the poor Indians;
it being well-known that those who have the least intercourse with the
factories, are by far the happiest.... It is true that there are few
Indians but have once in their lives, at least, visited the fort, and
the hardships and dangers which most of them experienced on those
occasions have left such a lasting impression on their minds, that
nothing can induce them to repeat their visits."
Arriving near their journey's end, they all put ashore; the women
going into the woods to gather pine-brush for the bottom of the tents,
while the leaders smoked together and arranged the procession to the
factory. This settled, they re-embarked, and soon after arrived before
the post of the Company; if there happened to be but one captain, his
situation was in the centre of all the canoes; if more than one, they
placed themselves at the wings, their canoes being distinguished by a
small flag hoisted on a stick and placed astern. Arriving within two
hundred yards of the palisade, they discharged their fowling pieces by
way of compliment to the Governor, who returned the salute by firing
off two or three small cannon. The men of the tribe seldom concerned
themselves with taking out the bundles, except occasionally when the
younger ones assisted the women.
[Illustration: TYPE OF CREE INDIAN.]
[Sidenote: Arrival at the Fort.]
The factor being now informed that the Indians had arrived, the trader
was sent to introduce the leaders into the fort. Chairs were placed in
the trading-room for the visitors, and pipes introduced. During the
first part of the ceremony the leader puffed great clouds of smoke,
but said little; but the tobacco in the bowl becoming low, he began to
be more talkative. Fixing his eyes immovably on the ground, he
informed the factors how many canoes he had brought, and what tribes
he had seen; he enquired after the health of his hosts, and declared
he is glad to see them. When this speech was concluded the Governor
bade the chief and his party welcome, informing him that he had good
goods and plenty, that he loved the Indians, and they might count upon
his kindness to them. The pipe was then removed, and the conversation
became general.
During this visit the chief was dressed out at the Company's expense.
He was furnished with a coarse cloth coat, red or blue, lined with
baize, and white regimental cuffs; a waistcoat and breeches of baize.
This suit was ornamented with orris lace. He was likewise presented
with a white or checked cotton shirt, stockings of yarn, one red and
the other blue, and tied below the knee with worsted garters; his
moccasins were sometimes put on over these, but he as freely walked
away in bare feet. His hat was of coarse felt and bedecked with three
ostrich feathers, of various colours. A worsted sash was fastened to
its crown; a small silk handkerchief drawn about his neck, and thus
attired, the chief strutted up and down delighted.
His second in command also claimed attention. He was given a coat, but
not a lined one; a shirt and a cap such as was worn by sailors of the
period. The guests once equipped, bread and prunes were forthcoming
and set before the chief; and of these confections he took care to
fill his pockets before they were carried out. These were followed by
a two-gallon keg of brandy, pipes and tobacco for himself and
followers.
It was now high time to think of returning to the camp, but this exit
was not to be undertaken without further marks of the favour and
esteem with which the chief was held by the Company. His conduct from
the fort was effected in state. In front a halberd and ensign were
borne; next came a drummer beating a march, followed by several of the
factory servants bearing bread, prunes, pipes, tobacco, brandy, etc.
Behind these came the "King," "Captain," or chief, with stately tread,
and erect, smoking his pipe and conversing with the factors at his
side. Afterwards came the "Lieutenant," "Prince," relative or friend,
who had accompanied the chief.
The tent was found ready for their reception, strewn with clean pine
brush and beaver coats placed for them to sit. The brandy was
deposited on the ground, and the chief gave orders for its
distribution. After this the factor left, none too soon, however, for
all were soon plunged into a brutal state of intoxication. "It is
fifty to one," writes one trader, "but some one is killed before
morning. They give loose rein to every species of disorderly
tumult--all crying, fighting, and dancing."
About 1735, a party of Indians came down to trade, and the first day
of their arrival, as was their invariable custom, got vilely drunk.
While thus inebriated, they fought, not noisily, but silently, in the
darkness. When morning dawned, two corpses, in a fearful state of
mutilation, were found stretched on the ground in pools of blood.
[Sidenote: Ceremony of the pipe.]
After this debauch, which lasted about two or three days, the sobered
braves took to the calumet of peace. The stem of this pipe was three
or four feet long, decorated with pieces of lace, bears' claws,
eagles' talons, and the feathers of the most beautiful birds. The pipe
being affixed to the stem, the factor took it in both hands, and with
great gravity rose from his chair and pointed the end of the stem to
the east or sunrise, and then to the zenith, and to the west, and then
perpendicularly to the Nadir. After this he took three or four hearty
whiffs and then presented it to the chief, and so on round the whole
party, the women excepted. When the tobacco was consumed, the factor
took the pipe again and twirling it three times round his head, laid
it with great deliberation on the table. A great Ho! was thereupon
emitted from the mouths of the assemblage.[54]
This ceremony being over, a further gratuity of bread and prunes was
distributed, and the chief made a speech, which one trader has
reported, after this style.
[Illustration: AN OLD CHIEF.
(_From a Photograph._)]
"You told me last year to bring many Indians to trade, which I
promised to do. You see, I have not lied, here are many young men come
with me; use them kindly, I say; let them trade good goods, I say. We
lived hard last winter and were hungry; powder being short measure and
bad, I say. Tell your servants to fill the measure, and not put their
thumbs within the brim; take pity on us, take pity on us, I say.
"We paddle a long way to see you; we love the English. Let us trade
good black tobacco, moist and hard twisted; let us see it before it
is opened. Take pity on us, take pity on us, I say.
"The guns are bad, let us trade light guns, small in the hand and
well-shaped, and locks that will not freeze in the winter, and red
gun-cases. Let the young men have more than measure of tobacco, cheap
pattees, thick and high.
"Give us good measure of cloth; let us see the old measure. The young
men love you by coming so far to see you. Give them good goods; they
like to dress and be fine; do you see?"
As soon as the chief had finished the above speech, he, with his
followers, proceeded to examine the guns and tobacco; the former with
a most minute attention. This over, they traded with furs
promiscuously, the leader being so far indulged as to be admitted into
the trading-room all the time if he desired it.
[Sidenote: Varieties of beaver.]
The beaver thus received by the chief trader and stored at the factory
pending its shipment to England in the Company's ships, was classified
into eight varieties. The first was the fat winter beaver, slain in
winter, which was valued at five shillings and sixpence a pound. The
second sort was the fat summer beaver, worth two shillings and
ninepence. Next came in order the dry winter beaver, and the Bordeaux,
both worth three shillings and sixpence. The dry summer beaver, not
much valued, about one shilling and ninepence. Sixth came the coat
beaver, as it was called, which brought four shillings and sixpence.
The Muscovite, dry beaver of a fine skin, covered with a silky hair;
it was worn in Russia, where the short fur was combed away and
manufactured into fabric, leaving only the hair; this fetched four and
sixpence; and lastly on the list figured the Mittain beaver, which
were utilized in the manufacture of mittens, being worth one shilling
and ninepence.
It was reported that in the year 1742 the natives were so discouraged
in their trade with the Company that many found the peltry hardly
worth the carriage, and the finest furs sold for very little. When the
tribes came to the factory in June they found the goods much higher
in price, and much in excess of the standard they were accustomed to.
According to Joseph la France, a French-Canadian voyageur, they gave
but a pound of gunpowder for four beavers, a fathom of tobacco for
seven beavers, a pound of shot for one, an ell of coarse cloth for
fifteen, a blanket for twelve, two fish-hooks or three flints for one,
a gun for twenty-five, a pistol for ten; a common hat with white lace
cost seven beavers, an axe four, a bill-hook one, a gallon of brandy
four, a chequered shirt seven; "all of which sold at a monstrous
profit, even to two thousand per cent."
It was a fact, nevertheless, that notwithstanding such discouragement
the two expeditions of Indians who visited York and Churchill that
year brought down two hundred packs of one hundred each, that is to
say twenty thousand beaver skins. As to the other Indians who arrived
from another direction, they carried three hundred packs of one
hundred each, which made a total of fifty thousand beavers, besides
nine thousand martens.
FOOTNOTE:
[54] All this ceremony has a significance of its own. Interpreted, it
said: "Whilst the sun shall visit the different parts of the world and
make day and night; peace, firm friendship and brotherly love shall be
established between the English and the Indians, and the same on the
latter's part. By twirling the pipe over the head, it was further
intended to imply that all persons of the two nations, whosoever they
were, shall be included in the friendship and brotherhood, then
concluded or renewed."