TĔLŌNES (τελώνης), a farmer of the public taxes at Athens. The taxes
were let by auction to the highest bidder. Companies often took them
in the name of one person, who was called ἀρχώνης or τελωνάρχης, and
was their representative to the state. Sureties were required of
the farmer for the payment of his dues. The office was frequently
undertaken by resident aliens, citizens not liking it, on account of
the vexatious proceedings to which it often led. The farmer was armed
with considerable powers: he carried with him his books, searched
for contraband or uncustomed goods, watched the harbour, markets,
and other places, to prevent smuggling, or unlawful and clandestine
sales; brought a _phasis_ (φάσις) or other legal process against
those whom he suspected of defrauding the revenue; or even seized
their persons on some occasions, and took them before the magistrate.
To enable him to perform these duties, he was exempted from military
service. Collectors (ἐκλογεῖς) were sometimes employed by the
farmers; but frequently the farmer and the collector were the same
person. The taxes were let by the commissioners (πωλῆται), acting
under the authority of the senate. The payments were made by the
farmer on stated prytaneias in the senate-house. There was usually
one payment made in advance, προκαταβολή, and one or more afterwards,
called προσκατάβλημα. Upon any default of payment, the farmer became
_atimus_, if a citizen, and he was liable to be imprisoned at the
discretion of the court, upon an information laid against him. If the
debt was not paid by the expiration of the ninth prytaneia, it was
doubled; and if not then paid, his property became forfeited to the
state, and proceedings to confiscation might be taken forthwith. Upon
this subject, see the speech of Demosthenes against Timocrates.
TĔLOS (τέλος), a tax. The taxes imposed by the Athenians, and
collected at home, were either ordinary or extraordinary. The
former constituted a regular or permanent source of income; the
latter were only raised in time of war or other emergency. The
ordinary taxes were laid mostly upon _property_, and upon citizens
_indirectly_, in the shape of toll or customs; though the resident
aliens paid a poll-tax (called μετοίκιον), for the liberty of
residing at Athens under protection of the state. There was a duty
of two per cent. (πεντηκοστή), levied upon all exports and imports.
An excise was paid on all sales in the market (called ἐπωνία),
though we know not what the amount was. Slave-owners paid a duty
of three obols for every slave they kept; and slaves who had been
emancipated paid the same. This was a very productive tax before
the fortification of Deceleia by the Lacedaemonians. The justice
fees (πρυτανεῖα, παραστασις, &c.) were a lucrative tax in time
of peace. The extraordinary taxes were the property-tax, and the
compulsory services called _liturgies_ (λειτουργίαι). Some of these
last were regular, and recurred annually; the most important, the
_trierarchia_, was a war-service, and performed as occasion required.
As these services were all performed, wholly or partly, at the
expense of the individual, they may be regarded as a species of tax.
[EISPHORA; LEITOURGIA; TRIERARCHIA.] The tribute (φόρος) paid by the
allied states to the Athenians formed, in the flourishing period of
the republic, a regular and most important source of revenue. In
Olymp. 91 2, the Athenians substituted for the tribute a duty of
five per cent. (εἰκοστή) on all commodities exported or imported by
the subject states, thinking to raise by this means a larger income
than by direct taxation. This was terminated by the issue of the
Peloponnesian war, though the tribute was afterwards revived, on more
equitable principles, under the name of σύνταξις. Other sources of
revenue were derived by the Athenians from their mines and public
lands, fines, and confiscations. The public demesne lands, whether
pasture or arable, houses or other buildings, were usually let by
auction to private persons. The conditions of the lease were engraven
on stone. The rent was payable by prytaneias. These various sources
of revenue produced, according to Aristophanes, an annual income
of two thousand talents in the most flourishing period of Athenian
empire. Τελεῖν signifies “to settle, complete, or perfect,” and hence
“to settle an account,” and generally “to pay.” Thus Τέλος comes
to mean any payment in the nature of a tax or duty. The words are
connected with _zahlen_ in German, and the old sense of _tale_ in
English, and the modern word _toll_. Though τέλος may signify any
payment in the nature of a tax or duty, it is more commonly used of
the ordinary taxes, as customs, &c. Ἰσοτέλεια signifies the right of
being taxed on the same footing, and having other privileges, the
same as the citizens; a right sometimes granted to resident aliens.
Ἀτέλεια signifies an exemption from taxes, or other duties and
services; an honour very rarely granted by the Athenians. As to the
farming of the taxes, see TELONES.
TEMPLUM is the same word as the Greek _Temenos_ (τέμενος, from τέμνω,
to cut off); for _templum_ was any place which was circumscribed
and separated by the augurs from the rest of the land by a certain
solemn formula. The technical terms for this act of the augurs are
_liberare_ and _effari_, and hence a templum itself is a _locus
liberatus et effatus_. A place thus set apart and hallowed by the
augurs was always intended to serve religious purposes, but chiefly
for taking the auguries. The place in the heavens within which the
observations were to be made was likewise called templum, as it was
marked out and separated from the rest by the staff of the augur.
When the augur had defined the templum within which he intended
to make his observations, he fixed his tent in it (_tabernaculum
capere_), and this tent was likewise called _templum_, or, more
accurately, _templum minus_. The place chosen for a templum was
generally an eminence, and in the city it was the _arx_, where the
fixing of a tent does not appear to have been necessary, because here
a place called _auguraculum_ was once for all consecrated for this
purpose. Besides this meaning of the word templum in the language of
the augurs, it also had that of a temple in the common acceptation.
In this case, however, the sacred precinct within which a temple
was built, was always a _locus liberatus et effatus_ by the augurs,
that is, a _templum_ or a _fanum_; the consecration was completed
by the pontiffs, and not until inauguration and consecration had
taken place, could sacra be performed or meetings of the senate be
held in it. It was necessary then for a temple to be sanctioned
by the gods, whose will was ascertained by the augurs, and to be
consecrated or dedicated by the will of man (pontiffs). Where the
sanction of the gods had not been obtained, and where the mere act
of man had consecrated a place to the gods, such a place was only
a _sacrum_, _sacrarium_, or _sacellum_. The ceremony performed
by the augurs was essential to a temple, as the consecration by
the pontiffs took place also in other sanctuaries which were not
templa, but mere _sacra_ or _aedes sacrae_. Thus the sanctuary of
Vesta was not a templum, but an aedes sacra, and the various curiae
(Hostilia, Pompeia, Julia) required to be made templa by the augurs
before senatusconsulta could be made in them. It is impossible to
determine with certainty in what respects a templum differed from
a _delubrum_.--Temples appear to have existed in Greece from the
earliest times. They were separated from the profane land around them
(τόπος βέβηλος or τὰ βέβηλα), because every one was allowed to walk
in the latter. This separation was in early times indicated by very
simple means, such as a string or a rope. Subsequently, however,
they were surrounded by more efficient fences, or even by a wall
(ἕρκος, περίβολος). The whole space enclosed in such a περίβολος
was called τέμενος, or sometimes ἱερόν; and contained, besides the
temple itself, other sacred buildings, and sacred ground planted with
groves, &c. Within the precincts of the sacred enclosure no dead were
generally allowed to be buried, though there were some exceptions
to this rule, and we have instances of persons being buried in or
at least near certain temples. The religious laws of the island of
Delos did not allow any corpses to be buried within the whole extent
of the island, and when this law had been violated, a part of the
island was first purified by Pisistratus, and subsequently the whole
island by the Athenian people. The temple itself was called ναός
or νεώς, and at its entrance fonts (περιῤῥαντήρια) were generally
placed, that those who entered the sanctuary to pray or to offer
sacrifices might first purify themselves. The act of consecration,
by which a temple was dedicated to a god, was called ἵδρυσις. The
character of the early Greek temples was dark and mysterious, for
they had no windows, and they received light only through the door,
which was very large, or from lamps burning in them. Architecture
in the construction of magnificent temples, however, made great
progress even at an earlier time than either painting or statuary,
and long before the Persian wars we hear of temples of extraordinary
grandeur and beauty. All temples were built either in an oblong or
round form, and were mostly adorned with columns. Those of an oblong
form had columns either in the front alone, in the fore and back
fronts, or on all the four sides. Respecting the original use of
these porticoes see PORTICUS. The friezes and metopes were adorned
with various sculptures, and no expense was spared in embellishing
the abodes of the gods. The light, which was formerly let in at the
door, was now frequently let in from above through an opening in the
middle. Most of the great temples consisted of three parts: 1. the
πρόναος or πρόδομος, the vestibule; 2. the cella (ναός, σηκός); and
3. the ὀπισθόδομος. The cella was the most important part, as it was,
properly speaking, the temple or the habitation of the deity whose
statue it contained. In one and the same cella there were sometimes
the statues of two or more divinities, as in the Erechtheum at
Athens, the statues of Poseidon, Hephaestus, and Butas. The statues
always faced the entrance, which was in the centre of the prostylus.
The place where the statue stood was called ἕδος, and was surrounded
by a balustrade or railings. Some temples also had more than one
cella, in which case the one was generally behind the other, as in
the temple of Athena Polias at Athens. In temples where oracles
were given, or where the worship was connected with mysteries, the
cella was called ἄδυτον, μέγαρον, or ἀνάκτορον, and to it only the
priests and the initiated had access. The ὀπισθόδομος was a building
which was sometimes attached to the back front of a temple, and
served as a place in which the treasures of the temple were kept,
and thus supplied the place of θησαυροί, which were attached to some
temples.--_Quadrangular Temples_ were described by the following
terms, according to the number and arrangement of the columns on
the fronts and sides. 1. Ἄστυλος, _astyle_, without any columns.
2. Ἐν παραστάσι, _in antis_, with two columns in front between the
antae. 3. Πρόστυλος, _prostyle_, with four columns in front. 4.
Ἀμφιπρόστυλος, _amphiprostyle_, with four columns at each end. 5.
Περίπτερος or ἀμφικίων, _peripteral_, with columns at each end and
along each side. 6. Δίπτερος, _dipteral_, with two ranges of columns
(πτερά) all round, the one within the other. 7. Ψευδοδίπτερος,
_pseudodipteral_, with one range only, but at the same distance
from the walls of the _cella_ as the outer range of a δίπτερος. To
these must be added a sort of sham invented by the Roman architects,
namely: 8. Ψευδοπερίπτερος, _pseudoperipteral_, where the sides had
only half-columns (at the angles three-quarter columns), attached to
the walls of the _cella_, the object being to have the _cella_ large
without enlarging the whole building, and yet to keep up something
of the splendour of a peripteral temple. Names were also applied to
the temples, as well as to the porticoes themselves, according to
the number of columns in the portico at either end of the temple:
namely, τετράστυλος, _tetrastyle_, when there were _four_ columns in
front, ἑξάστυλος, _hexastyle_, when there were _six_, ὀκτάστυλος,
_octastyle_, when there were _eight_, δεκάστυλος, _decastyle_, when
there were _ten_. There were never more than ten columns in the end
portico of a temple; and when there were only two, they were always
arranged in that peculiar form called _in antis_ (ἐν παραστάσι).
The number of columns in the end porticoes was never uneven, but
the number along the sides of a temple was generally uneven. The
number of the side columns varied: where the end portico was
tetrastyle, there were never any columns at the sides, except false
ones, attached to the walls: where it was hexastyle or octastyle,
there were generally 13 or 17 columns at the sides, counting in
the corner columns: sometimes a hexastyle temple had only eleven
columns on the sides. The last arrangement resulted from the rule
adopted by the Roman architects, who counted by intercolumniations
(the spaces between the columns), and whose rule was to have _twice
as many intercolumniations along the sides of the building as in
front_. The Greek architects on the contrary, counted by columns,
and their rule was to have _twice as many columns along the sides
as in front, and one more_, counting the corner columns in each
case. Another set of terms, applied to temples and other buildings
having porticoes, as well as to the porticoes themselves, was derived
from the distances between the columns as compared with the lower
diameters of the columns. They were the following:--1. Πυκνόστυλος,
_pycnostyle_, the distance between the columns a diameter of a column
and half a diameter. 2. Σύστυλος, _systyle_, the distance between
the columns two diameters of a column. 3. Εὔστυλος, _eustyle_, the
distance between the columns two diameters and a quarter, except
in the centre of the front and back of the building, where each
intercolumniation (_intercolumnium_) was three diameters; called
eustyle, because it was best adapted both for beauty and convenience.
4. Διάστυλος, _diastyle_, the intercolumniation, or distance between
the columns, three diameters. 5. Ἀραιόστυλος, _araeostyle_, the
distances excessive, so that it was necessary to make the epistyle
(ἐπιστύλιον), or architrave, not of stone, but of timber. These five
kinds of intercolumniation are illustrated by the following diagram.
⬤ 1½ ⬤
⬤ 2 ⬤
⬤ 2¼ ⬤
⬤ 3 ⬤
⬤ { 4 } ⬤
{or more }
Independently of the immense treasures contained in many of the
Greek temples, which were either utensils or ornaments, and of
the tithes of spoils, &c., the property of temples, from which
they derived a regular income, consisted of lands (τεμένη), either
fields, pastures, or forests. These lands were generally let out to
farm, unless they were, by some curse which lay on them, prevented
from being taken into cultivation. Respecting the persons entrusted
with the superintendence, keeping, cleaning, &c., see AEDITUI. In
the earliest times there appear to have been very few temples at
Rome, and on many spots the worship of a certain divinity had been
established from time immemorial, while we hear of the building of
a temple for the same divinity at a comparatively late period. Thus
the foundation of a temple to the old Italian divinity Saturnus, on
the Capitoline, did not take place till B.C. 498. In the same manner,
Quirinus and Mars had temples built to them at a late period. Jupiter
also had no temple till the time of Ancus Martius, and the one then
built was certainly very insignificant. We may therefore suppose
that the places of worship among the earliest Romans were in most
cases simple altars or sacella. The Roman temples of later times were
constructed in the Greek style. As regards the property of temples,
it is stated that in early times lands were assigned to each temple,
but these lands were probably intended for the maintenance of the
priests alone. [SACERDOS.] The supreme superintendence of the temples
of Rome, and of all things connected with them, belonged to the
college of pontiffs. Those persons who had the immediate care of the
temples were the AEDITUI.