TĂLENTUM (τάλαντον) meant originally _a balance_ [LIBRA], then
the substance weighed, and lastly and commonly a certain weight,
_the talent_. The Greek system of money, as well as the Roman
[AS], was founded on a reference to weight. A certain weight of
silver among the Greeks, as of copper among the Romans, was used
as a representative of a value, which was originally and generally
that of the metal itself. The talent therefore and its divisions
are denominations of money as well as of weight. The Greek system
of weights contained four principal denominations, which, though
different in different times and places, and even at the same place
for different substances, always bore the same relation _to each
other_. These were the talent (τάλαντον), which was the largest,
then the mina (μνᾶ), the drachma (δραχμή), and the obolus (ὀβολός).
[See Tables.] The Attic and Aeginetan were the two standards of
money most in use in Greece. The Attic mina was 4_l._ 1_s._ 3_d._,
and the talent 243_l._ 15_s._ The Aeginetan mina was 5_l._ 14_s._
7_d._, and the talent 343_l._ 15_s._ The Euboic talent was of nearly
the same weight as the Attic. A much smaller talent was in use for
gold. It was equal to six Attic drachmae, or about ¾ oz. and 71 grs.
It was called the _gold talent_, or the _Sicilian talent_, from
its being much used by the Greeks of Italy and Sicily. This is the
talent always meant when the word occurs in Homer. This small talent
explains the use of the term _great talent_ (_magnum talentum_),
which we find in Latin authors, for the silver Attic talent was
_great_ in comparison with this. But the use of the word by the
Romans is altogether very inexact. Where talents are mentioned in the
classical writers without any specification of the standard, we must
generally understand the Attic.
TĀLĬO, from Talis, signifies an equivalent, but it is used only in
the sense of a punishment or penalty the same in kind and degree as
the mischief which the guilty person has done to the body of another.
Talio, as a punishment, was a part of the Mosaic law.
TĀLUS (ἀστράγαλος), a huckle-bone. The huckle-bones of sheep and
goats were used to play with from the earliest times, principally by
women and children, occasionally by old men. To play at this game was
sometimes called πενταλιθίζειν, because five bones or other objects
of a similar kind were employed; and this number is retained among
ourselves. When the sides of the bone were marked with different
values, the game became one of chance. [ALEA; TESSERA.] The two ends
were left blank, because the bone could not rest upon either of them
on account of its curvature. The four remaining sides were marked
with the numbers 1, 3, 4, 6; 1 and 6 being on two opposite sides, and
3 and 4 on the other two opposite sides. The Greek and Latin names
of the numbers were as follows:--1. Μονάς, εἶς, κύων, Χῖος; Ion.
Οἴνη: _Unio_, _Vulturius_, _canis_: 3. Τρίας, _Ternio_; 4. Τετράς,
_Quaternio_; 6. Ἑξάς, ἑξίτης, Κῷος; _Senio_. Two persons played
together at this game, using four bones, which they threw up into
the air, or emptied out of a dice-box, and observing the numbers on
the uppermost sides. The numbers on the four sides of the four bones
admitted of thirty-five different combinations. The lowest throw of
all was four aces (_jacere vultorios quatuor_). But the value of a
throw was not in all cases the sum of the four numbers turned up.
The highest in value was that called _Venus_, or _jactus Venereus_,
in which the numbers cast up were all different, the sum of them
being only fourteen. It was by obtaining this throw that the king
of the feast was appointed among the Romans [SYMPOSIUM], and hence
it was also called _Basilicus_. Certain other throws were called by
particular names, taken from gods, illustrious men and women, and
heroes. Thus the throw, consisting of two aces and two trays, making
eight, which number, like the jactus Venereus, could be obtained only
once, was denominated _Stesichorus_.
[Illustration: Game of Tali. (From an ancient Painting.)]
TĂMĬAE (ταμίαι), the treasurers of the temples and the revenue at
Athens. The wealthiest of all the temples at Athens was that of
Athena on the Acropolis, the treasures of which were under the
guardianship of ten _tamiae_, who were chosen annually by lot from
the class of pentacosiomedimni, and afterwards, when the distinction
of classes had ceased to exist, from among the wealthiest of Athenian
citizens. The treasurers of the other gods were chosen in like
manner; but they, about the 90th Olympiad, were all united into one
board, while those of Athena remained distinct. Their treasury,
however, was transferred to the same place as that of Athena, viz.,
to the opisthodomus of the Parthenon, where were kept not only all
the treasures belonging to the temples, but also the state treasure
(ὅσια χρήματα, as contra-distinguished from ἱερά), under the
care of the treasurers of Athena. All the funds of the state were
considered as being in a manner consecrated to Athena; while on the
other hand the people reserved to themselves the right of making
use of the sacred monies, as well as the other property of the
temples, if the safety of the state should require it. Payments
made to the temples were received by the treasurers in the presence
of some members of the senate, just as public monies were by the
Apodectae; and then the treasurers became responsible for their
safe custody.--The treasurer of the revenue (ταμίας or ἐπιμελητής
τῆς κοινῆς προσόδου) was a more important personage than those last
mentioned. He was not a mere keeper of monies, like them, nor a mere
receiver, like the apodectae; but a general paymaster, who received
through the apodectae all money which was to be disbursed for the
purposes of the administration (except the property-taxes, which were
paid into the war-office, and the tribute from the allies, which was
paid to the hellenotamiae [HELLENOTAMIAE]), and then distributed
it in such manner as he was required to do by the law; the surplus
(if any) he paid into the war-office or the theoric fund. As this
person knew all the channels in which the public money had to flow,
and exercised a general superintendence over the expenditure, he
was competent to give advice to the people upon financial measures,
with a view to improve the revenue, introduce economy, and prevent
abuses; he is sometimes called ταμίας τῆς διοικήσεως, or ὁ ἐπὶ τῆς
διοικήσεως, and may be regarded as a sort of minister of finance.
He was elected by vote (χειροτονία), and held his office for four
years, but was capable of being re-elected. A law, however, was
passed during the administration of Lycurgus, the orator, prohibiting
re-election; so that Lycurgus, who is reported to have continued
in office for twelve years, must have held it for the last eight
years under fictitious names. The power of this officer was by no
means free from control; inasmuch as any individual was at liberty
to propose financial measures, or institute criminal proceedings
for malversation or waste of the public funds; and there was an
ἀντιγραφεὺς τῆς διοικήσεως appointed to check the accounts of his
superior. Anciently there were persons called _Poristae_ (πορίσται),
who appear to have assisted the tamiae in some part of their duties.
The money disbursed by the treasurer of the revenue was sometimes
paid directly to the various persons in the employ of the government,
sometimes through subordinate pay offices. Many public functionaries
had their own paymasters, who were dependent on the treasurer of
the revenue, receiving their funds from him, and then distributing
them in their respective departments. Such were the τριηροποιοί,
τειχοποιοί, ὁδοποιοί, ταφροποιοί, ἐπεμεληταὶ νεωρίων, who received
through their own tamiae such sums as they required from time to time
for the prosecution of their works. The payment of the judicial fees
was made by the _Colacretae_ (κωλακρέται), which, and the providing
for the meals in the Prytaneium, were the only duties that remained
to them after the establishment of the apodectae by Cleisthenes. The
tamiae of the sacred vessels (τῆς Παράλου and τῆς Σαλαμινίας) acted
not only as treasurers, but as trierarchs, the expenses (amounting
for the two ships together to about sixteen talents) being provided
by the state. They were elected by vote. Other trierarchs had their
own private tamiae.--The war fund at Athens (independently of the
tribute) was provided from two sources: first, the property-tax
(εἰσφορά), and secondly, the surplus of the yearly revenue, which
remained after defraying the expenses of the civil administration.
Of the ten strategi, who were annually elected to preside over the
war department, one was called στρατηγὸς ὁ ἐπὶ τῆς διοικήσεως, to
whom the management of the war fund was entrusted. He had under him
a treasurer, called the ταμίας τῶν στρατιωτικῶν, who gave out the
pay of the troops, and defrayed all other expenses incident to the
service. So much of the surplus revenue as was not required for the
purposes of war, was to be paid by the treasurer of the revenue into
the theoric fund; of which, after the archonship of Euclides, special
managers were created. [THEORICA.]--Lastly, we have to notice the
treasurers of the demi (δήμων ταμίαι), and those of the tribes (φυλῶν
ταμίαι), who had the care of the funds belonging to their respective
communities, and performed duties analogous to those of the state
treasurers. The demi, as well as the tribes, had their common lands,
which were usually let to farm. The rents of these formed the
principal part of their revenue.
TAXIARCHI (ταξίαρχοι), military officers at Athens, next in rank
to the strategi. They were ten in number, like the strategi, one
for each tribe, and were elected by vote (χειροτονία). In war each
commanded the infantry of his own tribe, and they were frequently
called to assist the strategi with their advice at the war-council.
In peace they assisted the strategi in levying and enlisting
soldiers, and seem to have also assisted the _strategi_ in the
discharge of many of their other duties. The taxiarchs were so called
from their commanding _taxeis_ (τάξεις), which were the principal
divisions of the hoplites in the Athenian army. Each tribe (φυλή)
formed a _taxis_. As there were ten tribes, there were consequently
in a complete Athenian army ten _taxeis_, but the number of men
contained in each would of course vary according to the importance of
the war. Among the other Greeks, the _taxis_ was the name of a much
smaller division of troops. The _lochus_ (λόχος) among the Athenians
was a subdivision of the _taxis_, and the _lochagi_ (λοχαγοί) were
probably appointed by the taxiarchs.
TĒGŬLA (κέραμος, _dim._ κεραμίς), a roofing-tile. Roofing-tiles were
originally made, like bricks, of baked clay (γῆς ὀπτῆς). Byzes of
Naxos first introduced tiles of marble about the year 620 B.C. A
still more expensive and magnificent method of roofing consisted in
the use of tiles made of bronze and gilt. At Rome the houses were
originally roofed with shingles, and continued to be so down to the
time of the war with Pyrrhus, when tiles began to supersede the old
roofing material.
TEICHŎPOII (τειχοποιοί), magistrates at Athens, whose business it was
to build and keep in repair the public walls. They appear to have
been elected by vote (χειροτονία), one from each tribe, and probably
for a year. Funds were put at their disposal, for which they had
their treasurer (ταμίας) dependent on the treasurer of the revenue.
They were liable to render an account (εὐθύνη) of their management
of these funds, and also of their general conduct, like other
magistrates. This office has been invested with peculiar interest in
modern times, on account of its having been held by Demosthenes, and
its having given occasion to the famous prosecution of Ctesiphon, who
proposed that Demosthenes should receive the honour of a crown before
he had rendered his account according to law.
TĒLA (ἱστός), a loom. Although weaving was among the Greeks and
Romans a distinct trade, carried on by a separate class of persons
(ὑφάνται, _textores_ and _textrices_, _linteones_), yet every
considerable domestic establishment, especially in the country,
contained a loom, together with the whole apparatus necessary for the
working of wool (_lanificium_, ταλασία, ταλασιουργία). [CALATHUS.]
These occupations were all supposed to be carried on under the
protection of Athena or Minerva, specially denominated _Ergane_
(Ἐργάνη). When the farm or the palace was sufficiently large to admit
of it, a portion of it called the _histon_ (ἱστῶν) or _textrinum_
was devoted to this purpose. The work was there principally carried
on by female slaves (_quasillariae_), under the superintendence
of the mistress of the house. Every thing woven consists of two
essential parts, the warp and the woof, called in Latin _stamen_ and
_subtegmen_, _subtemen_, or _trama_; in Greek στήμων and κροκή. The
warp was called _stamen_ in Latin (from _stare_) on account of its
erect posture in the loom. The corresponding Greek term στήμων, and
likewise ἱστός, have evidently the same derivation. For the same
reason, the very first operation in weaving was to set up the loom
(ἱστὸν στήσασθαι); and the web or cloth, before it was cut down or
“descended” from the loom, was called _vestis pendens_ or _pendula
tela_, because it hung from the transverse beam, or _jugum_. These
particulars are all clearly exhibited in the picture of Circe’s
loom given in the annexed cut. We observe in the preceding woodcut,
about the middle of the apparatus, a transverse rod passing through
the warp. A straight cane was well adapted to be so used, and its
application is clearly expressed by Ovid in the words _stamen
secernit arundo_. In plain weaving it was inserted between the
threads of the warp so as to divide them into two portions, the
threads on one side of the rod alternating with those on the other
side throughout the whole breadth of the warp. In a very ancient
form of the loom there was a roller underneath the jugum, turned
by a handle, and on which the web was wound as the work advanced.
The threads of the warp, besides being separated by a transverse
rod or plank, were divided into thirty or forty parcels, to each of
which a stone was suspended for the purpose of keeping the warp in
a perpendicular position, and allowing the necessary play to the
strokes of the spatha. Whilst the comparatively coarse, strong,
and much-twisted thread designed for the warp was thus arranged in
parallel lines, the woof remained upon the spindle [FUSUS], forming a
_spool_, _bobbin_, or _pen_ (πήνη). This was either conveyed through
the warp without any additional contrivance, or it was made to
revolve in a shuttle (_radius_). This was made of box brought from
the shores of the Euxine, and was pointed at its extremities, that
it might easily force its way through the warp. All that is effected
by the shuttle is the conveyance of the woof across the warp. To
keep every thread of the woof in its proper place, it is necessary
that the threads of the warp should be decussated. This was done by
the leashes, called in Latin _licia_, in Greek μίτοι. By a leash we
are to understand a thread having at one end a loop, through which
a thread of the warp was passed, the other end being fastened to a
straight rod called _liciatorium_, and in Greek κανών. The warp,
having been divided by the arundo, as already mentioned, into two
sets of threads, all those of the same set were passed through the
loops of the corresponding set of leashes, and all these leashes were
fastened at their other end to the same wooden rod. At least one set
of leashes was necessary to decussate the warp, even in the plainest
and simplest weaving. The number of sets was increased according to
the complexity of the pattern, which was called _bilix_ or _trilix_,
δίμιτος, τρίμιτος, or πολύμιτος, according as the number was two,
three, or more. The process of annexing the leashes to the warp was
called _ordiri telam_, also _licia telae addere_, or _adnectere_.
It occupied two women at the same time, one of whom took in regular
succession each separate thread of the warp, and handed it over to
the other (παραφέρειν, παραδίδοναι, or προσφωρεῖσθαι); the other,
as she received each thread, passed it through the loop in proper
order; an act which we call “entering,” in Greek διάζεσθαι. Supposing
the warp to have been thus adjusted, and the pen or the shuttle to
have been carried through it, it was then decussated by drawing
forwards the proper rod, so as to carry one set of the threads of
the warp across the rest, after which the woof was shot back again,
and by the continual repetition of this process the warp and woof
were interlaced. Two staves were occasionally used to fix the rods
in such a position as was most convenient to assist the weaver in
drawing her woof across her warp. After the woof had been conveyed
by the shuttle through the warp, it was driven sometimes downwards,
as is represented in the woodcut, but more commonly upwards. Two
different instruments were used in this part of the process. The
simplest, and probably the most ancient, was in the form of a large
wooden sword (_spatha_, σπάθη). The spatha was, however, in a
great degree superseded by the comb (_pecten_, κερκίς), the teeth
of which were inserted between the threads of the warp, and thus
made by a forcible impulse to drive the threads of the woof close
together.--The lyre, the favourite musical instrument of the Greeks,
was only known to the Romans as a foreign invention. Hence they
appear to have described its parts by a comparison with the loom,
with which they were familiar. The terms _jugum_ and _stamina_ were
transferred by an obvious resemblance from the latter to the former
object; and, although they adopted into their own language the Greek
word _plectrum_, they used the Latin _pecten_ to denote the same
thing, not because the instrument used in striking the lyre was at
all like a comb in shape and appearance, but because it was held in
the right hand, and inserted between the stamina of the lyre, as the
comb was between the stamina of the loom.
[Illustration: Tela, Loom. (From the Vatican MS. of Virgil.)]