The first music of a dramatic kind originated probably in the passion of
love. Savages, unacquainted with any other dramatic performances, not
unfrequently have dances representing courtship, and songs to which
these dances are executed. However rude the exhibitions may be, and
however inartistic the songs may appear,--which, in fact, generally
consist merely of short phrases constantly repeated, and perhaps
interspersed with some brutish utterances,--they may nevertheless be
regarded as representing the germ from which the opera has gradually
been developed. Dancing is not necessarily associated with dramatic
music; the dances of nations in a low degree of civilization are,
however, often representations of desires or events rather than
unmeaning jumps and evolutions.
Even in the popular dances of nations in an advanced state of
civilization love is generally the most attractive subject for
exhibition by action and music. The Italian national dances,--the
_Saltarello_, the _Monferrino_, and several others,--have an
unmistakable meaning; or, as Mac Farlane says, "there is a story in them
which at times is told in a very broad, significant, and unsophistical
way. The story is a sort of primitive courtship, varied by the coyness
or coquetry of the female dancer, and animated by the passion and
impatience of the wooer."[84] The same may be said of the Spanish Bolero
and Fandango.
The excitement of the chase appears to be another cause of the origin of
dramatic music. The savage, in pursuing the animals which he requires
for his subsistence, experiences successes and disappointments which are
to him highly interesting, and the recollection of which he enjoys. He
naturally feels proud of results which he could not have achieved
without agility and shrewdness, and he delights in showing to his
friends how he proceeded in accomplishing his feat. Besides, savages
have a strong instinct for imitation, almost like monkeys. Hence their
fancy for counterfeiting the habits of certain animals which they chase
and with the peculiarities of which they are generally well acquainted.
The aborigines of Australia have a dance in which they imitate the
movements of the Kangaroo. The women sing, and produce a rhythmical
accompaniment by beating two pieces of wood together; while the men, who
represent the Kangaroos, produce sounds peculiar to these animals. The
North American Indians have an Eagle Dance, a Bear Dance, and even a Dog
Dance. The natives of Kamtschatka have a dance in which they cleverly
imitate, not only the attitudes and tricks of the Bear, but also its
voice. The peasants in Finland, in the beginning of the present century,
still occasionally performed a similar dance, or rather action. The
Aleutian Islanders, who have various pantomimic dances executed with
masks frightfully ugly, have also a favourite representation in which a
sportsman shoots a beautiful bird, and afterwards cries for grief at
having killed it; when, suddenly, the beautiful bird revives, changed
into a beautiful woman. The sportsman, of course, falls over head and
ears in love with her, and thus all ends well.[85] This story is enacted
with recitations accompanied by some musical instruments.
Next to love and the chase, it is probably war which elicited the first
attempts at dramatic music. To recall to the memory by a lively
description with gesticulations, the valiant deeds, clever stratagems,
and glorious achievements of the warriors after the battle, must have
been always a fascinating entertainment to the victorious combatants.
The Dyaks in Borneo, who preserve the heads of their slain enemies
suspended near their hearths as ornamental trophies, perform a war-dance
in which some of the combatants, gaily decorated, cleverly act a scene
by seizing swords and handling them in various expressive ways. The
Scalp-Dance of the North American Indians, performed in celebration of a
victory, may be described as a kind of histrionic entertainment, which
generally takes place at night by torchlight. The singular procedure of
the Maori warriors in New Zealand in a certain dance, of projecting all
of them their tongues simultaneously at fixed intervals, appears to be a
pantomimic expression of defiance or contempt for the enemy.
The Corroborie Dance of the natives of Australia had perhaps also
originally reference to warlike exploits, although this does not appear
at once evident to European witnesses. Twenty or more men paint their
naked dark bodies to represent skeletons, which they accomplish by
drawing white lines across the body with pipe-clay, to correspond with
the ribs, and broader ones on the arms, legs, and the head. Thus
prepared they perform the Corroborie at night before a fire. The
spectators, placed at some distance from them, see only the white
skeletons, which vanish and re-appear whenever the dancers turn round.
The wild and ghastly action of the skeletons is accompanied by vocal
effusions and some rhythmical noise which a number of hidden bystanders
produce by beating their shields in regular time.
Traces of dramatic music in its most primitive condition may also be
discovered in representations of occurrences and scenes like the
following:
Wilhelm Steller, in his 'Description of Kamtschatka' (published in the
German language in the year 1774), says that the inhabitants of that
country possess an astounding talent for imitating the manners and
conduct of strangers whom they happen to see. During their long evenings
one of their chief amusements consists in acting extempore comedies, in
which the habits of any foreigners with whom they have become
acquainted, are cleverly mimicked and ridiculed.
The missionary W. Ellis remarks of the Polynesian Islanders that "they
had songs which, when recited on public occasions, were accompanied with
gestures and actions corresponding to the events and scenes described,
and which assumed in this respect a histrionic character. In some cases,
and on public occasions, the action represented a kind of
pantomime."[86] Other travellers have given more detailed accounts of
these performances. During Captain Cook's first voyage round the world,
Banks and Solander, who accompanied him, witnessed in one of the Society
Islands, in the year 1769, a comedy with music and dancing, performed by
the natives, the subject of which was the adroitness of a thief, and his
subsequent capture. At Cook's second circumnavigation, during the years
1772-75, he was treated by the Society Islanders with a somewhat similar
comic opera called _Teto_ (_i.e._ "The Thief"). G. Forster, who was with
Cook, remarks that the dialogue, which of course he was unable to
understand, seemed to be closely connected with their actions. One of
them kneeled down, and another beat him and plucked him by the beard.
Then two others were treated by the torturer in the same unceremonious
manner; until one of them seized a stick and gave him a sound thrashing
in return. This formed the conclusion of the first act, and the players
withdrew. The commencement of the second act was announced by the
musicians beating their drums. There were actresses as well as actors
engaged in the performance.[87] A more detailed account of the dramatic
attempts of the Polynesian Islanders is given by W. Mariner, who, during
his sojourn with the natives, had the best opportunity of becoming
acquainted with their customs and amusements. His observations, which
refer especially to the Tonga Islanders, show that the actors recite
sentences which are answered by a chorus of singers. There is a great
variety in their movements and groupings. Occasionally they sing slowly,
and afterwards quickly for about a quarter of an hour. Sometimes they
form a semi-circle, assume a bending position, and sing in a subdued
tone of voice a soft air; which is soon again followed by a loud and
vehement recitation.[88]
Grotesque dresses and adornments are, of course, an essential attribute
in these entertainments. Neither are buffoons wanting. According to B.
Seeman, the entertainment called _Kalau Rere_, which he witnessed in the
Fiji Islands, "with its high poles, streamers, evergreens, masquerading,
trumpet-shells, chants and other wild music, is the nearest approach to
dramatic representation the Fijians seem to have made, and it is with
them what private theatricals are with us. They are also on other
occasions very fond of dressing themselves in fantastic, often very
ridiculous costume; and in nearly every large assembly there are
buffoons. Court fools, in many instances hunchbacks, are attached to the
chief's establishment."[89]
Also the Negroes in Senegambia and Upper Guinea have buffoons, who
delight the people with their antics and acting in processions and
public festivities. Buffoons are popular even in Mohammedan countries,
where dramatic performances are generally considered objectionable.
Morier states that in Persia the princes, governors of provinces, etc.,
as well as the King, have a band of _Looties_, or buffoons, in their
pay, who are looked upon as a necessary part of Persian state. They
attend at merry-makings and public festivals, and some of them are
endowed with great natural wit. This was, for instance, the case with a
certain buffoon named Looti Bashee. "His dress, when he came to the
ambassador, was composed of a felt hat, the crown of which was made like
ours, but with two long ears projecting before, and two behind. Others
of his troop were dressed in the same way; all looked grotesque, and I
conjectured that nothing could give one a better idea of Satyrs and
Bacchanalians, particularly as they were attended by a suite of monkeys
headed by a large ape, which were educated to perform all sorts of
tricks. They carried copper drums slung under the arm, which they beat
with their fingers, making a noise like castanets; others played the
tambourine; and when all this was put into motion, with their voices
roaring in loud chorus, the scene was unique."[90]
Sir Robert Ker Porter witnessed at Bagdad, in the beginning of the
present century, a kind of musical drama performed by men and boys, the
latter being dressed like females. "This amusement," he remarks, "is the
only one of a theatrical complexion known among the people. It is often
called for by the female part of the inhabitants; but I am told that
with the men it is now very rare, the Pasha so setting his face against
it as to forbid the avowed existence of hirable dancing-boys in his
capital."[91] There is a Turkish theatre at Pera in which Turkish plays,
adapted from the Italian, are acted by Turkish actors, and Turkish women
appear unveiled upon the stage.[92] The women in the hareem, who in
their diversions are only permitted to employ slaves of their own sex,
occasionally make them act melodramas, the subject of which is generally
a love story.
The Indians in Mexico have some characteristic dances in which scenes
are pantomimically enacted referring to Montezuma and to the conquest of
Mexico by the Spaniards.
In most of the entertainments, of which examples have just been given,
the music must necessarily partake of a dramatic character. Generally,
the tunes are not selected at pleasure, but certain tunes belong to
certain representations. The dramatic effect of the music depends,
however, chiefly upon its execution, which naturally changes according
to the action which it accompanies. Thus, if the actors represent a
sentimental or heart-rending scene, their vocal effusions will naturally
be in a subdued tone, and the sympathizing musicians will touch their
instruments delicately and slowly. If, on the other hand, the actors
represent some exciting or heart-stirring scene, they will naturally
raise their voices, and the musicians will play louder and faster as a
matter of course. In fact, when their pulse beats quicker, the
rhythmical flow of their music, however rude and inartistic it may be,
becomes more animated unpremeditatedly. Such is the most primitive
condition, or the commencement of the development of dramatic music. Let
us now examine it in a somewhat more advanced stage of cultivation.
The Javanese, who among the islanders of the Indian Archipelago are
renowned for their skill in the dramatic art, generally use fabulous
traditions from their own history, or Hindu legends, as subjects for
their performances, which are acted exclusively by men. A full band of
musicians generally accompanies the drama. The instruments mostly belong
to the class called Instruments of Percussion, but several of them are
constructed with plates of metal which produce a series of sweet tones,
arranged according to the pentatonic scale. Some of the Javanese airs,
which have been collected by Europeans, are very expressive, and it
might be instructive to musical enquirers, if some really musical
European visitor in Java would faithfully commit to notation the
orchestral accompaniments of some of the most popular Javanese dramas.
Madame Ida Pfeiffer relates that she was treated in the house of a
Rajah, at Bandong, with a kind of pantomime in three acts, the third of
which represented a combat. "The music that accompanied the combat," she
remarks, "was very noisy and discordant; but, on the defeat of the one
party, a soft plaintive melody arose at some distance off. The whole
performance was really pretty and expressive."[93] Sir Stamford Raffles,
and other travellers, give similar descriptions, and have besides much
to say about the clever puppet-shows of the Javanese, in which the
characters of dramas are represented by puppets, or by their shadows.
The Siamese are fond of theatrical performances. According to Turpin's
history of Siam, published in the year 1771, "whenever they burn the
body of a minister or great man, a theatre is erected on the side of a
river, where the actors appear habited according to their parts; and
during three days they never quit the scene from eight in the morning
till seven at night." De La Loubere, who visited Siam in the year 1687,
says that the subjects of the dramas are "historical, in verse, serious,
and sung by several actors who are always present, and who only sing
reciprocally. One of them sings the historian's part, and the rest sing
those of the personages which the history makes to speak; but they are
all men that sing, and no women." About a century ago it appears to have
been the custom to employ only men as actors, although there were female
dancers. But, at the present day there are actresses, at any rate in the
palace of the King, where Sir John Bowring saw them perform on several
occasions. In one of these entertainments "the actors were all females,
almost all girls. A few matrons, however, took the part of warriors,
monkeys, priests; and the three manageresses, or prompteresses, were not
only old and ugly, but seemed very spiteful, and on several occasions
scolded and slapped the ladies who required correction. One of them had
the drama written on black sheets in white letters before her, from
which she prompted the singers of the recitative. The story began by the
appearance of a monster monkey in a forest, which is visited by a number
of ladies of rank, one of whom, after an unsuccessful struggle, the
others having managed to escape, the monster monkey contrives to carry
off. She is redeemed by the interference of a priest, whose temple is in
the forest. Afterwards we are introduced to a sovereign Court, where all
the ceremonies are observed which are practised in daily life, the
dresses being those ordinarily worn, and most gorgeous they are....
There is a battle, and rewards to the victors, and a crowning of a
king's son in recompense for his valour, and offerings to Buddha, and a
great feast, etc."[94] The principal performers act, but do not speak.
The tale is told in recitative by a body of singers, accompanied by
various instruments. The band assisting generally consists of about
twenty members who play on wind instruments of the oboe kind, gongs,
large castanets above a foot in length, and several sonorous instruments
of percussion constructed with slabs of wood, or plates of metal,
somewhat similar to those of the Javanese before mentioned.
The Cochin-Chinese are remarkably fond of dramatic entertainments, which
are generally of an operatic character commemorating historical events.
An English gentleman who witnessed the performance of some of these
plays remarks of the actors: "Their singing is good, when the ear has
become accustomed to it; and the modulation of voice of the females is
really captivating."[95] Sir George Staunton was evidently surprised to
find that a kind of historical opera, which he heard in the town of
Turon (called by the natives Hansan) contained recitatives, airs, and
choruses, which were, he says, "as regular as upon the Italian stage."
He adds: "Some of the female performers were by no means despicable
singers. They all observed time accurately, not only with their voices,
but every joint of their hands and feet was obedient to the regular
movement of the instruments."[96] The band consisted of stringed
instruments, wind instruments, and instruments of percussion. Sir John
Barrow describes the theatre at Turon as "a shed of bamboo." He relates:
"In the farther division of the building a party of comedians was
engaged in the midst of an historical drama when we entered; but, on our
being seated they broke off, and, coming forward, made before us an
obeisance of nine genuflexions and prostrations, after which they
returned to their labours, keeping up an incessant noise and bustle
during our stay. The heat of the day, the thermometer in the shade
standing at 81 deg. in the open air, and at least 10 deg. higher in the
building, the crowds that thronged to see the strangers, the horrible
crash of the gongs, kettle-drums, trumpets, and squalling flutes, were
so stunning and oppressive that nothing but the novelty of the scene
could possibly have detained us for a moment. The most entertaining, as
well as the least noisy part of the theatrical exhibition, was a sort of
Interlude, performed by three young women for the amusement, it would
seem, of the principal actress, who sat as a spectator in the dress and
character of some ancient Queen, whilst an old eunuch, very whimsically
dressed, played his antic tricks like a scaramouch or buffoon in a
Harlequin entertainment. The dialogue in this part differed entirely
from the querulous and nearly monotonous recitation of the Chinese,
being light and comic, and occasionally interrupted by cheerful airs
which generally concluded with a chorus. These airs, rude and unpolished
as they were, appeared to be regular compositions, and were sung in
exactly measured time. One in particular attracted our attention, whose
slow melancholy movement breathed the kind of plaintiveness so peculiar
to the native airs of the Scotch, to which indeed it bore a close
resemblance."
Probably the air was founded on the pentatonic scale, which is common in
the music of the Chinese and Javanese, and of which traces are to be
found in the Scotch popular tunes.
"The voices of the women are shrill and warbling, but some of their
cadences were not without melody. The instruments at each pause gave a
few short flourishes, till the music gradually increased in loudness by
the swelling and deafening gong. Knowing nothing of the language, we
were of course as ignorant of the subject as the majority of an English
audience is of an Italian opera."[97]
A curious mode of paying the actors, which prevails in Cochin-China, may
be mentioned here. An Englishman who was present at a theatrical
performance in the town of Kangwarting, relates that the Quong, or
governor of the province, bore the expense of the entertainment. The
musical drama was performed in a large shed before a great concourse of
spectators. "The Quong was there squatted on a raised platform in front
of the actors with a small drum before him, supported in a diagonal
position, on which he would strike a tap every time any part of the
performance pleased him; which also was a signal for his purse-bearer to
throw a small string of about twenty cash to the actors. To my taste,
this spoiled the effect of the piece; for, every time the cash fell
among them there would be a silence, and the next moment a scramble for
the money; and it fell so frequently as almost to keep time with the
discordant music of the orchestra. The actors were engaged by the day,
and in this manner received their payment, the amount of which entirely
depended upon the approbation of the Quong and the number of times he
encored them by tapping his drum. I could see that many of them paid far
more attention to the drum than they did to their performance; though I
suppose, the amount thrown to them is equally divided. Sometimes the
string on which the cash was tied, unluckily broke, and the money flew
in all directions; by which some of the bystanders profited, not being
honourable enough to hand it up to the poor actors."[98]
The Burmese have dramas performed by men, and also comedies represented
by means of marionettes, or puppets. In the latter entertainments the
figures are cleverly managed by persons situated beneath a stage which
is hidden by a coarse curtain. The dialogues between these figures are
much relished by the common spectators. At any rate, as they are apt to
elicit uproarious mirth, they may be supposed to be often irresistibly
comic. The real dramatic performances of the Burmese are acted by
professional players, generally in the open air. The principal
characters of the piece usually consist of a prince, a princess, a
humble lover, a slave, and a buffoon. The female characters are
represented by boys dressed in female attire. The dresses are handsome
and gorgeous. However, the best theatrical performances take place in a
building. On these occasions, there are two musical bands, one being
placed on each side of the scene. The principal musical instruments of
such an orchestra are of the percussion kind, containing a series of
sonorous slabs of wood, or plates of metal, and somewhat resembling the
Javanese instruments, but being attuned according to a diatonic order of
intervals, instead of the pentatonic order. Also a curious contrivance,
consisting of a set of drums suspended in a frame, each drum having a
fixed tone, is used on these occasions. Moreover, the Burmese orchestra
generally contains several wind instruments of the oboe and trumpet
kind, as well as cymbals, large castanets of split bamboo, and other
instruments of percussion, which serve to heighten the rhythmical effect
of the music. The story of the drama is usually taken from ancient
Burmese history. Captain Henry Yule, who has given a more detailed
account of the Burmese plays than any previous traveller, remarks that
when he was at Amarapoora he procured copies of some of the plays which
he saw acted, from which it was evident to him that, while the general
plan of the drama, comprising the more dignified and solemn part of the
dialogue, was written down at considerable length, the humorous portions
were left to the extempore wit of the actors. The following scenes are
from a drama commemorating an episode from the life of Oodeinna, King of
Kauthambi, a country in India. This drama, which was obtained by Captain
Henry Yule, is a translation from the Pali, and the whole is in Burmese
verse of four syllables.
(The scene opens in the Capital of Kauthambi. The king is seated on his
throne, with his courtiers around him.)
_King._--(_Addresses them_) "Great nobles and chiefs!"
_Nobles._--"Phra, (Lord)!"
_King._--"Are my subjects happy and prosperous?"
_Nobles._--"Since Your Majesty's happy reign began, religion has shone
forth with splendour; the seasons have been propitious; the earth has
been bountiful; the rich and the poor, men and women, have enjoyed peace
and prosperity, and the happy years have been to them as water to the
lotus."
(_Scene closes._)
_Himalaya Mountains.--Enter a Nat._[99]
_Nat._--"Now I am a Nat! When, and in what body was I before? Ah!
looking with a Nat's eyes and understanding, I perceive I was a hermit
in these wilds. My companion, Alakappa, is still here. I will seek my
friend."
(_Approaches a cave._)
_Hermit._--"Who art thou that comest suddenly to my cell in the garb and
appearance of a Nat, with the nine jewels in thy crown?"
_Nat._--"O holy Hermit, of a good lineage, who ever livest in the
forest, tell me all thou desirest, so that nought may remain unsaid!"
_Hermit._--"O Nat, who by stupendous merit has reached the exalted
abode! I have nothing particular to ask; but numerous elephants come
around my cell and do great damage. Be pleased to forbid this for the
future."
_Nat._--"O holy Hermit! I will give thee a golden harp, and by the
virtue of its sounds, and thy songs accompanying, elephants will come or
go as thou commandest."
From this passage it is evident that the Burmese ascribe to music a
great power, and the same is also indicated in several other remarks
occurring in the drama. It is, however, unnecessary here to give the
entire drama, which the reader will find in the interesting book above
alluded to.[100] Suffice it to notice the following passages from a
subsequent scene.
(_The young Prince Oodeinna enters. The Hermit presents him with the
golden harp and teaches him a tune and song. The Prince retires to a
tree, ascends it, and plays. The wild elephants of the forest come
around him, and are obedient to his voice and harp, etc._--)
Captain Yule remarks that "the comic stage-effects of the characters
addressing the orchestra is very frequent," and there are several
indications of the kind in the present drama. Take, for instance, the
following:--
(_Scene in the solitary wilds of Himalaya_).
_Enter an immense Bird._
BIRD (speaks).--"From the beginning of the world there have been
numerous sorts of birds: cranes, ducks, crows, peacocks, and others. I
am not of their sort. My power would extinguish them all. My home is
amidst vast mountains and pathless forests, and ever and anon I descend
from them. I will now go to the country of Kauthambi to seek for food.
So now (_to the band_), as I am about to fly, strike up a victorious
melody, O leader of the orchestra!"
_The bird commences his flight, and, soaring aloft, says_:--
"This is a beautiful country, and full of golden palaces, and lovely
gardens with gorgeous-coloured flowers and shrubs. Nevertheless, I must
look out for something to eat. Thus, turning north and turning south,
looking up and looking down, I spy outside the King's palace a piece of
flesh, red, red as blood. It is mine, sure as the food in a monk's
begging-dish; it cannot escape. I will stoop at it, seize it, and fly
away; and now that I may easily reach the large tree in my own mountain
from this country of Kauthambi, play a soft and simple air, O leader of
the orchestra!"
(_The bird seizes the Queen, mistaking her red mantle for flesh,
flies away with her to the mountains, and deposits her in a tree.
The bird comes as if to devour her, when the Queen claps her hands
at him, which frightens the bird, and he flies away_).
This scene shows that the Burmese employ in their dramas loud and soft
music, according to the events represented; and that the orchestra is
conducted by a leader or music-director. The following example, from
another scene, indicates the employment of the full orchestra
_fortissimo_ in conformity with the action.
_Forest. A Hunter._
HUNTER.--"I and my dog will now go and kill whatever enemy appears. With
my bow and my dog I care not what I encounter, elephants, deer, or what
not; so come along (_to his dog_) brave Tiger. (_To the band._) Now as I
go on a grand expedition, burst forth like thunder!"
A detailed description of a kind of opera which was performed at
Singapore is given by Charles Wilkes;[101] but, as the actors were
transient visitors to Singapore, who came from the neighbourhood of
Madras, their play must have been a specimen of the popular Hindu
dramas. Its title was 'The Results of Misplaced Friendship;' the words
were recited in a "monotonous recitative," accompanied by a band of
instrumental performers. As regards the plot of the piece, suffice it to
say that it had a moral aim, and that a Brahmin and a clown were the
most amusing characters of the Dramatis Personae. The clown displayed
much cleverness in mimicking a European in his dress and manners. The
'Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus,' translated from the
original Sanskrit, by R. H. Wilson, London, 1835, contain but few
allusions to music; but these are ancient dramas, and the Hindus
possess, as R. H. Wilson in his interesting Introduction points out,
different kinds of theatrical entertainments. There was in former time
no building appropriated to the public performance of dramas. The Kings
had in their palaces a kind of music hall, called _Sangita Sala_, in
which were given entertainments consisting principally of music and
dancing, and occasionally of dramatic representations.
Turning to Thibet, we meet with actors who are also singers, dancers,
and acrobats. They perform in the streets, courtyards, and other open
places of the towns, and their entertainments are enlivened by a musical
band, and by the witticisms of their clowns. The actors generally wear
masks.[102]
In China, dramatic performances, enacted by itinerant players, take
place not unfrequently in the Joss-houses, or houses of religious
ceremonies. The plays generally have reference to some remarkable event
in the lives of the earliest Chinese Emperors, and almost always combine
the comic with the tragic. The musical band occupies the back part of
the stage behind the actors. The expenses of the entertainment are
sometimes defrayed by private persons. Thus, on a certain occasion three
performances were given in a town daily, for three days in succession,
in honour of "The Mother of Heaven," a goddess who presides over the
welfare of sailors, the defrayers of the entertainment being three
merchants who had just received the returns of a lucky venture.[103]
Female characters are represented by boys and eunuchs. The plot of a
Chinese drama, which was performed at Tien-sing before the English
Ambassador, in a temporary theatre erected opposite to his yacht, is
described by Sir G. Staunton, as follows:--
"An Emperor of China and his Empress are living in supreme felicity,
when on a sudden his subjects revolt. A civil war ensues, battles are
fought; and, at last, the arch-rebel, who is a General of cavalry,
overcomes his sovereign, kills him with his own hand, and routes the
imperial army. The captive Empress then appears upon the stage in all
the agonies of despair naturally resulting from the loss of her husband
and her dignity, as well as the apprehension of that of her honour."
How interesting would it be to the student of National Music to possess
an exact notation of the music belonging to this scene, and to ascertain
in what manner the intense emotions and vehement passions represented
are expressed in the Chinese musical compositions!
"Whilst she is tearing her hair, and rending the skies with her
complaints, the conqueror enters, approaches her with respect, addresses
her in a gentle tone, soothes her sorrows with his compassion, talks of
love and adoration, and like Richard the Third with Lady Anne, in
Shakespeare, prevails in less than half-an-hour on the Chinese Princess
to dry up her tears, to forget her deceased consort, and to yield to a
consoling wooer. The piece concludes with a wedding and a grand
procession."[104]
The Japanese are fond of dramatic representations, and have special
buildings for their performances. Captain Golownin describes the theatre
in Matsmai, the capital city of the island of Yesso, as "a large and
pretty high building. At the back is the stage, which, as with us, has a
raised floor. From the stage to the front wall, where the entrance is
situated, two rows of seats are placed for the spectators. In the
middle, where we have the pit, there is a vacant space in which straw
mats are laid down for the spectators. As this space is much lower than
the stage, those in front do not intercept the view from those behind.
There is no orchestra, either because the Japanese perform no music in
their theatres, or because the musicians are reckoned among the actors."
The place for the orchestra was probably at the back of the stage, as in
the Chinese theatre. Captain Golownin visited the building only in the
day-time, and when the house was empty, the permission to see a piece
performed having been refused to him by the government of the capital.
"Opposite the stage, where in our theatres are the Emperor's box and the
galleries, there are only a bare wall and the door for the entrance.
There were no ornaments in the interior; the walls were not even
painted. The dresses and decorations are kept in a separate building.
The subjects of their plays are chiefly memorable events in Japanese
history; but they have also other representations which are of a comic
nature, and which serve to amuse the public."[105] Moreover, the
Japanese have annual religious festivals in which scenic representations
take place, and which are very popular. The dramas usually commemorate
the deeds of ancient heroes or a myth; some have for their subject a
fanciful love-story; and some are especially designed to enforce a
certain moral precept. According to Siebold and Fisher, many of the
Japanese plays are very instructive and moral. They are often so
constructed that not more than two actors appear on the stage during a
scene. There are no actresses, the female characters being represented
by boys. It is not unusual for the actors to pass through the pit on
their way to the stage, in order to give the audience an opportunity to
admire their appearance and costume as closely as possible.
Such dramatic music of extra-European countries as has been derived from
Europe does not come within the scope of our present inquiry. It
happens, however, not unfrequently that the European music is to some
extent modified, by being interspersed with national tunes of the
extra-European country into which it has been introduced, or by being
performed in a peculiar manner. Whenever this is the case, it deserves
the special attention of the student of national music.
The Tagals, or the aborigines of the Philippine Islands, have theatrical
performances in bamboo buildings. The characters consist principally of
fairies, demons, and other supernatural creatures; but, the musical
part of these entertainments is said to contain much which has been
borrowed from the Spaniards. Probably this is especially the case in
Manilla. Besides the principal theatre, in which the actors are
Spaniards, Manilla has two theatres of the natives. In South America we
find, as might be expected, Spanish and Italian operas. In Lima the
orchestra is deficient; Spanish dances, as the Bolero, Fandango, Don
Mateo, are often performed instead of our ballets. At the theatre in
Mexico, Spanish dances are frequently introduced between the plays. The
Teatro de Tacon in Havana, said to be one of the finest edifices of the
kind in the world, has singers who perform Italian operas, as in Europe.
The female spectators sit in places separate from those of the men.
There can hardly be a doubt that many operatic entertainments, which are
now secular, had originally a sacred character. The ancient nations
performed religious dances with pantomimic representations. Also the
Chinese at the time of Confucius thus enhanced their sacred ceremonies.
The Burmese, at the present day, sing and dance by the coffin of a
deceased priest. They are Buddhists. Funeral dances are common with
several uncivilized races. Our Christian ancestors, during the earlier
centuries of the Middle Ages, performed sacred dances in the church. The
Christian priests of the Abyssinians still dance at certain religious
ceremonies. In the Cathedral of Seville, boys, from the age of twelve to
seventeen, dressed in an old Spanish costume, annually execute a ballet
every evening during the Ottave del Corpus. Again, sacred dances with
recitations, dialogues, and hymns are performed in several European
countries during Christmastide. The Mysteries, Miracle Plays, or
musical-dramatic entertainments on biblical subjects, so popular during
the Middle Ages, have not entirely fallen into disuse. Passion-Plays are
still occasionally performed by the peasantry in Bavaria, in the Tyrol,
and in Moravia. The "Mayings," or popular rejoicings with music,
dancing, and processions, remains of which are still to be found in
England as well as on the Continent, had probably in pagan time also a
religious character, as they were intended to welcome the approach of
the sunny season. Turning to America, we meet in Peru with musical
entertainments which were introduced among the Indians by the Spanish
monks, who accompanied Pizarro's army, and who dramatized scenes in the
life of Christ, and had them represented to facilitate by this
attractive means the conversion of the heathen aborigines. These plays
are no longer performed in the larger towns of Peru, but are still kept
up by the villagers of the Sierra. Good Friday especially is celebrated
by them in this manner; and on Palm Sunday an image of the Saviour
seated on an ass is paraded through the principal streets of the town or
village.[106] In Brazil we find on Hallelujah Saturday (between Good
Friday and Easter Sunday) the popular ceremony of burning effigies of
Judas Iscariot, the traitor, in company with dragons, serpents and
demons; and there are besides several other religious celebrations in
which music is employed in combination with fire-works and dramatic
representations.
Comic scenes were not excluded from the old Mysteries of mediaeval time.
On the contrary, they appear to have been highly relished by the
worshippers, and contributed much to the popularity of the
entertainments. In Paris a building was erected, in the year 1313,
principally for dramatic performances relating to the Passion of Christ
and the Resurrection, enacted with music and dancing. Soon, attempts
were made to vary these entertainments by the occasional introduction of
some play founded on a myth, or on a wonderful event recorded in secular
history, or also by the admission of profane comedies and farces.
Although music, instrumental as well as vocal, did not constitute the
chiefest point of attraction in these plays, it certainly contributed
much to the impressiveness of the whole.[107] During the second half of
the thirteenth century, Adam de la Hale wrote dramatic plays with songs,
founded on secular subjects. These plays, called Gieux (_jeux_), might
perhaps be called operettas, since they contained dialogues interspersed
with songs. In fact, although our opera may be said to date from about
the year 1600, secular plays in which music and poetry were intimately
associated were known long before that time. The ancient Greeks used in
their dramas the vocal music of choruses and the instrumental
accompaniment of flutes and other instruments, in close connection with
the poetry. The latter art was, however, the principal one, while in our
present opera _music_ is the principal art.
As regards the secular dances of the ancient Greeks, it may be observed
that some of them were similar to the pantomimic exhibitions which are
still relished by several nations. The Pyrrhic dance, which was executed
according to fixed rules, to the sound of the flute, depicted a combat
of warriors. Lord Broughton, during his stay in Albania, was struck with
the resemblance between some of the dances of the Albanians and those of
the ancient Greeks. He notices especially the Pyrrhic dance.[108] The
war-dance of the Jajis, a wild and hostile tribe in the mountainous
districts of Afghanistan, is probably quite as picturesque and exciting
as was the Pyrrhic dance. A European eye-witness of the war-dance of the
Jajis states that it is performed by about twelve or fifteen men placed
in a ring before a number of spectators who are arranged in a
semi-circle. "The performers commenced chanting a song, flourishing
their knives overhead, and stamping on the ground to its tones; and then
each gradually revolving, the whole body moving round together and
maintaining the circle in which they first stood up. Whilst this was
going on, two of the party stepped into the centre of the ring and went
through a mimic fight, or a series of jumps, pirouettes, and other
movements of a like nature, which appeared to be regulated in their
rapidity by the measure of the music; for, towards the close of the
performance the singing ceased, and the whole party appeared twirling
and twisting about in a confused mass amidst the flashing of their drawn
knives, their movements being timed by the rapid roll of their drums.
It was wonderful that they did not wound each other in these intricate
and rapid evolutions with unsheathed knives. On the conclusion of the
dance the whole party set up a shrill and prolonged yell, which
reverberated over the hills, and was caught up by those in the
neighbouring heights and thus prolonged for some minutes. Whilst all
this was going on upon the heights around our camp, several parties of
armed Jajis ranged in columns, three or four abreast, and eight or nine
deep, followed each other in succession round and round the skirt of our
camp, all the time chanting an impressive and passionate war-song in a
very peculiar sonorous tone that seemed to be affected by the acoustic
influences of the locality, which was a deep basin enclosed for the most
part by bare and rocky eminences and hills."[109]
Not less characteristic, and equally descriptive, are the sword-dances
of the Anazehs, in Syria, and of the warriors in Little Thibet, which
are not unfrequently acted with too much reality, since the performers,
having worked themselves up to a state of frenzy, are apt to forget that
they ought only to feign fighting.
Some of the sword-dances still in use in European countries represent
scenes with poetry and music. There is, for instance,--or, at any rate,
there was still in the eighteenth century,--an ancient sword-dance
occasionally performed in some villages of North Germany, in which the
principal dancer, or "The King," addresses the people in a speech.[110]
Here may also be noticed the "Fool Play" still popular in some villages
of Northern England, which is described as "a pageant that consists of a
number of sword-dancers dragging a plough, with music, and with one,
sometimes two, in very strange attire; the Bessey, in the grotesque
habit of an old woman; and the Fool, almost covered with skins, a hairy
cap on, and the tail of some animal hanging from his back." And the
sword-dance performed in the North Riding of Yorkshire, from St.
Stephen's Day till New Year's Day. "The dancers usually consist of six
youths dressed in white ribands, attended by a fiddler, a youth with the
name of Bessey, and also by one who personates a Doctor. They travel
from village to village. One of the six youths acts the part of the King
in a kind of farce which consists chiefly of singing and dancing, and
the Bessey interferes while they are making a hexagon with their swords,
and is killed."[111]
The Cavalcade, or procession on horse-back, is supposed to have been
originally connected with the Mysteries of the Middle Ages. It is still
occasionally performed in Belgium, and its Flemish name is 'Ommegang.' A
number of persons dressed in historical and fanciful costumes ride on
horse-back and drive in carriages through the principal streets of the
town in which the Cavalcade takes place, with the object of representing
scenes from sacred or profane history, or allegorical subjects. The
procession is made imposing by the splendid dresses of the principal
characters, by the gorgeous gildings of their carriages, and the display
of baldachins and flags. This show is supposed to have been introduced
into the Netherlands by the Spaniards during their former possession of
the country. At a certain religious festival, held in Malines in the
year 1838, the entire Litany to the Virgin Mary was represented, each
Invocation being written on a beautiful flag, carried by a beautiful and
richly-dressed young girl, who was riding on a gorgeously-caparisoned
horse led by men. The Invocations: "Queen of the Angels!" "Queen of the
Patriarchs!" etc.,--were depicted by groups of characters in open
carriages; each carriage, splendidly decorated, having the Virgin Mary
seated on a high throne, while at her feet were placed picturesquely on
steps the angels, patriarchs and prophets, all of whom were dressed in
their appropriate costumes, and provided with their requisite
attributes. Again, at a festival which was held at Brussels, in
September, 1839, two parishes of the town arranged a grand Cavalcade,
in which a scene was represented commemorating a political event from
the history of Belgium. Many of the riders were dressed in mediaeval
costume, while some appeared in Oriental dresses. The sons and daughters
of the most influential citizens generally undertake the representation
of the principal characters in these processions. Music is, of course,
an indispensable assistance for the solemnity of such pageants. However,
as recitations are of secondary importance in them, or are even entirely
omitted, the first attempts at dramatic music are less traceable in
these remains of mediaeval entertainments than they are in the rude
amusements of savages noticed in the beginning of this survey.
It has probably already occurred to the reader that the "Opera of the
Future," aimed at by Wagner, will be in some respect a return to the
opera in its infancy, inasmuch as it will be devoid of the various
artistically-written forms of composition which greatly contribute to
the clearness and impressiveness of the music, and which Mozart has
developed in his operas to the highest degree of perfection. Much might
be said on this subject, were here the proper place for it. Enough if
the facts which have been noticed convince the reflecting musician that
the contemplated innovations alluded to might as well be termed
retrocessions. Gluck was also a reformer of dramatic music, who aimed at
truth in its noble simplicity; but, his objection to anything artificial
in the opera did not mislead him to disregard the artistic beauties
dependent upon form, which ensure the impressive total effect essential
to a true work of art.
Furthermore, the examples given in the preceding pages will probably
have convinced the reader that the origin of the opera can be traced
more minutely in the first dramatic attempts of uncivilized races of the
present time, than by a reference to the theatrical performance of the
ancient nations. At any rate, the latter research does not render the
former superfluous; they should go hand-in-hand.
[84] 'Popular Customs, etc., of the South of Italy,' by Charles
Mac Farlane, London, 1846; p. 68.
[85] 'Voyage pittoresque autour du Monde, par M. Louis Choris;'
Paris, 1822; p. 9.
[86] 'Polynesian Researches,' by William Ellis; London, 1827.
Vol. I., p. 285.
[87] 'A Voyage round the World, in His Britannic Majesty's
Sloop "Resolution," commanded by Captain James Cook, during the years
1772-75;' by George Forster; London, 1777. Vol. I., p. 398.
[88] 'An Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands, in the
South Pacific Ocean, compiled and arranged from the extensive
communications of Mr. William Mariner, several years resident in those
Islands, by John Martin;' London, 1817. Vol. II., p. 309.
[89] 'An Account of a Government Mission to the Fiji Islands, in the
years 1860-61;' by Berthold Seeman; Cambridge, 1862. p. 116.
[90] 'A Second Journey through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor, etc.,'
by James Morier; London, 1818. p. 104.
[91] 'Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, etc.,' by Sir Robert Ker
Porter; London, 1822; Vol. II., p. 272.
[92] 'Travels in Greece, Russia, etc.,' by Bayard Taylor; London, 1859;
p. 282.
[93] 'A Lady's Second Journey round the World,' by Ida Pfeiffer; London,
1855; Vol. I., p. 211.
[94] 'The Kingdom of Siam.' By Sir John Bowring. London, 1857; Vol. II.,
p. 325.
[95] 'A Voyage to Cochin-China.' By John White. London, 1824; p. 302.
[96] 'An Authentic Account of an Embassy from the King of Great Britain
to the Emperor of China,' etc. By Sir George Staunton. London, 1797;
Vol. I., p. 344.
[97] 'A Voyage to Cochin-China in the years 1792 and 1793,' by John
Barrow. London, 1806; p. 295.
[98] 'A Seaman's Narrative of his Adventures in Cochin-China,' by Edward
Brown. London 1861; p. 221.
[99] '_Nats_' are sprites corresponding to the Hindu _Dewas_ whose place
they take in the Burman Buddhist system. They are supposed to have been
the objects of Burman worship in pre-Buddhistic times.
[100] 'A Narrative of a Mission, sent by the Governor-General of India
to the Court of Ava, in 1855,' by Captain Henry Yule. London, 1858; p.
368.
[101] 'Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, during the
years 1838-42,' by Charles Wilkes; London, 1845; Vol. V.; p. 389.
[102] 'Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China, during the years,
1844-46,' by M. Huc; Vol. II.; p. 238.
[103] 'Twelve Years in China,' by a British Resident, (John Scarth),
Edinburgh, 1860; p. 56.
[104] 'An Authentic Account of an Embassy from the King of Great Britain
to the Emperor of China, etc., taken chiefly from the papers of His
Excellency the Earl of Macartney,' by Sir George Staunton; London, 1797.
Vol. II.; p. 31.
[105] 'Japan and the Japanese,' by Captain Golownin (of the Russian
Navy); London, 1853. Vol. II.; p. 149.
[106] 'Travels in Peru, by J. J. von Tschudi.' London, 1847; p. 377.
[107] 'Wesen und Geschichte der Oper, von G. W. Fink.' Leipzig, 1838; p.
53.
[108] 'Travels in Albania, etc., by the Right Hon. Lord Broughton.'
London, 1855; Vol. I., p. 145.
[109] 'Journal of a Political Mission to Afghanistan, by H. W. Bellew.'
London, 1862; p. 143.
[110] 'Das deutsche Volk, geschildert von Eduard Duller.' Leipzig, 1847;
p. 183.
[111] 'Observations on Popular Antiquities, by John Brand, revised by
Henry Ellis.' London, 1813; Vol. I., pp. 396, 401.
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