[Footnote 734: Davies, p. 183. Cp. also the birth of Merlin. Giraldus
Cambrensis, _Itinerary_, Bk. I, xii, 91b.]
VII. THE ORGANIZATION
The cult was organized in as careful a manner as any other religious
community; each district however was independent, and therefore Mather is
justified in saying that the witches 'form themselves after the manner of
Congregational Churches'.[735]
1. _The Officer_
The Chief or supreme Head of each district was known to the recorders as
the 'Devil'. Below him in each district, one or more officers--according to
the size of the district--were appointed by the chief. The officers might
be either men or women; their duties were to arrange for meetings, to send
out notices, to keep the record of work done, to transact the business of
the community, and to present new members. Evidently these persons also
noted any likely convert, and either themselves entered into negotiations
or reported to the Chief, who then took action as opportunity served. At
the Esbats the officer appears to have taken command in the absence of the
Grand Master; at the Sabbaths the officers were merely heads of their own
Covens, and were known as Devils or Spirits, though recognized as greatly
inferior to the Chief. The principal officer acted as clerk at the Sabbath
and entered the witches' reports in his book; if he were a priest or
ordained minister, he often performed part of the religious service; but
the Devil himself always celebrated the mass or sacrament. In the absence
of all direct information on the subject, it seems likely that the man who
acted as principal officer became Grand Master on the death of the previous
Chief. Occasionally the Devil appointed a personal attendant for himself,
who waited upon him on all solemn occasions, but does not appear to have
held any official position in the community.
Estebene de Cambrue (1567) said that 'elle a veu au Sabbat vn Notaire
qu'elle nomme, lequel a accoustume de leuer les defauts de celles qui ont
manque de se trouuer au Sabbat.'[736] At the North Berwick meetings (1590),
there were several officers, of whom Fian was the chief.
'Robert Griersoun being namit, they all ran hirdie-girdie and wer
angrie: for it wes promisit he sould be callit "Ro^t the Comptroller,
alias Rob the Rowar," for expreming of his name.--Johnne Fiene wes
ewer nerrest to the Devill, att his left elbok; Gray Meill kepit the
dur.--The accusation of the saide Geillis Duncane aforesaide, who
confessed he [Fian] was their Regester, and that there was not one man
suffered to come to the Divels readinges but onelie hee.--[Fian's
confession] That at the generall meetinges of those witches, he was
always present; that he was clarke to all those that were in
subiection to the Divels service, bearing the name of witches; that
alway hee did take their oathes for their true service to the Divell;
and that he wrote for them such matters as the Divell still pleased to
commaund him.'[737]
Elizabeth Southerns, otherwise known as old Mother Demdike (1613), 'was
generall agent for the Deuill in all these partes'.[738] The 'eminent
warlok' Robert Grieve of Lauder (1649) 'was brought to a Confession of his
being the _Devils Officer_ in that Countrey for warning all Satans Vassals
to come to the Meetings, where, and whensoever the Devil required.... The
Devil gave him that charge, to be his Officer to warn all to the meetings;
(as was said before,) in which charge he continued for the space of
eighteen years and more.'[739] The evidence concerning Isobel Shyrie at
Forfar (1661) is too long to quote, but it is clear that she acted as the
officer.[740] Isobel Gowdie (1662) says definitely, 'Johne Young, in
Mebestowne, is Officer to owr Coeven', and remarks in another part of her
confession that 'Johne Yownge in Mebestowne, owr Officer, did drywe the
plewghe'.[741] The only indication of a change of personnel is given by
Janet Breadheid, of the same Coven as Isobel Gowdie.
'Johne Taylor, my husband, was then Officer, bot Johne Young in
Mebestoune, is now Officer to my Coeven. Quhan I cam first ther, the
Divell called tham all be thair names, on the book; and my husband,
than called thame at the door.... Whan we haid Great Meittingis,
Walter Ledy, in Penick, my husband, and Alexander Elder, nixt to the
Divell, wer Ruleris; and quhan ther wold be but fewar, I my self, the
deceassit Jean Suthirland, Bessie Hay, Bessie Wilsone, and Janet
Burnet wold rule thaim.'[742]
In Somerset (1664) Anne Bishop appears to have been the chief personage
under the Devil, in other words the Officer.[743] At Paisley (1678) Bessie
Weir 'was Officer to their several meetings.--Bessie Weir did intimate to
him [John Stewart], that there was a meeting to be at his house the next
day: And that the Devil under the shape of a black man, Margaret Jackson,
Margery Craige, and the said Bessie Weir, were to be present. And that the
said Bessie Weir required the Declarant to be there, which he
promised.'[744] In New England (1692) it appears that both Bridget Bishop
and Martha Carrier held high rank, and were probably Officers.
One duty seems to have been delegated to a particular individual, who might
perhaps hold no other office, or who might, on the other hand, be the chief
official; this was the manager, often the leader, of the dance. As pace
seems to have been an essential in the dance, the leader was necessarily
active and generally young. At North Berwick (1590) 'John Fein mussiled led
the ring'.[745] In Aberdeen (1596) Thomas Leyis was the chief person in the
dance; 'thow the said Thomas was formest and led the ring, and dang the
said Kathren Mitchell, becaus scho spillet your dans, and ran nocht so fast
about as the rest.'[746] Isobel Cockie of the same Coven was next in
importance; 'in the quhilk danse, thow was the ring leader nixt Thomas
Leyis.'[747] Mr. Gideon Penman (1678), who had once been minister at
Crighton, went to the Sabbaths, where the Devil spoke of him as 'Mr.
Gideon, my chaplain'.[748] The witches said that 'ordinarily Mr. Gideon
was in the rear in all their dances, and beat up those that were slow'.
This Mr. Gideon seems to be the same person as the 'warlock who formerly
had been admitted to the ministrie in the Presbyterian times, and now he
turnes a preacher under the devill.--This villan was assisting to Satan in
this action' [giving the sacrament] 'and in preaching.'[749]
The personal attendant of the Devil is rare. At Aberdeen (1596) Issobell
Richie was accused that 'at that tyme thow ressauit thy honours fra the
Dewyll, thy maister, and wer appoynted be him in all tymes thairefter, his
speciall domestick servand and furriour'.[750] John McWilliam Sclater
(1656) was appointed cloak-bearer to the Devil.[751]
The Devil's piper was also an official appointment in Scotland, but does
not occur elsewhere. John Douglas of Tranent (1659) was the Devil's
piper,[752] and so also was a man mentioned by Sinclair: 'A reverend
Minister told me, that one who was the Devils Piper, a wizzard confest to
him, that at a Ball of dancing, the Foul Spirit taught him a Baudy song to
sing and play.'[753]
The Queen of the Sabbath may perhaps be considered as an official during
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, though in early times she was
probably the chief personage in the cult, as Pearson has pointed out.[754]
It is not unlikely that she was originally the same as the Queen of
Elfhame; in Scotland, however, in the seventeenth century, there is a
Maiden of the Coven, which was an important position in the Esbat but
entirely distinct from the Queen of Faery, while in other places a woman,
not the Queen, is often the officer and holds the highest place after the
Grand Master.
Elizabeth Stile of Windsor (1579) said that 'mother Seidre dwelling in the
Almeshouse, was the maistres Witche of all the reste'.[755] Marion Grant of
Aberdeen (1597) confessed that 'the Devill thy maister causit the dans
sindrie tymes with him and with Our Ladye, quha, as thow sayes, was a fine
woman, cled in a quhyte walicot'.[756] In France (1609) the custom seems
to have been universal, 'en chasque village trouuer vne Royne du Sabbat',
who sat at the Devil's left hand during the celebration of the mass and
received the offerings of the faithful.[757] The witches called her both
the Grande Maitresse and the Reine du Sabbat.[758] Isobel Gowdie's
confession (1662) shows that the Queen of Elthame was not the same as the
chief woman of the Coven, for she saw the Queen only on going into the
fairy-howe, while the Maiden of the Coven was at each meeting. 'We doe no
great mater without owr Maiden.--Quhan we ar at meat, or in any vther place
quhateuir, the Maiden of each Coven sittis abow the rest, nixt the
Divell.'[759] In New England (1692) Deliverance Hobbs confessed that 'the
said G. B. preached to them, and such a woman was their Deacon'.[760]
2. _The Covens_
The word _coven_ is a derivative of 'convene', and is variously spelt
_coven_, _coeven_, _covine_, _cuwing_, and even _covey_. The special
meaning of the word among the witches is a 'band' or 'company', who were
set apart for the practice of the rites of the religion and for the
performance of magical ceremonies; in short, a kind of priesthood.
The Coven was composed of men and women, belonging to one district, though
not necessarily all from one village, and was ruled by an officer under the
command of the Grand Master. The members of the Coven were apparently bound
to attend the weekly Esbat; and it was they who were instructed in and
practised magical arts, and who performed all the rites and ceremonies of
the cult. The rest of the villagers attended the Esbats when they could or
when they felt so inclined, but did not necessarily work magic, and they
attended the Sabbaths as a matter of course. This view of the organization
of the religion is borne out by the common belief in modern France:
'Il est de croyance generale qu'il _faut un nombre fixe de sorciers et
de sorcieres dans chaque canton_. Le nouvel initie reprend les _vieux
papiers_ de l'ancien.--Les mauvaises gens forment une confrerie qui
est dirigee par une sorciere. Celle-ci a la _jarretiere_ comme marque
de sa dignite. Elles se la transmettent successivement par rang
d'anciennete. Il n'existe que cette difference de rang entre les
sorciers et les sorcieres. Ceux-la se recrutent aussi bien parmi les
gens _maries_ que chez les _celibataires_.'[761]
The 'fixed number' among the witches of Great Britain seems to have been
thirteen: twelve witches and their officer. The actual numbers can be
obtained, as a rule, only when the full record of the trial is available;
for when several witches in one district are brought to trial at the same
time they will always be found to be members of a Coven, and usually the
other members of the Coven are implicated or at least mentioned.
The earliest account of a Coven is in the trial of Bessie Dunlop (1567);
when Thom Reid was trying to induce her to join the society, he took her
'to the kill-end, quhair he forbaid her to speik or feir for onye thing
sche hard or saw; and quhene thai had gane ane lytle pece fordwerd, sche
saw twelf persounes, aucht wemene and four men: The men wer cled in
gentilmennis clething, and the wemene had all plaiddis round about thame
and wer verrie semelie lyke to se; and Thom was with thame.'[762] Clearly
this was a Coven with Thom as the Officer, and he had brought Bessie to see
and be seen. The witches tried at St. Osyth in Essex in 1582 were thirteen
in number.[763] At the meeting of the North Berwick witches (1590) to
consult on the means to compass the king's death, nine witches stood 'in
ane cumpany', and the rest 'to the nowmer of threttie persons in ane vthir
cumpany'; in other words, there were thirty-nine persons, or three Covens,
present.[764] At Aberdeen (1596-7) sixty-four names of witches occur in the
trials; of these, seven were merely mentioned as being known to the
accused, though not as taking part in the ceremonies, and five were
acquitted; thus leaving fifty-two persons, or four Covens. Out of these
fifty-two, one was condemned and executed at the assize in 1596 and twelve
in 1597, making in all thirteen persons, or one Coven, who were put to
death.[765] The great trial of the Lancashire witches in 1613 gives a grand
total of fifty-two witches, or four Covens, whose names occur in the
record. This includes the three Salmesbury witches mentioned by Grace
Sowerbuts, whose evidence was discredited as being the outcome of a 'Popish
plot' to destroy the three women as converts to the Reformed Church; but as
the record shows that the other accused witches were tried on similar
charges and condemned, it may be concluded that other causes occasioned the
acquittal. Taking together, however, only those witches who are mentioned,
in these trials, as having actually taken part in the ceremonies and
practices of witchcraft in the neighbourhood of Pendle, it will be found
that there were thirty-nine persons, or three Covens.[766] In Guernsey in
1617 Isabel Becquet confessed that--
'at the Sabbath the Devil used to summon the Wizards and Witches in
regular order (she remembered very well having heard him call the old
woman _Collette_ the first, in these terms: _Madame the Old Woman
Becquette_): then the woman _Fallaise_; and afterwards the woman
_Hardie_. Item, he also called _Marie_, wife of _Massy_, and daughter
of the said _Collette_. Said that after them she herself was called by
the Devil: in these terms: _The Little Becquette_: she also heard him
call there _Collas Becquet_, son of the said old woman (who [Collas]
held her by the hand in dancing, and some one [a woman] whom she did
not know, held her by the other hand): there were about six others
there she did not know.[767]
At Queensferry in 1644 thirteen women were tried and seven executed for
witchcraft.[768]
At Alloa (1658), though thirteen persons, or one Coven, were brought to
trial, the word is used to indicate a smaller number: 'Margret Duchall
lykewayis declared that ther was sex women mair besyd hir self that was in
thair cuwing' [then follow the names of the six].--'Jonet Blak confessed
severall meetings with the abowenamed cuwing.--Kathren Renny being asked
quhat meetingis scho had with the diwell, and the rest of hir cuwing, scho
ansuered scho had severall meitingis with all tham abowenamed.'[769] Little
Jonet Howat of Forfar (1661) said, 'Ther was thair present with the divell
besyd hirselfe, quhom he callit the prettie dauncer, the said Issobell
Syrie, Mairie Rynd, Hellen Alexander, Issobell Dorward, and utheris whoise
names shoe did not know, to the number of 13 of all.'[770] The trial of
Jonet Kerr and Issobell Ramsay at Edinburgh (1661) gives the names of
thirteen persons, or one Coven.[771] At Crook of Devon (1662) there were
tried twelve women and one man, i.e. one Coven.[772] Isobel Gowdie of
Auldearne (1662) gives the most detail concerning the Covens: 'Jean Mairten
is Maiden of owr Coeven. Johne Younge is Officer to owr Coeven.--Ther ar
threttein persons in ilk Coeven.' Her evidence shows that there were
several Covens in the district: 'The last tyme that owr Coven met, we, and
an vther Coven, wer dauncing at the Hill of Earlseat, and befor that we ves
beyond the Meikle-burne; and the vther Coven being at the Downie-hillis, we
went besyd them.--[She and four others] with the Divell, wer onlie at the
making of it [a charm], bot all the multitude of all owr Coevens got notice
of it, at the next meitting ... all my owin Coeven gott notice of it werie
schortlie.' She also notes that each member of her Coven 'has an Sprit to
wait wpon ws, quhan ve pleas to call wpon him'. Janet Breadheid, of the
same Coven as Isobel Gowdie, gives the names of thirty-nine persons, or
three Covens, who were present in the Kirk of Nairn when she was admitted
into the Society.[773] In Somerset (1664) the number of accused was
twenty-six persons, or two Covens.[774] At Newcastle-on-Tyne (1673) Ann
Armstrong stated that at the meeting at the 'rideing house in the close on
the common' she saw ten men and women whom she knew and 'thre more, whose
names she knowes not'. At another meeting 'at Rideing Millne bridg-end she
see the said Anne Forster, Anne Dryden, and Luce Thompson, and tenne more
unknowne to her.--Att the house of John Newton off the Riding, the said
Lucy wished that a boyl'd capon with silver scrues might come down to her
and the rest, which were five coveys consisting of thirteen person in every
covey.' At a large meeting at Allensford, where a great many witches were
present, 'every thirteen of them had a divell with them in sundry shapes.'
It is also noticeable that Ann Armstrong mentions twenty-six persons by
name as having been at various meetings to her knowledge.[775] At Paisley
(1692) thirteen persons of high position brought an action for libel
against six others for saying that they, the thirteen, had drunk the
Devil's health in the house of one of them; the libellers were punished,
but the number of persons libelled suggests that the accusation might have
been true.[776]
3. _Duties_
An important part of the organization was the system of reporting to the
Grand Master everything which had happened since the previous Great
Assembly. The chief work of the Covens was the performance of magical
rites, either publicly at the Esbats or privately in the houses of the
witches and their neighbours. As these rites, especially when performed
privately, were more or less in the nature of experiments, the results were
reported and when successful were recorded in writing for future use. The
book in which the records were made remained in the hands of the Devil, who
in this way had always a store of well-tried magical spells and recipes to
kill or cure, from which he could instruct his followers as occasion
demanded.
The position of the Devil as the instructor of the witches is to be found
in most of the trials in Great Britain. Cooper states this plainly: 'He
_deliuers_ unto his _Proselite_, and so to the rest, _the Rules of his
Art_, instructing them in the manner of _hurting_ and _helping_, and
acquainting them with such _medicines_ and _poysons_ as are vsuall
herevnto.'[777] Bessie Dunlop (1567) never attempted to cure any disease
without first consulting Thom Reid, 'quhen sundrie persounes cam to hir to
seik help for thair beist, thair kow or yow, or for ane barne that was tane
away with ane evill blast of wind, or elf-grippit, sche gait and sperit at
Thom, Quhat mycht help thame?--Sche culd do nathing, quhill sche had first
spokin with Thom.'[778] Alison Peirson (1588) learnt her craft from Mr.
William Simpson, her mother's brother's son, who lived among the fairy
folk; 'the saide Mr Williame tauld hir of ewerie seiknes and quhat herbis
scho sould tak to haill thame, and how scho sould vse thame; and gewis hir
his directioune att all tymes.'[779] Agnes Sampson, the Wise Wife of Keith
(1590), always asked the Devil's advice in serious cases; 'she had a
familiar spirit, who upon her call, did appear in a visible form, and
resolve her of any doubtful matter, especially concerning the life or death
of persons lying sick.'[780] Grissel Gairdner of Newburgh (1610) was
executed for consulting with the 'Devill, and seiking of responssis fra
him, at all tymes this fourtene or fyftene [3*]eir bygane, for effectuating
of hir devillisch intentiones'.[781] Elspeth Reoch in Orkney (1616)
confessed that the fairy man, whom she met, told her 'he wald lerne her to
ken and sie ony thing she wald desyre'.[782] Isobel Haldane of Perth (1623)
also obtained all her information as to life and death from the man with
the 'grey beird' whom she met among the fairy folk.[783] Jonet Rendall,
another Orkney witch (1629), stated that 'the devill apperit to you, Quhom
ye called Walliman, claid in quhyt cloathis with ane quhyt head and ane
gray beard, And said to you He sould learne yow to win almiss be healling
of folk'[784] Sandie Hunter was only moderately successful in curing cattle
till he covenanted with the Devil, who 'came to him in the form of a
Mediciner, and said, _Sandie, you have too long followed my trade, and
never acknowledged me for your Master. You must now take on with me, and be
my servant, and I will make you more perfect in your Calling._ Whereupon
the man gave up himself to the Devil. After this, he grew very famous
throw the Countrey, for his Charming and cureing of diseases in Men and
Beasts.'[785] Reginald Scot says that the witches were taught by the Devil
to make magical ointments, and that he 'supplied their want of powders and
roots to intoxicate withal'.[786] It was the Devil who pointed out which
graves were to be opened in order to obtain the material for working magic;
and when the bodies had been exhumed and dismembered, he told the witches
how to use the fragments.[787] It was the Devil who made[788] or
baptized[789] the wax and clay images, and who stuck the first thorn or pin
into them.[790] It was the Devil who held the mock plough at Auldearne, and
taught the witches of that place all the charms they knew. 'We get all this
power from the Divell', says Isobell Gowdie.[791] It was the Devil who
instigated and superintended the wrecking of the bridge at Cortaquhie,
concerning which Helen Guthrie said, 'shee her selfe, Jonnet Stout, and
others of them did thrust ther shoulderis againest the bridge', and Isobel
Smyth confessed, 'Wee all rewed that meitting, for wee hurt our selves
lifting.'[792]
The book in which the magical recipes were recorded must have been of great
value to its owner, and one which he would not willingly allow to pass out
of his hands. A volume of this kind was known to be extant till the
beginning of the last century; it was called the Red Book of Appin. There
are two stories as to how it was taken from the Devil, but both stories
agree that it was obtained by a trick. It was in manuscript and contained
charms for the cure of cattle, and was consulted when cows were bewitched
and refused to give milk. It was also supposed to confer magical powers on
the owner, who was said to know what the inquiry would be before the
inquirer opened his lips; and it was in itself so magical that the owner
had to wear a hoop of iron on his head when turning its leaves.[793]
Another Devil's-book was carried away, apparently as a joke, by Mr.
Williamson of Cardrona, who took it from the witches as they danced on
Minchmoor, but they followed him and he returned it.[794]
The system of reporting everything to the Chief of the community makes it
certain that he was supplied with such current information as made his
knowledge of public and private affairs appear miraculous to the
uninitiated. Even those who supplied that information had firm faith in his
supernatural power to kill or cure, and believed with equal ardour in the
charms which he taught them to make and use.
In reviewing the evidence it seems clear that the witches of the Covens
were bound to exercise their powers in the intervals between the meetings;
they were bound to attend those meetings, unless absolutely prevented, in
order to learn new methods as well as to make their reports; and they were
bound to obey the Grand Master's orders and to treat him with the deference
and respect due to his exalted position.
4. _Discipline_
Discipline was maintained by a system of rewards and punishments, enforced
or relaxed according to the personal character of the Chief. As a rule only
the severer punishments are recorded, but occasionally there are
indications of minor chastisements.
The contemporary writers make the system of rewards and punishments very
clear: