ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOURS OR OUTLINES OF DESIGNS IN WOOD
With this chapter we introduce contour enrichment, the second major
division of industrial arts design.
[Sidenote: Need and Value of Enrichment]
A critic of furniture designed by the average manual arts student has
stated frankly that while it might have been honestly constructed it
was, in the first place, too heavy for a woman to move about the house
and, in the second place, it represented a decidedly uneconomical use of
that valuable material, wood. That there is a basis in fact for this
statement cannot be denied. Is it true, then, that furniture must of
necessity be clumsy and heavy when it is sufficiently simplified in
constructive processes for school work? We may say emphatically, "No!"
One may correct the proportions of an object and reduce the size of the
materials in it to a minimum but still fail to secure the desirable
elements of lightness and interest. The object may still _look_ heavy
and remain a box-like structure void of the grace synonymous with the
best in design. It is, however, possible to correct the clumsy and heavy
appearances by imparting to the design elements of grace and lightness.
Two methods may be used, singly or together: (1) Enrichment of the
Functional Outlines or Contours; (2) Surface Enrichment sometimes called
Space Filling. These may be roughly classified respectively as three and
two dimension enrichment.
[Sidenote: Contour Enrichment]
The first, or outline enrichment, concerns itself with the structural
lines. As all designing processes should start with the structure, it
will be our policy to do so. The present chapter will deal only with
enrichment of outlines of wood projects.
Rule 5a. _Outline enrichment should be subordinated to and support the
structure._
Rule 5b. _Outline enrichment should add grace, lightness, and variety to
the design._
[Illustration: COMMON ERRORS IN CONTOUR ENRICHMENT
STAMP BOXES
PLATE 19a]
[Sidenote: Purpose of Contour Enrichment]
[Sidenote: Requirements of Contour Enrichment]
It is the purpose of enrichment to add to the problem (1) grace; (2)
lightness; (3) variety; (4) unity. If it is applied in a proper manner
it should likewise add to the apparent structural strength. We should
carefully guard the design, therefore, against (1) enrichment that has a
tendency to obscure or destroy the structural lines; in other words,
enrichment that is not subordinated to the structure, and (2) enrichment
that adds nothing to the structure by its application; that is, one
which does not increase either the apparent strength or the beauty of
the object.
As an example of this first point, the turned candlestick with the
candle supported by a stack of turned balls alternating with tauri or
thin discs tends to obscure completely the sense of support. Again, the
landscape gardener feels that he is violating a fundamental principle in
design if by planting vines to grow around a building, he obscures the
foundation, and the roof appears, consequently, to rest on and be
supported by the stems and leaves of the vines. Thus it is seen that the
eye registers a sense of structural weakness when the main supports of
an object disappear and are no longer to be traced under the enrichment.
Under the second point falls the indiscriminate placing of unrelated
objects in the contour enrichment. Naturalistic objects similar to the
claw foot and the human head, for example, should give way to natural
curves that add to the appearance of total strength. Where are we to
find these curves suited to our purpose?
[Sidenote: Valuable Curves for Outline Enrichment]
Up to this point emphasis has been placed upon straight and curved lines
immediately connected with pure service. For grace and lightness it is
necessary to depart at times from the rigidity of straight lines. To
understand the character of this departure let us consider a simple
bracket as a support for a shelf.
This bracket acts as a link, connecting a vertical wall or leg with a
horizontal member or shelf. A bracket shaped like a 45-degree triangle,
Figure 10, page 24, gives one the sense of clumsiness. If the feeling of
grace is to be imparted the eye must move smoothly along the outline of
the bracket, giving one a sensation of aesthetic pleasure. A curved line
will produce this effect more completely than will a straight line. One
must likewise get the feeling that the curve of the bracket is designed
to support the shelf.
[Illustration: NATURAL AND GEOMETRIC CURVES WITH THEIR USE IN FUNCTIONAL
OUTLINE ENRICHMENT
PLATE 20]
THE CURVE OF FORCE
[Sidenote: Valuable Curves]
Turning to Figure 70, Plate 20, we find that whenever nature desires to
support a weight she is inclined to use a peculiar curve seen at _F_.
Possibly through continued observation the eye has associated this curve
with strength or supporting power. Figure 71 has detailed this curve. It
is found to consist of a long, rather flat portion with a quick and
sudden turn at its end. The curve is known to designers as the Curve of
Force and is most valuable in all forms of enrichment. Designers even in
early ages used it in some form as will be noted from the fragment of
Greek sculpture in Figure 72. Its beauty rests in its variety. A circle
has little interest due to its rather monotonous curvature. The eye
desires variety and the curve of force administers to this need and
gives a sense of satisfaction. As designers on wood, how are we to
utilize this curve for purposes of outline enrichment?
[Sidenote: An Approximate Curve of Force]
For approximate similarity of curvature an ellipse constructed as shown
in Figure 73 will be found convenient. By drawing several ellipses of
varying sizes upon sheets of tin or zinc, a series of templates of
utmost practical value may be formed and used as was done in securing
the curves of force in Figures 74 and 75. If the rail or shelf is longer
than the post, measured downward from the rail to the floor or to the
next shelf, the ellipse should be used with its major axis placed in a
horizontal position, Figure 75. If, on the contrary, the post is longer
than the shelf the ellipse should have its major axis in a vertical
position, Figure 74. Figures 76 and 77 show other instances of the use
of the approximate curve of force. Many similar practical applications
will occur to the designer.
[Sidenote: Mouldings]
We have classed the bracket as a link connecting a vertical and
horizontal structure. Mouldings may likewise be considered as links
connecting similar horizontal or vertical surfaces by bands of graded
forms. Inasmuch as they effect the outline they are considered in this
chapter. As the mouldings are to assist the eye to make the jump from
one surface to another by easy steps, the position from which the
mouldings are to be seen determines to some extent their design.
[Illustration: ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOUR OR OUTLINE BY MOULDINGS APPLIED
TO WOOD ... TYPES OF MOULDING ... WOOD TURNING PROBLEMS
PLATE 21]
[Sidenote: Mouldings (_Continued_)]
Figure 78 shows the relation of the spectator to three types of
mouldings at _A_, _B_, and _C_. The top or _crown_ (_A_) is to be seen
from below. On a large project the angle of the mouldings with the
body of the object should be approximately 45 degrees. The
_intermediate_ moulding (_B_) is lighter than the crown and forms a
transitional link that may be seen from either above or below. The lower
or _base_ moulding (_C_) is the widest member of the group as demanded
by our sense of stability. It is seen from above. Both for sanitary and
structural reasons it projects but slightly from the base. With this
grouping in mind it is needless to say that a faulty moulding is one,
some portion of which, hidden by intervening moulding, cannot be seen by
the spectator.
Architectural design and history have formulated a series of curves,
geometric in character, that are regarded as standards in the Industrial
Arts. Some of the more prominent curves with their constructions are
shown in Figure 79. The horizontal divisions are analyzed in accordance
with Rules 2a and 2b. It is noticed that the Scotia possesses a curve
having the shape of the curve of force, while the two Cymas are saved
from monotonous division by means of their reversed curves, illustrating
the contrast of direction. The curves of Figure 80 are excellent lines
for freehand practice in designing mouldings and will develop the
principle of continuity of curvature or the smooth transition of one
curve into the next.
[Sidenote: Continuity and Contrast]
To keep this continuity from the monotony of a Marcel Wave it is
customary to break continuous curves by a fillet such as a straight line
as shown at _D_, Figures 81, 82, and 83. When the desired outside
diameter has been reached, contrast of direction is necessary and
pleasing as a return, Figure 82. A glance at the curves so far
considered will quickly determine whether they are fitted for the crown,
intermediate or base mouldings. A curve should join a straight line with
either a tangential or right angle junction, which makes for
positiveness in contour expression.
[Sidenote: Grouping of Curves]
[Illustration: FIGURE 85.--Modern Candlesticks]
[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_
FIGURE 86.--Modern Book Trough]
Application of these curves to outline enrichment for wood turning
projects is to be governed by a strict adherence to Rules 2a or 2b,
otherwise confusion and lack of unity will result. Figure 83 shows a
major grouping under Rule 2b with the subdivisions and minor curves
arranged under Rules 2a and 2b. Figure 84 shows a disregard for rules
and the result is an undesirable monotony of contour. If smooth and even
continuity of curvature is given considerable thought, together with
that for systematic grouping and variety, a pleasing result from wood
turning (a much abused but pleasing form of outline enrichment) may be
secured. Figures 85 and 86 are illustrations from the industrial field
with moulding curves grouped, following and supporting the structural
lines of the object. The columns in Figure 86 might, however, be
advantageously reversed.
[Sidenote: Materials]
Large objects designed to be seen from a distance require larger space
divisions for their mouldings than do small objects seen from a nearer
point. Material affects the curve somewhat. Smaller mouldings are more
suited to the expensive woods like mahogany while larger curves may be
used in pine or oak.
[Sidenote: Evolution of Enriched Outline Design]
We now have at our command a number of interesting and serviceable
curves suited to the material. Plate 22 is a sheet of applications.
Figures 87 to 94 deal with the book-rack end and in this, as in the
initial chapter, architecture is referred to as the source for many laws
of industrial design. It has seemed wise to illustrate some of these
important parallels as follows:
We will assume the type of joint construction of the book-rack end as
settled and the question of enrichment to be under consideration.
Figure 87 is a simple primary mass without enrichment. It is comparable
to the plain box-like structure with monotonous outline and without
interest. The eye follows the outline in the direction of the arrows,
pausing at the square corners, which interrupt a free movement by a
harsh right angle. The base (an appendage) repeats in each instance the
lines of the primary mass.
Figure 88. Round corners, by freeing the design from the right angles,
accelerate the eye movement and give a sense of added interest and grace
to the contour.
Figure 89. The cornice of a building suggests a similar arrangement
which may be added to the primary mass. It adds the element of contrast
of direction and variety of widths.
[Sidenote: Variations]
Figure 90. The main primary mass of a building with two equal appendages
will suggest the enrichment of the outline in sympathy with three
vertical divisions. Rule 3b. The rounded corners again assist the eye to
travel freely around the contours, thus giving a sense of unity to the
entire form.
[Illustration: ENRICHMENT OF THE FUNCTIONAL OUTLINES OR CONTOURS AS
APPLIED TO WOOD
THE EVOLUTION OF OUTLINE ENRICHMENT OF A BOOK RACK END WITH CROSS
REFERENCES TO PARALLELS IN ARCHITECTURE
PLATE 22]
[Illustration: FIGURES 101 and 102]
Figure 91. The pediment of a Greek temple with the interest centered at
the top of the pediment (_x_) causes a similar concentration of interest
in the book-rack end. The slight inclination of the sides supplies
variety of widths. The architect considers an object with the interest
centered in this manner in the upper portion, as possessing more
individuality than a motive with purely horizontal lines across the top
boundary.
[Illustration: FOLDING SCREEN
FIGURE 102a]
[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_
FIGURE 103.--A Modern Telephone Stand and Stool]
[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_
FIGURE 104.--Modern Chair]
Figure 92. In this figure the curved inclination facilitates the upward
movement of the eye, at the same time supplying variety of width.
Figure 93. The addition of an appendage to the outline of the Greek
temple suggests a slight drop or variation in the top edge of the
book-rack end which gives increased interest and grace through variety.
Figure 94. Contrast of direction is supplied in this suggestion but it
is questionable whether we are adding much to the interest by the
corner.
[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_
FIGURE 105.--A Modern Serving Table]
Figures 95 to 98 are variations of one theme, the foot stool, and Figure
99 adds suggestive designs for rails. _D_ in Figure 99 shows the
enrichment line cut to a depth which threatens the structural value of
the rail. This is corrected in Figure 103. Figure 100 is an application
of the curve of force to a chair leg _B_, with other possibilities
at _A_ and _C_. Numerous applications of the varied curves under
consideration are found throughout this sheet.
[Illustration: FIGURE 105a]
[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_
FIGURE 106.--Sheraton Table]
Before closing with enriched outlines it is well to consider flagrant
violations of this enrichment now on the market. Figure 101 shows a
typical example of complete lack of unity and simplicity. It is a type
of design often associated with cheaply constructed furniture. It is an
ornate parody on outline enrichment. The curves of extravagance are well
shown in Figure 102 where large bulbous curves with no systematic
grouping combine disastrous waste of material with lack of grace or
lightness. It is excellent practice to redesign such examples as those
shown in Figures 101 and 102 with special reference to Rule 5c.
Rule 5c. _Outline enrichment, by its similarity, should give a sense of
oneness or unity to the design, binding divergent members together._
[Illustration: INSTRUCTION SHEET
CONTOUR ENRICHMENT OF WOOD
DRAWN AND DESIGNED BY JEANNETTE E. FITCH
U. OF W.]
Illustrations 103 to 106 are typical forms of present day outline
enrichment. Limitations of space will not permit reference to the use of
Period furniture. Sheraton and Hepplewhite designs are most adaptable
for school uses as may be seen by comparing the Sheraton desk (Figure
106) with the foot stool in Figure 96.
INSTRUCTION SHEET
Figure 83 and Plates 22 and 23 are indicative of what might be
obtained from a class. The problem represented on Plate 23 is
advantageously colored with the intended stain and with a small
section of side wall and trim visible. See Chapter 16, Figures
458 to 463. Figure 102a shows the method of enlarging a design
into a full size working drawing for shop purposes.
SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS
(_a_) Draw the primary rectangle.
(_b_) Subdivide the rectangle into vertical and horizontal
divisions.
(_c_) Determine parts to be treated by contour enrichment.
(_d_) Determine method suited to the project: wood turning,
moulding, etc.
(_e_) Group the wood turning curves under a definite system
included under Rules 2a and 2b. Group the mouldings under
crown, intermediate, and base classifications. Add this
enrichment to the primary mass or make other simple variations
that will not destroy the unity of the project.
(_f_) Dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use.
(_g_) Construct the project.
_Note_.--If the designer is not properly equipped to prepare
his own mouldings, he should consult moulding catalogs or the
stock of some local lumber company.
ADDITIONAL SUGGESTED PROBLEMS
Design a wood pedestal with the curves grouped into three
horizontal divisions.
Design a hall table 2 feet 10 inches high and add simple
contour enrichment.
SUMMARY OF RULES
Rule 5a. _Outline enrichment should be subordinated to and
support the structure._
Rule 5b. _Outline enrichment should add grace, lightness, and
variety to the design._
Rule 5c. _Outline enrichment, by its similarity, should give a
sense of oneness or unity to the design, binding divergent
members together._
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. State nature and need of enrichment.
2. What two forms of enrichment are commonly used in industrial
arts design?
3. What four qualities are added to industrial design by
contour enrichment?
4. What disturbing elements should be guarded against in the
application of contour enrichment?
5. Describe the curve of force and its function in the contour
enrichment of wood.
6. What are mouldings? Name three types of mouldings, their
positions with relation to the eye level, and some curves used
in their design.
7. Give examples of curves of continuity and contrast. By what
means should two contrasting curves be separated?
8. How should a curve join a straight line?
9. Explain the grouping of contour curves in wood turning
projects similar to a round leg or candlestick.
10. Present five designs for book-racks, enriched by changes of
the contour. Give architectural cross references for each
design.
11. Present three well designed table or chair legs and top and
bottom rails and assemble one of these in a design.