[Illustration: Firing the Kiln
_Courtesy of the Rookwood Potteries_]
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES
SUPERVISING EDITOR
FRED D. CRAWSHAW, M.E.
PROFESSOR OF MANUAL ARTS, THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN
A TEXTBOOK OF PRACTICAL METHODS FOR STUDENTS,
TEACHERS, AND CRAFTSMEN
BY
WILLIAM H. VARNUM
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF DRAWING AND DESIGN
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY
CHICAGO NEW YORK
Copyright 1916 by
SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY
PREFACE
_Place for the Book._ As a textbook, INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN is a
practical guide for designing in wood, clay, and base and precious
metals. It is intended for individual student use in the High Schools,
Normal Schools, and Colleges and as a reference book for elementary
school teachers. Its more complex problems are intended as definite
helps to the industrial arts designer or craftsman. The wood problems
are treated with special reference to their adaptability to bench and
cabinet work.
_Need of the Book._ It has been written to fill a decided demand for a
textbook that shall, without loss of time, directly apply
well-recognized principles of general design to specific materials and
problems encountered in the Industrial Arts. A brief description of the
decorative processes adapted to the materials under discussion with the
design principles directly applying to these processes, insures designs
that may be worked out in the studio or shop. It is hoped that this
provision will eliminate the large number of impractical designs that
are frequently entirely unfitted to the technic of the craft. This lack
of mutual technical understanding between the teacher of design and the
shop work instructor is the cause of friction that it is hoped will be
removed by the methods advocated in these pages.
_The Author's Motive._ It has been the intention to reduce unrelated and
abstract theories to a minimum and reach directly rules and conclusions
that shall be applicable to typical materials in common use in the
schools and industries. The original conception materialized in the
publication of a series of articles upon Design in the _Industrial Arts
Magazine_, in 1915. These articles were favorably received and their
results in the schools proved highly satisfactory. Through this
encouragement, the articles have been reprinted in book form, enriched
by the addition of illustrations, review questions, and three chapters
on color with its applications.
INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN develops the principles of industrial design in a
new and logical form which, it is believed, will simplify the teaching
of craft design. Chapters I to V deal with the elementary problems
confronting the designer as he begins the first steps on his working
drawing; Chapters VI to VIII show the methods by which he may express
his individuality through contour or outline enrichment, while Chapters
IX to XVII explain the treatment of the most difficult form of
decoration, that of surface enrichment.
_The Appendix._ The appendix is added to show the manner in which the
rules may be directly applied to a course of study in either pottery or
art metal. The present work is not intended to include the chemistry of
glaze mixing or other technical requirements to which reference is made
in the appendix; consequently the reader is referred to "The Potter's
Craft" by C.F. Binns and "Pottery" by George J. Cox for fuller
explanations of the formulae and technicalities of the craft.
_Source of Principles._ The principles herein advocated are directly
related to architectural design which is to be regarded as the standard
authority for the industrial arts designer. It was necessary to state
these principles in the form of sufficiently flexible rules which would
allow the student to use his own judgment, but at the same time,
restrict him to the essential principles of good design.
_Rules._ This presentation of the principles of design by means of
flexible rules in concrete form, serves to vitalize design by virtue of
their immediate application to the material. The rules likewise save
time for both pupil and instructor. This is regarded as an important
factor, inasmuch as the amount of time usually allotted to classroom
teaching of design is limited.
While these rules are applied to the specific materials, the designer
may readily adjust them to other materials and find them equally
applicable. Direct copying of designs from the illustrations is a
dangerous expedient and is to be discouraged as a form of plagiarism
which will eventually destroy the student's initiative, originality, and
reputation for creative work.
_Results_. From the tests so far observed, it has been seen that under
design guidance, the projects become more noticeably individual in
character, lighter and better in construction, and more fully adjusted
to their environment. The student's interest and initiative in his work
are strengthened, and he completes the truly valuable cycle of the
educative process of evolving his own idea and crystallizing it in the
completed work. It is hoped that this book will tend to develop higher
standards of good design in schools, industrial establishments, and the
home.
In conclusion, the author expresses his thanks to the following for
their valuable suggestions and assistance in contributed illustrations:
Miss D.F. Wilson, Miss Edna Howard, Miss Elizabeth Upham, Miss A.M.
Anderson, Mr. J.M. Dorrans, Mr. J.B. Robinson, author of "Architectural
Composition," and others to whom reference is made in the text.
WILLIAM HARRISON VARNUM.
_Madison, Wisconsin.
April, 1916._
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. DIVISIONS OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN 7
II. THE PRIMARY MASS AND ITS PROPORTIONS 13
III. HORIZONTAL MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS 19
IV. VERTICAL MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS 33
V. APPENDAGES AND THE RULES GOVERNING THEM 43
VI. ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOURS OR OUTLINES OF DESIGNS IN WOOD 57
VII. ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOURS OR OUTLINES OF DESIGNS IN CLAY 77
VIII. ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOURS OR OUTLINES OF DESIGNS IN BASE
AND PRECIOUS METALS 87
IX. SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD 99
X. SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD.
(Continued) 117
XI. SURFACE ENRICHMENT WITH MINOR SUBDIVISIONS OF LARGE
PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD 133
XII. SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY 145
XIII. SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF PRECIOUS METALS. SMALL FLAT PLANES 160
XIV. SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE AND
PRECIOUS METALS 179
XV. COLOR: HUE, VALUE, AND CHROMA; STAINS 194
XVI. COLOR AND ITS RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN. LARGE
SURFACES OF WOOD; WALL AND CEILING AREAS 201
XVII. COLOR AND ITS RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN. SMALL
SURFACES IN CLAY AND METAL 209
COMPLETE SUMMARY OF RULES 218
APPENDIX 223
(_a_) A Complete Course of Study for the Applied Arts
in Thin Base and Precious Metals. Relation of the
Rules to the Problems 224
(_b_) A Complete Course of Study for the Applied Arts
in Pottery. Relation of the Rules to the Problems 237
INDEX 245
INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN
CHAPTER I
DIVISIONS OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN
[Sidenote: Non-technical Criticism]
This book has been written with the view of presenting design from the
standpoint of the industrial arts. An instructor generally experiences
difficulty in finding the exact word to use when criticizing a student's
drawing. The student has equal difficulty in understanding the
criticism. There is little wonder that he is confused, when the rather
ambiguous terms "good-looking," "ugly," "squatty," and "stiff" are used
to express qualities that can be expressed only in terms of design.
[Sidenote: Intelligent Analysis]
The lack of understanding between the pupil and the teacher may be
compared to the attitude of the average individual "who knows what he
likes." He is on an equally insecure footing regarding industrial
design. His reason for liking or disliking a certain thing may depend
upon some whim or fancy, the popular fashion of the times, or a desire
to possess a duplicate of something he has seen. As a consumer with
purchasing power, he should have the ability to _analyze intelligently_
the contents of catalogs and store windows with the thought of securing
the best in industrial art--something that may be accepted as standard
one hundred years from now.
It is, therefore, the intention to present design of industrial
character in its simplest form, freed from technicalities or ambiguous
statements. It is intended to give the average individual not
particularly interested in drawing or design a knowledge of the subject,
based upon principles that have survived for hundreds of years in
architectural monuments and history.
[Sidenote: Results of Clear Criticism]
[Illustration: THE FIRST MAJOR DIVISION OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN
PLATE 1]
It is possible that the presentation of these principles may enable the
instructor in the public schools to guide his pupil away from the heavy
and expensive stereotyped designs, and by clear and simple criticism,
lead him to better forms of construction. He may also be helped to
lead the pupil to design problems in harmony with his home surroundings
and thus avoid the introduction of an inharmonious element into what may
possibly be a harmonious setting. The teacher, pupil, or layman should
use his knowledge of the subject as a basis for criticism or
appreciation of the field of the industrial arts.
[Sidenote: Requirements of an Industrial Problem]
In order to start successfully upon a design, it is necessary to know
what qualities a good industrial article should possess. Whether one is
designing a bird-house, a chocolate set, or a gold pendant, the article
must meet three needs: (1) It must be of service to the community or to
the individual; (2) It must be made of some durable material; (3) It
must possess beauty of proportion, outline, and color.
Ruskin said that a line of beauty must also be a line of service. The
"stream line body" in automobile construction is the result of the
automobile maker's attempt to combine beauty with service. This is the
attitude that should govern the union of beauty and service in all of
the industrial arts.
[Sidenote: Divisions in Design Evolution and Enrichment]
There are three divisions or phases in the designing of a structure and
its enrichment. These are: (1) Structural Design; (2) Contour
Enrichment; (3) Surface Enrichment. Some objects are carried through
only one of these divisions, while others are developed through all
three of them.
[Sidenote: First Major Division]
Plate 1, illustrative of the first division, deals naturally enough with
the planning of the constructive or utilitarian lines of an object and
its parts. It may be termed Structural or Constructive Design. Questions
of how high or how long an object should be, to harmonize with its
width, the proper placing of rails, shelves, and brackets, the
determination of the greatest and least diameter of vase forms have to
be decided in this period of Proportions and Space Relations.
The knowledge of tools and materials, and of the manner in which they
may be used for constructive purposes, influences the solution of these
questions and others which we shall shortly discuss. Strictly
utilitarian objects are seldom carried past this stage of development.
[Sidenote: Second Major Division]
[Illustration: THE SECOND MAJOR DIVISION IN INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN
PLATE 2]
Plate 2 indicates the next logical division--Contour Enrichment--or the
period of the enrichment of the structural outline or contour. The
bounding lines, or contours, of the structure may be enriched in many
ways, as, for example, curving certain portions to soften the severity
of the plain structure. The garden urn and small stool have contours
treated in this manner. Chippendale, Sheraton, and Hepplewhite
furniture, simplified to the accepted range of shop technic, vary the
straight lines of mission furniture and come within the possible
developments of this division.
[Sidenote: Effects of Second Division]
The cement fence post at _C_, Plate 2, is a strict utilitarian problem
without interest. The post at _D_, enriched by a bevel, has equal
utilitarian and increased aesthetic interest and value.
[Sidenote: Third Major Division]
Plate 3 illustrates the last division of evolution and concerns itself
with the application of design to the surface of the otherwise complete
structure. This division is commonly called applied surface design or
decorative design. It is readily seen that this division should be
considered after the structure has been carefully planned. To separate
this division from the period of structural or contour enrichment we
will call it Surface Enrichment.
[Sidenote: Steps in Design Evolution]
It may be seen from the foregoing discussion that a design may be
carried through the following steps: (1) Blocking in the enclosing lines
of the design, as at Figure B, Plate 2, adding to this whatever may be
needed for structural purposes, keeping the lines as nearly vertical and
horizontal as possible; (2) Enriching and varying the outline or
contour. It is well for elementary wood workers to use this step with
extreme caution, while less reserve is necessary in clay and metal; (3)
After careful consideration in determining the need of additional
decoration, the last step, surface enrichment, should be used. The
following chapters will take up these steps in the order stated above.
[Sidenote: Ideal Correlation]
The ideal method of developing the principles set forth in this chapter
includes correlated activity in the shop by working out the project in
the required material. As the technic of the individual improves, the
larger range of design principles will be found to accompany and
parallel his increasing skill.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What three requirements should be met in a well designed
industrial article?
2. State three major divisions in industrial arts design.
3. State briefly the problems to be considered in each
division.
4. What is the last and ideal step for the designer?
[Illustration: THE THIRD MAJOR DIVISION IN INDUSTRIAL ART DESIGN
PLATE 3]
CHAPTER II
THE PRIMARY MASS AND ITS PROPORTIONS
[Sidenote: The Architectural Method]
Upon first observing a building, one seldom notices details of
structure. He sees the large mass as it is silhouetted against the sky.
Nearer approach discloses mouldings, cornices, and doorways; while
careful analytical study shows the technical points of construction. The
architect, in his original planning, thinks in terms of masses, widths,
and heights, disregarding at first the details and color. As
architecture stands for parent design principles and represents some of
the world's best examples of composition and design, industrial design
should be based upon the best examples of architectural design. To a
certain degree, also, the methods of the industrial arts designer should
be those of the architect.
[Sidenote: The Industrial Arts Method]
It is necessary to think at first of our problem as a single mass or
solid, bounded by enclosing dimensions of width, height, and thickness.
Details like a mirror, handles, brackets, or knobs may project outside
of this mass, but for the time being, they may be disregarded. Figure B,
Plate 2, shows this manner of thinking, and will enable us to regard the
problem as a big, simple mass so that the entire object, unobstructed by
small details, may be seen.
[Sidenote: The Primary Mass]
This is the method of _thinking_ about the problem which should precede
the drawing. To further describe this mass, which will be called the
single or Primary Mass, it is necessary to think of the intended service
of the project. A rather hazy idea of making a vase or a stool to be put
to no particular use, may have been the original motive. Now the exact
service should be defined as it will have a marked effect upon the shape
of this primary mass.
[Sidenote: Service]
Rule 1a. _A primary mass must be either vertical or horizontal according
to the intended service, unless prohibited by technical requirements._
Service is an important factor inasmuch as it limits the intended use of
the mass. A mass is horizontal when its largest dimension is horizontal.
When the horizontal dimension of this mass is reduced until the main
vertical dimension is longer than the main horizontal one, it becomes a
vertical mass. As an example, a davenport is generally a horizontal mass
intended to hold a number of people. When the mass is narrowed to the
point where the vertical dimension exceeds the horizontal, it becomes a
chair for one person. A low bowl may be intended for pansies, but as
soon as the service changes and we design it for goldenrod, it becomes a
vertical mass. The fable of the fox who, upon being invited to dine with
the stork, found the tall vases unfitted for his use illustrates the
change of mass with the change of service.
[Illustration: ANALYSIS OF THE PRIMARY MASS
PLATE 4]
[Sidenote: Horizontal and Vertical Primary Masses]
Figures 1 and 4, Plate 4, are examples of horizontal masses with the
dark lines indicating the dominance of the horizontal lines and planes.
The shelter house contains a long bench, making necessary the long
horizontal lines of the building. The calendar holder has to be a
horizontal mass because of the restrictions imposed by the shape of the
calendar pad.
Figures 2 and 3 are vertical masses. The vase is intended for tall
flowers, while the chair, as has already been mentioned, must meet the
needs of a single person. Utility and service then have been found to
give the primary mass a given direction or dominance.
[Sidenote: Drawing the Primary Mass]
The designer now represents this mass by drawing a rectangle similar to
the block outline of Figure B, Plate 2. It is now necessary to see if
the foundation stones of this rectangle have been laid correctly; in
other words, to test the proportions of the primary vertical or
horizontal mass.
[Sidenote: Proportions of the Primary Masses]
Rule 1b. _A primary mass should have the ratio of one to three, three to
four, three to five, five to eight, seven to ten, or some similar
proportion difficult for the eye to detect readily and analyze._
Proportions are generally expressed in terms of ratios. A surface of
five by eight inches would give a ratio of five to eight; ten by sixteen
feet is reducible to the same ratio. Certain ratios are monotonous and
offend the eye by their lack of variety. Ratios such as one to one or
one to two are of this class and should be avoided. If these ratios
could speak they would resemble people talking in a low monotonous tone
of voice.
[Illustration: PROPORTIONATE RATIOS
PROCESS OF DESIGNING
PLATE 5]
[Sidenote: Unsatisfactory Ratios]
Certain other ratios are weak and indeterminate, showing a lack of clear
thinking. They are like people with no definite or cleancut ideas upon
a subject they discuss. Examples in this class show ratios of two to two
and one-eighth, or three to three and one-fourth, neither positively
square nor frankly rectangular. They hide around the corner, as it were,
waiting to be anything. Figure 5, Plate 5, is an example of
unsatisfactory proportionate ratios of the primary mass. The blotting
tablet is nearly square, while the candlestick and sconce, which should
have been designed with strongly vertical masses, lack the type of
definite thinking that results in a decided vertical dimension.
Disregarding the improvement in technic, Figure 6 shows problems
designed with a definite knowledge of proportion. The metal objects are
refined in their dimensions, and pleasing to the eye. Tests have been
made with the idea of determining what the eye considers perfectly
natural and agreeable proportion. This has been found to be the ratio of
two to three. Consequently, it is clear why Figure 6 shows objects more
pleasing than those in Figure 5.
It may be felt that too much space is being given to this subject of
proportion. It should be remembered, however, that the industrial arts
are intimately associated with daily life and that unless proportions
are pleasing to our aesthetic sense, many articles of common use shortly
become intolerable.
[Sidenote: Preliminary Thinking in Terms of Design]
This preliminary portion of the designer's task has been given to
thinking out the problem and drawing one rectangle. There is a tendency
to start the design by pushing the pencil over the paper with a forlorn
hope that a design may be evolved with little mental effort. This should
be regarded as illogical and unworthy of the desired end. A rectangle of
the most prominent surface of the problem, based upon the desired
service of the project, and the best proportions which our knowledge of
design and understanding of the limitations of construction will permit,
should be the final result of the first study. From now on through the
succeeding steps, the details of the problem will become more and more
clear, as the technical limitations of the tools and materials governing
the designer's ideas and controlling and shaping the work are better
understood, until all governing factors become crystallized in the form
of a working drawing or model. This is a strictly professional practice
as illustrated in Figure 7, which shows the skilled Rookwood potter
developing a vase form, the definite embodiment of correct thinking in
terms of the material which is constantly before him.
SUMMARY OF RULES
Rule 1a. _A primary mass must be either vertical or horizontal
according to the intended service, unless prohibited by
technical requirements._
Rule 1b. _A primary mass should have the ratio of one to three,
three to four, three to five, five to eight, seven to ten, or
some similar proportion difficult for the eye to readily detect
and analyze._
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. How does the architect first plan his elevations?
2. How should the designer first think of his problem?
3. Define a horizontal primary mass.
4. Define a vertical primary mass.
5. State some desirable ratios to be used in designing the
proportions of the primary mass. Explain.
CHAPTER III
HORIZONTAL MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS
In the second chapter we discussed the nature of the primary mass in its
relation to the intended service or duty it has to perform. It was found
that the demands of service usually cause the primary mass to be
designed with either a strong vertical or horizontal tendency.
[Sidenote: Divisions of the Primary Mass]
It now becomes imperative to carry the designing processes still further
and divide the vertical or horizontal primary mass into parts or
divisions, demanded either by structural requirements or because the
appearance of the object would be materially improved by their presence.
This latter point is sometimes referred to as the aesthetic requirement
of the problem. There are two simple types of divisions, those crossing
the primary mass horizontally and those crossing the primary mass in a
vertical direction. This chapter will be limited to the subject of
horizontal divisions.
[Sidenote: Nature and Need of Horizontal Space Divisions]
If a city purchases a piece of land for park purposes, presumably a
landscape architect is assigned the task of laying out the paths and
drives. He does this by crossing his plan at intervals with lines to
represent paths connecting important points. Under favorable conditions
the architect is free to curve his path to suit his ideas. He has
considerable freedom in selecting his design but the paths or roads must
dip and curve in sympathy with the contour of the land and in accord
with the aesthetic requirements.
While the landscape designer has a broad latitude in his treatment of
land divisions, the industrial designer or architect is restricted, on
the other hand, by the structural requirements of the object and by his
materials. He must cross his spaces or areas by horizontal shelves, or
rails, or bands of metal that hold the structure together. As
architecture is of fundamental importance in industrial design, let us
see what the architect has in mind in designing a structure.
[Illustration: STEPS ILLUSTRATING THE DEVELOPMENT OF HORIZONTAL
SPACE DIVISIONS FROM PRIMARY MASS TO THE STRUCTURE
PLATE 6]
[Sidenote: Architectural Horizontal Divisions]
The architect has the surface of the ground with which to start. This
gives him a horizontal line as the base of his building. He considers it
of major importance in his design. We find him crossing the front of his
building with horizontal moulding or long bands of colored brick,
paralleling the base line and otherwise interestingly dividing the
vertical face of the front and sides. His guide is the bottom line of
his primary mass or the line of the ground which binds the different
parts of the building into a single unit. It can be readily seen that if
he shifted the position of his mouldings up or down with the freedom of
the landscape architect in locating his roads, he would not be planning
his horizontal divisions in sympathy with the structural requirements of
his primary mass.
These horizontal divisions or lines have a tendency to give apparent
added length to an object. Thus by their judicious use a designer may
make a building or room look longer than it really is.
Let us now turn to the simpler objects with which we may be more
directly concerned. The piano bench has horizontal lines crossing it,
giving an effect quite similar to that of horizontal mouldings crossing
a building. There may also be ornamental inlaid lines crossing the bench
and intended to beautify the design, but it is to be remembered that at
present we are considering the _structural divisions_ only.
[Sidenote: Designing Objects with Horizontal Divisions]
Plate 6 represents a concrete example of the methods to be used in
designing the horizontal divisions of a piano bench. The steps may be
divided as follows:
(_a_) The height of a piano bench may be determined either from
measurement of a similar bench or from one of the books on furniture
design now on the market. The scale of one inch or one and one-half
inches to the foot may be adopted. Two horizontal lines should be drawn,
one for the bottom and one for the top of the bench. The distance
between these lines we will arbitrarily fix at twenty inches.
(_b_) Many objects are designed within rectangles which enclose their
main or over-all proportions. With this in view, and keeping in mind the
width of the bench necessary to the accommodation of two players and the
requirements of a well proportioned primary mass (Rule 1b), the lines
are now drawn completing the rectangular boundaries of the primary
mass. The limitations of service and the restrictions of good designing
give the width of the primary mass so designed as three feet and two
inches, with a ratio of height to length of five to eight and one-half.
It is simpler to design first the most prominent face of the object to
be followed by other views later in the designing process.
[Illustration: APPLIED AND CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN
PRINCIPLE 1: A. PROPORTIONS OF THE SINGLE PRIMARY MASS WITH DOMINANCE OF
THE HORIZONTAL DIVISION
PRINCIPLE 2: A. RELATION OF HORIZONTAL SUBDIVISIONS
PROBLEM: HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS CLASSES 1 2 3
PLATE 7]
[Sidenote: Designing Objects with Horizontal Divisions--(_Continued_)]
(_c_) By observing benches similar to the one being designed it will be
seen that the horizontal divisions will take the form of a rail and a
shelf, making two crossings of the primary mass dividing it into three
horizontal spaces. Several trial arrangements of these structural
elements are now made with the thought of making them conform to the
rule governing three horizontal spaces. Rule 2b. We shall later discuss
this rule and its applications fully.
(_d_) By selecting the best sketch of many which the designer will make
he has the basis for the application of Rule 2b for the structural
elements. The project now begins to take on concrete form. The top board
may project slightly beyond the primary mass without materially
affecting the value of the designed proportions.
[Sidenote: Value of a Full Size Drawing]
(_e_) The last step is the designing of the side view in relation to the
front view. This enables the designer to comprehend the project as a
whole. It is strongly urged that the final or shop drawing be of full
size. In more elaborate designs the finer proportions are lost in the
process of enlargement from a small sketch, often hurriedly executed in
the shop. Again much time is lost by necessary enlargement, whereas a
full size curved detail may be quickly transferred to wood by carbon
paper or by holes pricked in the paper. It is not expensive or difficult
to execute full size drawings; it is in accord with shop practice and
the custom should be encouraged and followed on all possible occasions.
See Figure 102a.
The process of designing round objects is identical to that just
described as illustrated by the low round bowl in Plate 7. It should be
designed in a rectangle of accepted proportions. Rule 1b. The primary
mass may have excellent proportions and yet the vase or bowl may remain
devoid of interest. It may be commonplace.
[Illustration: HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS IN WOOD
PLATE 8]
As will shortly be shown, the rules governing horizontal divisions serve
as a check on the commonplace. A horizontal division generally marks the
point where the outward swell of the vase contour reaches its maximum
width. If this widest point in the primary mass (X-Plate 7) is
pleasingly located between the top and bottom of a vase form the contour
will be found satisfactory.
[Sidenote: Architectural Precedent for Horizontal Divisions]
It is possible to continue _ad infinitum_ with these illustrations but
horizontal space divisions are nearly always present in some form, due
to structural necessity or aesthetic requirements. It is an easy matter
to say that these lines must divide the primary mass into "interesting"
spaces, well related to each other, or "pleasingly located," but the
designer must have some definite yet flexible rule to govern his work.
From the analysis of many famous historic buildings and well designed
industrial projects it has been found that all horizontal masses may be
analyzed as dividing the primary mass into either _two_ or _three_
divisions or spaces, regardless of the complexity of the project.
ANALYSIS OF HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS
[Sidenote: Two Horizontal Space Divisions]
Rule 2a. _If the primary mass is divided into two horizontal divisions,
the dominance should be either in the upper or the lower section._ Plate
7 shows this division of the primary mass--the simplest division of the
space. A space divided just half way from top to bottom would be
monotonous and expressive of the ratio of one to one. This arrangement
as we have already discovered in the second chapter is not conducive to
good design.
By the stated rule, 2a, the varied adjustment of this double horizontal
division affords all possible latitude for constructive purposes. It is
better to place the division in such a manner that the upper division
(or lower) will not appear pinched or dwarfed by comparison with the
remaining area. Thus a ratio of one to three, or three to five, or five
to eight is better than a ratio of one to one or one to eighteen, but
there is no exact or arbitrary ruling on this point.
[Sidenote: Two Horizontal Divisions in Wood]
Figure 8 illustrates two horizontal divisions in wood construction and
also the freedom of choice as to exact proportions. The eye will be
found a good judge of the proper spacings subject to the limitations
already mentioned.
[Illustration: HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS IN CLAY
PLATE 9]
It is best to keep the design within the limits of two horizontal
space divisions in designing cylindrical clay forms, particularly in the
elementary exercises. Enough variety will be found to make pleasing
arrangements, and the technical results obtained by two divisions are
much better than those obtained from a greater number of divisions.
[Sidenote: Two Horizontal Divisions in Clay]
Figures 14, 15, and 16, Plate 9, are clay forms with the dominance
placed in either the upper or lower portion of the primary mass. Figure
13 has been used to illustrate the fact that horizontal space division
principles are applicable to any material. The horizontal divisions in
Figure 13 are due to structural needs. A horizontal line carries this
division across to Figure 14, a clay vase. The horizontal division line
now becomes the one which marks the widest part of the vase. It gives
the same relation between the top and bottom horizontal spaces as in
Figure 13. It marks an aesthetic point in the design of the vase, or a
variation of the contour, introduced by reason of its effect upon the
beauty of the vase, not called for by the needs of actual service.
A musical composition is often played in an orchestra first by the wood
instruments, taken up and repeated by the brasses, then by the strings,
and finally played as an harmonious whole by the entire orchestra. There
is a close parallel in Figure 12, an adaptation of one of Gustav
Stickley's designs. The two-division rule is used in the relations of
the plaster and wainscoting; again in the plaster over, and the cement
or tile around the fireplace. It is repeated in the arrangement of the
copper and cement of the fireplace facing and hood and in the door
panels. By repeating again and again similar space divisions the wall
space becomes a unified and harmonious whole. Variety is secured by the
introduction of three horizontal divisions in the details of the
wainscoting. This method of repeating similar space divisions is called
"echoing" and is one of the most effective means known for securing the
effect of _unity_.
[Sidenote: Two Horizontal Divisions in Metal]
The horizontal subdivisions in metal are usually made for service.
Figures 17, 18, and 19, Plate 10, are examples of such divisions. The
location of the clock face in Figure 18 calls for the placing of its
horizontal axis in accordance with Rule 2a. The lamp in Figure 19 shows
an instance where the entire design once divided by Rule 2a, may be
again subdivided into a similar series of divisions. This arrangement
is quite similar to the system of repetitions seen in Figure 12 and
termed "echoing" the original divisions.
[Illustration: HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS IN METAL
PLATE 10]
[Sidenote: Three Horizontal Space Divisions]
Rule 2b. _If the primary mass is divided into three horizontal divisions
or sections, the dominance should be placed in the center section with
varying widths in the upper and lower thirds._
When it becomes necessary to divide the primary mass into more than two
sections the designer's problem becomes more difficult. With the
addition of a greater number of horizontal divisions there is a manifest
tendency for the design to become cut up into so many small sections
that the simplicity of the whole mass is lost. Here, as elsewhere, that
principle which we call _unity_ or the quality of "holding together" is
necessary and should be the constant test of the design. The instant any
part of the design seems to fly apart from the main mass it becomes the
designer's duty to simplify the design or pull the parts together and
thus restore the lost unity.
As a restriction against loss of unity it is necessary to group all of
the minor horizontal divisions into a system of two or three large
horizontal divisions. Referring to Rule 2b, it is seen that when three
divisions are used, it becomes the practice to accentuate the center
section by making it larger. This arrangement is designed to give weight
to the center portion and by this big stable division to hold the other
subdivisions together and in unity.
[Sidenote: Three Horizontal Divisions in Wood]
Two horizontal masses and one vertical mass shown in Figures 9, 10, and
11, Plate 8, illustrate the application of this three-division rule to
wood construction. It is seen that the construction of rails, doors, and
shelves is responsible for the fixing of all of these divisions. It may
also be seen that three divisions are applicable to either the vertical
or the horizontal primary mass. Figure 10 illustrates the violation of
this type of spacing at the point _A_, where the shelves are no more
pleasingly arranged than the rounds of a ladder. Later on we shall be
able to rearrange these shelves in a pleasing manner but at present it
is better to relieve the monotony by omitting the center shelf. This
applies the three division rule to the satisfactory appearance of the
desk at _B_.
Similar monotony in spacing is seen in the screen, Figure 11. The
correction in _B_ appeals at once as a far more satisfactory arrangement
than that secured by placing the cross bar half way up as in _A_. There
are no infallible rules for this readjustment beyond those already
stated. The eye must in part be depended upon to guide the artistic
sense aright.
[Sidenote: Three Horizontal Divisions in Clay]
It is suggested that it is desirable to keep clay forms within the
limitations of two divisions. Rectangular posts, pedestals, and other
vertical forms in cement may be developed by the application of Rule 2a
or 2b, if care is taken to group all minor divisions well within the
limitations of these rules.
[Sidenote: Three Horizontal Divisions in Metal]
The statement just made in reference to simplified groupings is
illustrated in the candlestick and cup in Figures 20 and 21, Plate 10.
The construction based upon the three functions performed by the cup,
the handle, and the base, suggests the use of these horizontal
divisions. The minor curves have been subordinated to, and kept within,
these three divisions. The final result gives a distinct feeling of
unity impossible under a more complex grouping. The Greek column will
afford an architectural illustration of a similar grouping system.
The lathe bed of Figure 22 shows one of innumerable examples of space
violations in the industrial arts. A slight lowering of the cross brace
would add materially to the appearance and strength of the casting.
Figure 23 is a copper box with the following more or less common faults
of design: commonplace ratio of length and width (2:1) partially
counteracted, however, by a more pleasing ratio of the vertical
dimension, equal spacing in the width of cover of box and box body, and
equal spacing of the hinges of the box from the ends of the box and from
each other. By applying the two and three horizontal division rules
these errors may be avoided.
[Sidenote: Freehand Curves]
Figure 24 shows a low bowl with a compass curve used in designing the
contour. This has brought the widest part of the design in the exact
center of the bowl which makes it commonplace. In addition to this the
top and bottom are of the same width, lacking variety in this respect.
Correction is readily made by applying a freehand curve to the contour,
raising or lowering the widest point (_F_), at the same time designing
the bottom either larger or smaller than the top.
INSTRUCTION SHEET
Plate 7 is a sheet suggestive of the application of Rules 1a,
1b, 2a, and 2b, with an indication of the type of problem to be
required. The steps of the designing processes in either wood
(class 1), clay (class 2), or metal (class 3), are summarized
as follows:
SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS
(_a_) Construction of the rectangle representing the vertical
or horizontal character of the primary mass with desirable
proportions. It is better to select a typical view (Plate 6,
_D_), preferably a front elevation.
(_b_) Subdivide this rectangle into two or three structural
sections; horizontal in character. Make two or three trial
freehand sketches for varied proportions and select the most
pleasing one in accordance with Rules 1a, 1b, 2a, and 2b.
(_c_) Translate the selected sketch to a full size mechanical
drawing or at least to a reasonably large scale drawing. The
structural elements: _i.e._, legs, rails, posts, etc., should
be added and other additional views made.
(_d_) Dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop
purposes.
(_e_) Construct the project.
SUGGESTED PROBLEMS
Design a nasturtium bowl, applying Rules 1a, 1b, 2a. Design a
writing table 2 feet 6 inches high with three horizontal
divisions.
SUMMARY OF RULES
Rule 2a. _If the primary mass is divided into two horizontal
divisions, the dominance should be either in the upper or the
lower section._
Rule 2b. _If the primary mass is divided into three horizontal
divisions or sections, the dominance should be placed in the
center section with varying widths in the upper and lower
thirds._
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. State two methods of subdividing the primary mass.
2. Define the nature and need of horizontal space divisions.
3. Give five steps to be used in designing a foot stool or
piano bench.
4. What point constitutes a horizontal division in the contour
of a simple clay bowl?
5. State the rule governing two horizontal space divisions and
furnish illustrations in wood, clay, and metal.
6. Give the rule governing three horizontal space divisions and
supply illustrations in wood, clay, and metal.
7. State five steps in the designing of a project in the
industrial arts involving the use of horizontal structural
divisions.
[Illustration: APPLIED AND CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN
PRINCIPLE 3: VERTICAL SPACE DIVISIONS OF THE SINGLE H OR V PRIMARY MASS.
PROBLEM: VERTICAL SUB DIVISIONS IN CLASSES 1 2 3. THEY ARE USED TO BREAK
OR VARY LARGE AREAS OF HORIZONTAL OR VERTICAL MASSES.
PLATE 11]
Chapter IV
VERTICAL MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS
[Sidenote: Nature and Need of Vertical Space Division]
The design of the primary mass has now been considered under Rules 1a
and 1b, and its horizontal divisions under Rules 2a and 2b. The next
logical step is the consideration of the nature of the lines that cross
the primary mass in a vertical direction. In the original planning of
the primary mass it was found that the horizontal bounding lines and the
horizontal divisions were parallel to the base line of an object and
that the base line was necessary to ensure stability. Vertical lines are
necessary and equally important to give the needed vertical support to
an object.
So accustomed is the eye to vertical lines in tree trunks, tall
buildings, and thousands of other examples that the upward eye movement
in viewing an object, having a predominance of vertical elements,
seemingly adds to its height.
The designer thus has a most useful device with which to increase the
apparent height of an object that, for structural or other reasons, must
in reality not have great height. Chapter III drew attention to the
influence of horizontal lines on a project. Vertical lines on an object
are found to produce an analogous effect vertically.
[Sidenote: Architectural Precedent for Vertical Divisions]
Gothic cathedral builders used the vertical line, repeated again and
again in buttresses, pinnacles, and spires to give great apparent height
to a building and to make it a unified vertical mass of great beauty.
The modern church spire, together with the long, vertical interior
columns, similarly affects our present day church edifices.
[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF VERTICAL SPACE DIVISIONS IN CLASS 1 (WOOD).
THE DIVISIONS OF THIS CLASS ARE GENERALLY BASED UPON THE STRUCTURAL
REQUIREMENTS.
PLATE 12]
This idea of repeating the vertical bounding lines of the primary mass
by cutting the mass into vertical spaces is also useful in breaking up
or destroying the monotony of large unbroken surfaces. Pilasters may cut
the front of a building into interesting spaces; piers may break up the
regularity of a long fence; legs and panels may, each for the same
purpose, cross a cabinet. While some of these may be structurally
necessary and some not, they are all witnesses to the desire to produce
beauty in design. As these examples are so numerous in the industrial
arts, it is well to study in detail their proper adaptation to our
needs.
[Sidenote: One Vertical Space Division]
Upon analyzing one vertical space division, it will be found to be a
primary mass, vertical in character and governed by Rule 1a. Figure 25,
Plate 12, illustrates one vertical division. The foot is an appendage to
be considered in Chapter V.
[Sidenote: Two Vertical Space Divisions]
Rule 3a. _If the primary mass is divided into two vertical divisions,
the divisions should be equal in area and similar in form._ Exception
may be made in case of structural requirements. By imagining two
adjacent doors of equal size, the design effect of two vertical
divisions may be made clear. Plate 11 illustrates a rectangle (_A_)
divided in this manner, preliminary to the development of a problem.
Figure 27, Plate 12, represents the type of object to which the
exception to the rule may be applied. In the design of this desk, the
structure practically prohibits two equal vertical divisions,
necessitating an unequal division in the section occupied by the
drawers.
In Plate 12, Figure 26, the designer had his vertical spacings dictated
by service in the form of two doors. As service demands a tall vertical
primary mass, it is but natural to design the doors to conform with the
primary mass. This gives a monotonously long space for the glass panels
and suggests structural weakness. To relieve this the designer applied
Rule 2a and crossed the vertical panels by horizontal subdivisions,
relieving the monotony and still retaining the unity of the primary
mass.
[Sidenote: Two Vertical Divisions in Wood]
In Figure 27 his problem was a variation of that presented in Figure 26.
Structural limitations called for unequal divisions of the vertical
space arrangement. The left portion of the desk becomes dominant as
demanded by service. The drawer or brace is necessary in this design as
it acts as a sort of link, binding the two vertical legs together. The
omission of the drawer would destroy the unity of the mass.
[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF VERTICAL SPACE DIVISIONS IN CLASS 2. CLAY AND
CEMENT.
PLATE 13]
[Sidenote: Two Vertical Divisions in Clay]
As vertical space divisions are principally applicable to rectilinear or
flat objects and moreover as it is in such forms only that they have
structural value, they are not commonly met in cylindrical pottery ware.
Vertical divisions are, however, occasionally used in architectural
tiles and other flat wall objects. As three divisions are much more
commonly used in clay and cement, this material will now be left for
later consideration in this chapter.
[Sidenote: Vertical Divisions in Metal]
Vertical spacings in metal are quite similar to space divisions in wood.
Wrought iron fences are, by reason of structural limitations composed of
vertical and horizontal lines, varied by the introduction of piers and
curved members. As they are typical of a certain branch of iron
construction, two designs of the Anchor Post Iron Company have been
introduced. Figure 32, Plate 14, represents two equal vertical divisions
made so because of structural and aesthetic demands. The piers in this
instance form a part of the general design of the entire gate and must
be considered accordingly.
The vertical subdivision in Figure 32, Plate 14, has been repeated or
echoed by the long vertical bars, alternating with the shorter ones and
producing pleasing variety. The horizontal divisions are designed
according to Rule 2b. In designing the newel lantern in Figure 34 the
designer was required to form a vertical primary mass to conform with
the similar mass of the post. This he determined to subdivide vertically
in practically the same manner as the cabinet in Figure 26. Threatened
with the same monotony he met the situation by subdividing the vertical
sections into three horizontal divisions in accordance with Rule 2b. The
structural supports, however, rising up in the center of this mass,
destroy its unity. They would have carried out the lines of the
structure of the newel post and continued the lines of the lantern
better, if they had been attached to the corners rather than to the
sides of the newel post.
[Sidenote: Three Vertical Space Divisions]
Rule 3b. _If the primary mass is divided into three vertical divisions,
the center division should be the larger, with the remaining divisions
of equal size._ A large building with a wing on either side will give an
idea of this form of spacing. The size of the main building holds the
wings to it, thus preserving the unity of the structure, while equal
divisions on either side give balance. Plate 11 (_B_) gives an example
of a rectangle divided in this manner. This three-division motive is a
very old one. In the middle ages painters and designers used three
divisions or a triptych, as it is called, in their altar decorations. A
painting of the Virgin was usually placed in the center division with a
saint in each of the remaining panels to the right and left. Designers
and mural decorators have been using the triptych ever since that
period.
[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF TWO AND THREE VERTICAL SUBDIVISIONS IN CLASS
3 (METAL).
PLATE 14]
[Sidenote: Three Vertical Divisions in Wood]
The desk in Figure 28, Plate 12, is a good example of the three-vertical
space rule. The drawer in the center forms the mid or dominant section
and by its greater length holds the two smaller sections together. This
design is better than Figure 27, which has a similar mass. The prominent
vertical lines in Figure 27 counteract and destroy the effect of the
long horizontal dominant lines of the table top, whereas in Figure 28,
the vertical lines in the center of the design are so short that they do
not interfere with the horizontal lines of the table top. Figure 28
supports the horizontal tendency of the primary mass while Figure 27
neutralizes or practically destroys its character.
[Sidenote: Three Vertical Divisions in Clay and Cement]
Figure 30, Plate 13, represents an overmantle by the Rookwood Potteries.
It is typical of a class of overmantles which may be developed in tiles
or in cement, forming an agreeable contrast with the brick of a large
fireplace. The three divisions or triptych should be proportionately
related to the opening of the fireplace and to the enclosing mass of
brick or wood work. We will consider Figure 29 to show how this may be
carried out.
Figure 29 bears a strong resemblance to Figure 12, Plate 9, and is an
elaboration of a simple three-division theme of spacing. The design
seems to be complex until it is analyzed into two rules. The primary
mass of the entire fireplace motive (including the surrounding
panelling) has first been planned with strong and prominent horizontal
lines. This was then divided vertically (_A_) to conform with Rule 3b,
the three-division theme, giving the divisions for the bookcases and
mantle. The horizontal divisions (_B_) were then constructed within the
remaining space, affecting the distance from the picture moulding to the
mantle and from the mantle to the floor line, in accordance with Rule
2a. That left the space of the width of the cement work (_C_) to be
subdivided again by Rule 3b, while the top of the wainscoting panels
re-echoed the previous horizontal divisions of Rule 2a. The fireplace
opening merely carries out at _D_ the same proportionate relation that
dominates all vertical divisions, Rule 3b, while the wainscoting follows
the general horizontal divisions of Rule 2a. By this method we have
variety in spacing and unity through repetition of similar proportions.
[Illustration: THE EVOLUTION OF A DESIGN INVOLVING THE USE OF TWO
HORIZONTAL AND THREE VERTICAL SUBDIVISIONS
PLATE 15]
The cement bench, Figure 31, has a three-division arrangement to break
up the monotony of the long rail, and at the same time to repeat the
characteristics of a horizontal primary mass.
[Sidenote: Three Vertical Divisions in Metal]
Figure 33, Plate 14, is a common example of three vertical divisions in
metal suggested by the needs of service. Figures 35 and 36 are thin
metal problems. The familiar pen tray is primarily a horizontal mass, so
determined by its required service as a pen holder. The projecting
handles form the outer divisions, and the spacing motive, Rule 3b, has
been repeated in the raised projection, decorating the handles. The book
rack in Figure 36 is an example of the manner in which a nearly square
mass, so designed for structural reasons, may, by Rules 3b and 2a, be
broken into a fairly pleasing arrangement of divisions.
[Sidenote: More Than Three Divisions]
Rule 3c. _In elementary problems, if more than three vertical divisions
are required, they should be so grouped as to analyze into Rules 3a and
3b, or be exactly similar._ The eye becomes confused by a multitude of
vertical divisions and it is much better designing to keep them within
the number stated in this chapter. There are instances, however, when
this is impossible. Under such conditions the following treatment should
be adopted:
Unless, as stated, a large number of vertical divisions may be grouped
into two or three vertical divisions it is better to make all of the
divisions of the same size. This does not fatigue the eye as much as
would the introduction of a number of complex spacings. This solution
enables the amateur designer to deal with complex problems with an
assurance of securing a degree of unity.
INSTRUCTION SHEET
Plate 15 is practically self-explanatory and shows the order in
which the various divisions, so far considered, are to be
introduced into the design together with the grouping of
details within those divisions. Figure D introduces the
additional element termed the appendage to be considered in
Chapter V.
SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS
(_a_) Construction of the rectangle representing the vertical
or horizontal character of the primary mass with desirable
proportions. Select the most prominent surface for this
rectangle, preferably the front elevation.
(_b_) Subdivide this rectangle into two or three structural
sections, horizontal and vertical in character. Make two or
three trial freehand sketches on cross section paper for varied
proportions and select the most pleasing in accordance with
rules.
(_c_) Translate the selected sketch into a scale or full size
drawing and add additional views to complete the requirements
of a working drawing. Add additional structural elements: legs,
rails, etc.
(_d_) For shop purposes, enlarge a scale drawing to full size,
dimension and otherwise prepare it for actual use. See Figure
102a, page 68, for character of this change.
(_e_) Construct the project.
SUGGESTED PROBLEMS
Design a fire screen with two horizontal and three vertical
major subdivisions.
Design a bookcase 4 feet 2 inches high with three horizontal
and two vertical major subdivisions.
SUMMARY OF RULES
Rule 3a. _If the primary mass is divided into two vertical
divisions, the divisions should be equal in area and similar in
form._
Rule 3b. _If the primary mass is divided into three vertical
divisions, the center division should be the larger, with the
remaining divisions of equal size._
Rule 3c. _In elementary problems, if more than three vertical
divisions are required, they should be so grouped as to analyze
into Rules 3a and 3b, or be exactly similar._
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the nature and need of vertical space divisions?
2. State the rule governing the use of two vertical space
divisions and give illustrations in wood, clay, and metal.
3. Give the rule relating to the use of three vertical space
divisions and furnish illustrations in wood, clay, and metal.
4. What is the treatment of more than three vertical divisions?
Why?
Chapter V
APPENDAGES AND RULES GOVERNING THEM
[Sidenote: Use of the Appendage]
An appendage is a member added to the primary mass for utilitarian
purposes. In the industrial arts, when an appendage is added merely for
the purpose of decoration, it is as useless and functionless as the
human appendix and, as a source of discord, should be removed.
An appendage in industrial arts may be, among other things, a plate
rail, bracket, spout, cover, or handle, all of which are capable of
service either for or with the primary mass. In architecture it may be a
wing or ell added to the mass of the building. Simple as its design may
seem, it is often so placed in relation to the main or primary mass that
it does not seem to "fit" or to be in unity with that mass.
[Sidenote: Designing an Appendage]
Rule 4a. _The appendage should be designed in unity with, and
proportionately related to, the vertical or horizontal character of the
primary mass, but subordinated to it._
Rule 4b. _The appendage should have the appearance of flowing smoothly
and, if possible, tangentially from the primary mass._
Rule 4c. _The appendage should, if possible, echo or repeat some lines
similar in character and direction to those of the primary mass._
[Sidenote: Violations of Appendage Design]
All of the foregoing rules are intended to promote the sense of unity
between the primary mass and its appendages. If a mirror on a dresser
looks top-heavy it is generally due to the fact that it has not been
subordinated in size to the primary mass. Rule 4a. If the handle
projects from the primary mass of an object similar to the handle on a
pump, it has not been designed in accordance with Rules 4b and 4c.
Again, if the appendage projects from a primary mass like a tall chimney
from a long flat building, it has violated Rule 4a and has not been
proportionately related to the character of the vertical or horizontal
proportions of the primary mass.
[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF APPENDAGES IN CLASS 1 (WOOD) ADDED TO THE
PRIMARY MASS FOR UTILITARIAN PURPOSES. THEY SHOULD ALWAYS BE RELATED
TO THE PRIMARY MASS BY TANGENTS, PARALLELS OR BOTH.
PLATE 16]
It should be readily seen that if the primary mass has one dominant
proportion while the appendage has another, there will be a serious
clash and the final result will be the neutralization of both motives,
resulting in either an insipid and characterless design or a downright
lack of unity.
[Sidenote: Appendages in Wood]
The design of the small dressing table, Figure 37, Plate 16, with the
mirror classing as an appendage, is an excellent illustration of Rule
4a. The main mass of the table is vertical in character and the mirror
carries out or repeats the character of the primary mass by having a
similar but subordinate vertical mass. In this instance it is so large
that it has nearly the effect of a second primary mass.
As tangential junctions are difficult to arrange in wood construction
and particularly in furniture, the break between the table top and the
mirror has been softened by the introduction of a bracket or connecting
link. The curves of the link cause the eye to move freely from the
primary mass to the appendage and thus there is a sense of oneness or
unity between the two masses.
The lantern in Figure 38 becomes an appendage and is subordinated to the
large pedestal or support. The tangential junction has in this case been
fully possible and the eye moves freely from the vertical lines of the
base to the similar vertical mass of the lantern without noticeable
break.
[Sidenote: Unifying Appendage and Primary Mass]
The service of the dressing table, Figure 39, with its three-division
mirror makes the problem of adaptation of the appendage to the mass of
the table, in accordance with the rules, much more difficult. Under the
circumstances, about the best that can be done, at the same time keeping
within the limitations of desired service, is to plan the mirrors in
accordance with Rule 3b, with the dominant section in the center. To
secure an approach to unity, each section of the mirror should echo the
vertical proportion of the primary mass of the table.
The top of the writing stand, in Figure 40, is an example of a
horizontal appendage which repeats the horizontal character of the front
or typical face of the primary mass of the table. The small drawers and
divisions again take up and repeat the horizontal motive of the table,
while the entire appendage may be subdivided under Rule 3b, giving the
dominance to the center portion. The short curves in the appendage all
tend to lead the eye in a satisfactory and smooth transition from one
mass to the other or from the table top to the appendage. The
proportions of the small drawers are similar to the proportions of the
table drawers. Rule 4c. All of these points of similarity bring the
masses into close unity or oneness of appearance.
[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_
FIGURE 41a]
The table legs, in Figure 41, are more difficult to adjust
satisfactorily. The idea of the designer is, however, apparent. The legs
leave the column of the table with a tangential curve and, sweeping out
with a strong curve, repeat the horizontal line of the table top in the
horizontal lines of their bottom surfaces.
[Sidenote: Industrial Applications]
Figure 41a, a modification of Figure 39, shows close unity between the
three divisions of the mirror due to the pleasing curve of the center
section with its tendency to bind the other sections to it. Again, the
echoing of the spacings of the three drawers in the similar spacings of
the three mirrors, makes the bond of unity still closer to the ideal
arrangement. Rule 4c.
Figures 41b and 41c are, in a way, parallel to Figure 41. The eye moves
freely from the feet (appendages) along the smooth and graceful curves
to the tall shaft or column of the primary mass. The turned fillets,
introduced at the junction of the appendage and the primary mass, in
Figure 41c, have a tendency to check this smooth passage making the
arrangement in Figure 41b preferable. The hardware for the costumers is
well chosen and in sympathy with the vertical proportions of the design.
[Sidenote: Appendages in Clay]
With the word "clay" all difficulties in the treatment of appendages
vanish. It is by far the easiest medium for the adaptation of the
appendage to the primary mass. Covers, handles, and spouts are a few of
the more prominent parts falling under this classification.
The process of the designer is to create the primary rectangle,
subdivide it into two horizontal subdivisions in accordance with Rule
2a, and proceed to add the desired number of appendages. The result may
be suggested by the following illustrations. In Figure 43, Plate 17, the
cover is a continuation of the curve of the top of the bowl, Rule 4a;
the tops of the handles are continuations of the horizontal line in the
top contour of the bowl, while the lower portions of the handles seem to
spring or grow from the lower part of the bowl with a tangential curve.
[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_
FIGURE 41b
FIGURE 41c]
[Sidenote: Covers, Spouts, and Handles]
Figure 44 is a horizontal primary mass with the horizontal subdivision
in the upper section of that mass. The spout and handle spring naturally
from the body and balance each other in proportion, while the cover
handle rises smoothly from the primary mass. The horizontal character of
the primary mass is consistently carried out in the appendages.
The handle, in Figure 45, leaving the body at a tangent, rises with a
long straight curve to turn suddenly and join the pitcher in harmony
with its top. The apparent abruptness of the junction is softened by the
rounded corners typical of clay construction.
The Rookwood set, Figure 42, represents three similar primary masses.
The proportionate ratios and the horizontal subdivisions are the same
throughout. The handle for the teapot has been curved in the center to
give variety to the handle. This variation is a difficult thing to
manage without consequent loss of unity as by this variation Rule 4a is
violated. One thing may be said in its favor. It brings the hand closer
to the spout and thus supports the pouring weight. But the unusual in
design is to be discouraged until sufficient skill in simple designing
has been acquired.
In designing handle appendages for clay, they should be so placed that
they readily control the weight of the material in the container and
afford room for the fingers. Thus, it is better to have the larger
portion of the handle opening at the top of the primary mass. The spout
in all instances should continue sufficiently high to allow the
container to be filled to its full capacity without danger of the
contents running out of the spout. The glaze runs into rounded corners
much more freely than into square ones, hence it is preferable to use
rounded corners wherever possible.
[Sidenote: Requirements for Appendage Design]
It is the unexpected curve that is welcome in all designing, provided it
supports the structure and conforms to established rules. After
completing a design involving appendages it should be checked from three
points of view; (1) service, (2) unity between the primary mass and the
appendages, and (3) variety of curvature. On this last point it is
needless to say that compass curves are not desirable except in rounding
small corners or in using fillets. It is well known that compass curves
are difficult to assimilate into pleasing tangential effects. They are
inclined to be monotonous and regular with a "made by the thousand"
appearance to them. One should trust to freehand sweeps, drawn freely
with a full arm movement when possible. All curves should spring
naturally from the primary mass. Blackboard drawing is excellent
practice for the muscles used in this type of designing. In a short time
it will be found possible to produce the useful long, rather flat curve
with its sudden turn (the curve of force) that will make the compass
curve tame and commonplace by comparison.
[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF APPENDAGES IN CLASS 2 (POTTERY) ADDED TO THE
PRIMARY MASS FOR UTILITARIAN PURPOSES. THE PLASTICITY OF CLAY ALLOWS A
PERFECT TANGENTIAL UNION WITH THE BODY
PLATE 17]
[Sidenote: Freehand Curves]
[Sidenote: Appendages in Metal]
Figures 55, 56, and 57, Plate 18, show the close bond between the
appearance of the appendage in clay, and the one in metal. While it is
technically more difficult to adapt metal to the rules governing
appendages than is the case with clay, the final results are, in most
instances, equally pleasing to the eye.
In most of the figures showing examples in metal, the appendages have to
be secured to the primary mass by screws, rivets, or solder, whereas in
clay they may be moulded _into_ the primary mass. This tends to secure a
more unified appearance; but in metal, the junction of the handle and
the primary mass is often made a decorative feature of the design and
gives added interest and variety to the project.
The simple primary mass, Figure 58, has a horizontal space division in
the lower portion of the mass. This point of variation of the contour
has been used in the primary masses in Figures 55, 56, and 57, also as
the starting point of that dominant appendage, the handle. Springing
tangentially from the body, it rises in a straight line of extreme value
in service, then with a slight turn it parallels and joins the top of
the bowl, thus fulfilling the design functions of an appendage from both
points of service and beauty. The spout and lid, Figure 55, may be
likewise analyzed.
[Sidenote: Tangential Junctions]
The points of tangency, in Figure 54, become a decorative feature of the
design. The handles in the parts of the fire set, Figures 48 and 49,
offer different problems. It is difficult to analyze the latter figures
to determine the appendages as they are in such thorough unity with the
handles and are practically subdivisions of the primary mass. But
referring to the rule stating the fact that the appendages are
subordinated to and attached to the primary mass, it may justly be
stated that the shovel portion of the design may legitimately be
classed as an appendage. This will explain the need of a curve at the
junction points and the feature of the decorative twists in Figure 49.
Both designs may be analyzed into three horizontal divisions.
[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF APPENDAGES IN CLASS 3. METAL ... SEE
"A" ... NOTE THE TANGENTIAL RELATION BETWEEN THE APPENDAGE AND PRIMARY
MASS AT "T"
PLATE 18]
[Sidenote: Andiron Design]
The andirons, Figures 50 to 53, illustrate interesting transitions in
wrought iron from the primary mass to the appendage. The vertical shaft
of wrought iron has been treated as a primary mass while the feet may be
classed as appendages. In Figure 50 we have an example of a frankly
square junction point. Figure 51 discloses a weld with rounded corners,
forming a more pleasing junction than does the abrupt angle of Figure
50. This conforms to Rule 4b. The appendage legs echo or repeat the
vertical lines of the primary mass and there is consequently a sense of
unity between them.
In Figure 52 the appendage foot is curved, and the primary mass has a
similar curve on the top of the vertical column to apply Rule 4c to
repeat the curve. The small links at _X_ indicate an attempt to make the
junction point more pleasing to the eye, but the link is too large to
accomplish the desired result successfully. In Figure 53 the links have
been materially reduced in size and in the amount of curvature. In this
example the eye goes unhampered from appendage to primary or back again,
without perceptible interruption and the unity of the mass, seriously
threatened in Figure 52, is restored in Figure 53.
In Figure 46 there is an example of a link becoming large enough to be
classed as an appendage connecting two primary masses, _e.g._, the
lantern and the wall. Under these conditions, one end of the appendage
harmonizes with the lantern and the other end with the wall. Figure 47
shows a cast brass candlestick which is an excellent example, from the
Studio, of tangential junction.
[Sidenote: Influence of Tools and Materials]
Clay may readily stand as the most adaptable material for appendages,
with metal ranking second, and wood third. The grain of wood seems to
interfere with the tangential junction of the appendage and primary
mass. Appendages of wood are, however, quite necessary at times. Their
use is merely a matter of lessening the contrast of conflicting lines in
an addition of this nature.
The band and bracket saws are required in many instances to construct
the connecting link between opposing masses of wood.
[Illustration: APPLIED AND CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN
PRINCIPLE 4. RELATION OF PRIMARY MASS TO APPENDAGES
PROBLEM: APPLICATION TO CLASSES 2 AND 3
PLATE 19]
[Sidenote: Influence of Tools and Materials (_Continued_)]
Hand building or casting is the means used to construct the appendages
in plastic materials. Appendages in cement are seen in the uprights for
cement seats and are generally translated into the primary mass by means
of mouldings or curves.
Forging or thin and raised metal construction affords many examples of
the adaptability of material in constructing appendages. Rivets form
decorative features at the junction points and should be placed with
great care and relation to the decoration and the point of tangency.
INSTRUCTION SHEET FOR CLASS PRESENTATION
The typical views to be used in classroom work, with the
ordinary range of problems, are shown on Plate 19. These
typical views should be supplemented by dimensions, cross
sections, and other views whenever necessary. Wood construction
has been omitted from this sheet, but its development in design
is quite similar to the steps indicated in the summary.
SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS
(_a_) Draw the primary rectangle.
(_b_) Subdivide the rectangle into two or three horizontal and,
if necessary, vertical divisions.
(_c_) Estimate the dimensions of the appendage necessary to
perform the desired service in the best manner.
(_d_) If the appendage is a handle, place it in such a position
that it not only appears to but actually does support the
weight of the primary mass.
(_e_) Complete the contour curves of the primary mass based
upon the horizontal division which acts as a unit of
measurement or a turning point.
(_f_) Join the appendages to the primary mass by means of
tangential curves.
(_g_) Establish unity between the primary mass and the
appendages by applying Rules 4a, 4b, and 4c.
(_h_) Dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use.
See Plate 26.
SUGGESTED PROBLEMS
Design a sugar bowl, cream pitcher, and teapot. Consider them
as different members of one set.
Design a sideboard 3 feet 3 inches high with plate rack, the
design to contain two vertical and two horizontal divisions
exclusive of the appendage.
SUMMARY OF RULES
Rule 4a. _The appendage should be designed in unity with, and
proportionately related to, the vertical or horizontal
character of the primary mass, but subordinated to it._
Rule 4b. _The appendage should have the appearance of flowing
smoothly and, if possible, tangentially from the primary mass._
Rule 4c. _The appendage should, if possible, echo or repeat
some lines similar in character and direction to those of the
primary mass._
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. State the nature and use of the appendage.
2. What is the relation of the size of the appendage to the
size of the primary mass?
3. How should the appendage be attached to the primary mass?
4. How does Rule 4c help to secure unity between the appendage
and the primary mass?
5. Are compass curves permissible in appendage design?
6. State influence of tools and materials upon appendage
design.