means, "I worshipped the star-spangled firmament first and then my
lover Abhla dabhla Kankuna dabhla [306]--"Ye stars! blind the prowling
thief and seize him if he tries to steal away, and your blessings on
my lord confer!" [307]
The Rohini and Krittika constellations, popularly known as Gadli,
are supposed to indicate the rise and fall in the cotton-market. [308]
The dimmest star of the saptarshi group foretells the death of a
person within six months from the date on which it becomes invisible
to him. [309] Again, if a man cannot perceive the saptarshi or the
galaxy in the sky, it is considered such a bad omen that his end is
believed to be near at hand. [310]
The rainbow is believed to be the bow of Indra, [311] the god of
rains, and is therefore called 'Indra-dhanushya.' We see it when
Indra draws his bow to release the rains from the rakshasas (demons);
[312] or, when successful in bringing down rain, Indra manifests his
glory by drawing a bow; [313] or when in the struggle for supremacy
between Summer and the rainy season, Indra draws his bow to defeat
Summer. [314]
It is also believed that when Ramachandra, the hero of the Ramayana,
adjusted an arrow to the bow of Shiva, to compete for the hand of
Sita in the swayamvara (or maiden's-choice marriage) celebrated by
her, the bow was split into three pieces, which ever since present
themselves as rainbows in the sky. [315]
The rainbow is popularly regarded as an indication of good or bad
rainfall according as it appears at particular hours and in particular
directions. If a rainbow appears in the east a speedy rainfall is
expected; if on the other hand it is seen in the west, rainfall is
apprehended to be distant. [316] Some people, however, believe the
contrary, i.e., they regard the appearance of a rainbow in the west
as an indication of good rains, and in the east as a sign of scarce
rainfall. [317] Perhaps both ideas are reconciled by a third belief
according to which the appearance of a rainbow in a direction facing
the sun, indicates the proximity of rain. [318]
If a rainbow is seen at sunset or sunrise just before the commencement
of rain the fall of rain will be excessive; but if it appears after
rainfall, the rain will probably cease. [319] According to some persons
the appearance of a rainbow in the morning portends a drought. [320]
There is, however, a popular saying to the effect that were the kachbi,
i.e., the rainbow, to be seen at sunrise in the west, it foretells
great floods before nightfall.
The sight of a rainbow is sometimes regarded as a bad omen. Some
believe that it shortens a man's life and brings misfortunes to
him. Others believe that it is calamitous to a man's relations
by marriage, especially to the mother-in-law, who is sure to lose
her power of hearing. [321] People sometimes clash earthen vessels
against one another to avert the evils which are to be feared from a
rainbow. [322] It is also said that the sight of the whole of the
rainbow is a good omen: but the sight of a part, however large,
is inauspicious. [323]
According to the Puranas, the milky way or akash-ganga is the celestial
River Ganga which was brought down by Bhagirath to the earth. [324]
King Sagar once performed an ashwa-medha [325] sacrifice, when,
according to custom, he let loose a horse, and sent his sixty thousand
sons with it. Indra, jealous of the growing power of Sagar, stole the
horse and concealed it in the hermitage of Kapila, when the sage was
deeply absorbed in religious meditation. The sixty thousand sons of
Sagar followed it to this asylum, where they taunted and insulted the
sage, believing him to be the thief. Kapila, who was ignorant of the
theft, opened his long-closed eyes in anger, emitting sparks of flame
from them, and destroyed the sons of Sagar together with the whole of
their army. Bhagirath, the grandson of Sagar, propitiated the sage, and
on his advice practised religious austerities in honour of Shiva for
the purpose of bringing down the River Ganga from heaven. Through the
kindness of God Shiva, Bhagirath was at last successful in bringing the
celestial river down to this world; and with the water of the river he
revived the sons of Sagar. The River Ganga (i.e., the Ganges) in this
world is therefore also known by the name of Bhagirathi. It is this
heavenly river which we see as the milky way. [326] Like the sacred
Ganges on the earth, the River Ganga in the celestial regions is held
in great respect by the gods [327] and purifies the heavenly bodies,
just as the earthly Ganges washes away the worst sins of mortals.
Some people, however, believe the milky way to be the track by which
the holy Ganges descended from heaven to earth. [328]
Another belief is that the God Vishnu, at the time of his Vaman
(or Dwarf) incarnation, touched the ina (i.e., the Egg) in his
third footstep and thus caused a flow of waters, which is known as
akash-ganga. [329] Some suppose the milky way to be a ladder leading
to the heavens. [330] Astrologers call it Vatsa, a fictitious creature
with numerous horns, mouths, and tails. [331] According to another
belief, the milky way consists of two rekhas--lines--one of sin and
the other of good and meritorious actions. The length of one line
compared to the other betokens the predominance of good or evil as
the case may be. [332] The milky way is also supposed to be the track
left by the rath or car of Ramachandra. [333]
Akash-ganga or the milky way is said to consist of one crore and
eighty lacs of stars. [334] If a man cannot perceive the milky way
in the sky, his end is believed to be near at hand. [335]
The Musalmans declare the milky way to be the track formed by the
footstep of the horse of the Prophet Muhammad, on the occasion of
his night-journey to Heaven.
The occasion for earth-worship most frequently arises when anything
is to be built upon its surface. At the time of setting the
manek-stambha, or the first pillar of a marriage-bower or a bower
for a thread-ceremony, [336] before commencing the construction of
wells, reservoirs, and tanks and in laying the foundation-stone
of a house, a temple, or a sacrificial pit, [337] or of a street,
a fortress, a city, or a village, [338] or of any constructive work
raised upon or made under the ground, certain ceremonies, called
khat-muhurt or khat-puja, are performed. The earth-mother is then
worshipped in the manner prescribed in the Shastras, to propitiate her
against interruptions in the completion of the work undertaken. The
owner or the person interested in the new construction pours a
little water on the earth where the foundation-pit is to be dug,
sprinkles red lac and gulal (red powder), places a betel-nut and a few
precious coins, and digs out the first clod of earth himself. [339]
Some of the things offered to the earth at the time of khat-puja
are panchamrit, [340] betel-nuts, betel-leaves, pancha-ratna (or the
five kinds of precious things, namely, gold, silver, copper, coral,
and pearls), a bowl and green garments. Under the influence
of particular rashis (signs of the zodiac), particular corners
of the building under construction are required to be dug in the
khat-muhurt ceremonies. For instance, a little digging in the
north-west corner is believed to be favourable to the constructor
who happens to be under the influence of Sinha (Leo), Kanya (Virgo)
and Tula (Libra): in the north-east corner, if under the influence
of Vrishchika (Scorpio), Dhanu (Sagittarius) and Makar (Capricornus):
in the south-east corner if under the sway of Kumbha (Aquarius), Min
(Pisces) and Mesha (Aries): in the south-west corner in the case of
Vrishabh (Taurus), Mithun (Gemini) and Kark (Cancer). After the
worship of the earth-mother, sugar or molasses is distributed among
neighbours, bystanders and relatives, in token of the auspiciousness of
the occasion. [341] An image of Ganpati is worshipped in a copper-dish,
this is buried underground, and a brick is laid on it when starting the
work of construction. In setting up the manek-stambha on marriage
occasions, a small earthen bowl is filled with milk, curds, turmeric,
durva-sprouts [342] and mag seeds (Phaseolus mungo), and buried in
the ground after being sprinkled over with red lac and rice. [343]
The ceremonies appertaining to khat-muhurt are treated of at length
in a book called Dharma-sindhu. [344] They are believed to secure
durability of construction.
On the Dasara [345] day or the 10th day of the bright half of Ashvin
(the last month), Rajas go out in state with their ministers and
subjects to worship the earth-mother and the holy shami tree (prosopis
spicegera). A wetted plot of ground is first dug over with pikes,
javala (tender wheat plants) and shami leaves are then mixed with
the muddy earth, and small balls of the mixture are made. A pice
and betel-nut are placed in each ball, and they are presented to
the worshipper as a mark of good luck. Travellers carry such balls
with them on their journeys for luck. Kings carry the same to obtain
success on the battle-field. The Pandavas had such balls with them
on the field of Kurukshetra when they obtained a victory over the
Kauravas. [346] The balls are also used as pastana. [347] The javala
in the balls are taken out and allowed to grow in an earthen vessel
filled with clay and manure till they reach a span in height, when
they are taken up and used. [348]
Earth-worship is performed before burying treasure underground, and
also when a marriage-procession, at the time of returning, reaches
the limits of the bridegroom's village. [349]
In some places, virgins worship the plot of ground on which the Holi
is lighted, for about ten or twelve days after the Holi holiday. [350]
Another occasion for earth-worship is the third day of the bright half
of Chaitra (the sixth month), on which day Vishnu saved the earth in
his Varaha (or Boar) incarnation, when it was being carried to the
nether regions by the demon Shankhasur. [351]
On the eighth day of the bright half of Magh and also of Ashvin (the
fourth and the last month respectively), naivedya (an oblation of
food) is offered to the earth-mother, and is then used as her prasad
(gift). No cooked food is allowed to fall on the ground on this day:
even the leavings after meals are given away to cows. [352]
When any ceremony is to be performed on the earth's surface, as much
of the spot as is required for the ceremony is cleansed by watering
it and plastering it with cow-dung. A betel-nut and a pice are then
placed on it as the Chada or rent of the spot. [353]
On those occasions when dakshina is given to Brahmans outside the
village limits, worship of the earth-mother is performed by pouring
milk on the ground, and by placing seven betel-nuts and seven single
copper-pieces thereon. [354]
Some ambitious Brahmans dig earth from near the roots of a banyan
tree after offering prayer to the earth, and out of it, make an
image of Parthishwar--Lord of the Earth--hoping thereby to obtain
wealth. The same ceremony, if observed near the roots of a pipal tree
(ficus religiosa), is believed to confer wealth and male issue.
When Vishnu killed the demons Madhur and Kaitabha, the earth was strewn
with their flesh and marrow (meda). Therefore the earth is called
medini, and for the same reason is unclean, and no holy objects are
allowed to touch it. [355] Another explanation is that the earth was
rendered unclean because blood was shed on its surface in the combat
of the demon Vritrasur with the god Indra. [356]
The things polluted by a contact with the earth are either objects
which are to be dedicated to gods, such as sandal-wood ointment,
panchamrit, [357] the leaves of the bel tree (Aegle marmelos), tulsi
leaves (leaves of the holy or sweet basil plant), betel-leaves and
flowers; [358] or objects which are sacred because of their having
been dedicated to the gods, including tirtha [359] or water used in
bathing the images of gods [360]; or things which are by nature so
holy that it is improper to place them on the bare earth; for instance,
images of deities, water of the sacred Ganges or the Jumna, [361] any
holy writ, [362] a conch-shell and even gold. [363] Cooked food also
deserves respect, as it supports the lives of men, and it is sinful in
a Hindu to let it lie on the bare ground. Any irregular conduct in this
respect arouses the wrath of the Annadeva (or the food deity). [364]
It is, however, maintained by some that the reason why certain things,
such as materials of worship, are not allowed to touch the earth, is
that the earth itself being a deity, such things would be dedicated to
this deity by a contact with the earth and would thus become incapable
of any further use, as things that are dedicated to one deity cannot
again be offered to another. [365]
During the course of the recitation of mantras (holy hymns) in
honour of Vishnu and Mahadeva; on the occasion of offering prayers
to the grahas (planets) for their propitiation; and on occasions like
Vishnuyaga, [366] Maharudra, Shatachandi, Gayatri-purashcharan [367]
and Brahmana-varana [368] the devotee or the sacrificer and the
priest sleep on darbha grass or on clean woollen blankets, spread on
the bare ground.
Other occasions for sleeping on the floor are the days of the
observance of certain vrats or vows; such as, the Divasa or the 15th
day of the dark half of Ashadh (the ninth month), the Janmashtami
or the 8th day of the dark half of Shravana (the tenth month), the
days of Goatrad, a vrat lasting from the 11th day to the 15th day
of the bright half of Bhadrapad, Mahashivaratri or the 14th day of
the dark half of Magh, the Ekadashi day or the 11th day of both the
bright and dark halves of a month, the Navratra days or the first
nine days of Ashvin, eclipse days, and the day of Jagran or the 15th
day of the bright half of Ashadh, besides, sometimes, the whole
of the months of Shravana and the Purushottam or intercalary month;
and the chaturmas, i.e., the four months of the rainy season. [369]
A Brahman in his brahmacharya (or the period of his life which,
according to the Shastras, should be devoted to the acquirement of
learning, and which commences from the date of his being invested
with the sacred thread and terminates at the age of twenty-three)
and a widow are not allowed by the Shastras to sleep elsewhere than
on beds made on the ground.
Women, while in menstruation, sleep on the floor for four days.
Some women, when they are separated from their husbands, also sleep
in this fashion.
A dying person, two or three minutes before his death, is placed on
the ground, which is first purified with cow-dung-plaster. [370] For
ten days after a death, the members of the deceased's household and
his relatives sleep on beds spread on the bare ground. [371] If the
demise be very affecting, the nearest relatives sleep on the floor
for periods which may extend to three months, six months, or even
for a year, and sometimes the penance lasts for their whole lives.
It is customary, among some sects, not to allow the sathara--i.e.,
the spot lately occupied by a corpse in the house--to be suna or
unoccupied for a single night. Someone must sleep on the spot for
twelve consecutive days from the date of demise. [372]
Pilgrims, [373] after pilgrimage, abandon sensual pleasures, take
their meals only once every day, and sleep on the floor. It is
customary to sleep always on the ground while in holy places. Devotees,
ascetics, sadhus, and their disciples sleep on the ground.
The God Indra has twelve meghas or clouds under his control, and he
directs each of them to pour out their waters wherever he likes. When
in the least irritated in the execution of his orders, Indra's voice
is heard in this world in thunder-claps which rise to a terrible pitch
if the deity becomes downright angry. Thunder is also said to be
the loud laughter of Indra when in a happy mood. [374]
Another belief is that during the rainy season, Indra plays gedi-danda
[375], and the strokes given to the gedi in the course of the game,
produce what we call thunder; [376] or, that the clouds are god's
footballs, and thunder is produced by his foot striking them, while
at play during the rainy season. Some believe thunder to be due
to the loud sounds produced by various musical instruments which are
played upon the occasion of the marriage-ceremony of Indra. [377]
According to others, thunder is produced by the cannon of Indra;
[378] or, as some again say, by the trumpetings of Airavat, the
elephant of Indra [379]; or, we hear thunder when Indra draws his
bow and adjusts an arrow to the bow-string, in order to bring about
the fall of rain. [380]
A further belief attributes thunder to the very rapid pace of the
chariot of Bhagwan. [381] Some people, however, say that it is produced
when Bhima (one of the five Pandavas) wields his prodigious club or
bludgeon. [382] In the opinion of others, Vidyut or Tanyatun, the
offspring of Lamba, the daughter of Daksha, and the wife of Dharmaraj
thunders in the rainy season. [383] It is also suggested that the
god of rains shakes the heavens and thus produces thunder. The
Shastras, it is said, declare that thunder is caused by the sounds
of the dundubhi--or kettledrums--beaten by the gods in delight at
the sight of rain. [384] There is also a popular belief in the Surat
district that an old hag causes thunder either when she grinds corn
or when she rolls stones in the clouds. [385]
The prevalent belief about lightning seems to be that it is the girl
whom Kansa tried to dash against a stone, but who escaped and went
up to the sky. Kansa, the tyrant king of Mathura, was informed by a
heavenly voice, by way of prophecy, that a son would be born to his
sister who would cause his destruction. Kansa thereupon confined his
sister Devaki and her husband Vasudeva in prison, loaded them with
fetters, and kept the strictest watch over them. He took from Devaki,
and slew, every child of hers as soon as it was born. In this way he
disposed of her first six children. On the seventh occasion, however,
on which Devaki gave birth to a son named Krishna, a girl was born at
the same hour to Nanda in Mathura; and Vasudeva secretly interchanged
the two children in spite of the vigilance of Kansa. When Kansa knew
of his sister having been delivered, he seized the infant girl and
tried to dash her against a stone. The little one immediately flew
away to the skies, where she still dwells in the form of Vijli or
lightning. [386]
The Shastras describe Vijli as the distinctive weapon of Indra, just as
pashupataka is peculiar to Shiva and the Gandiva bow to Arjuna. [387]
Other beliefs about lightning are that Vijli is the sister of
Megharaja, the god of rains, and appears to announce his approach:
[388] that Vijli is a goddess who rests upon winds, fire, and rains:
[389] that Vijli is but the thunderbolt of Indra: [390] that lightnings
are the flashes of the bright weapon of Indra: [391] that lightning
is the lustre of the fireworks and the lamps lighted by the gods in
honour of the nuptials of Indra: [392] that lightning is produced by
the sparks caused by the friction of the gedi and the danda of Indra
when the god plays the game. [393] Vijli is also known as Saudamini,
i.e., one residing on Mount Sudama. [394]
The occurrence of thunder and the appearance of lightning on
particular days and in particular directions are regarded as signs
of the abundance or scarcity of rain during the season.
Thunder during the Rohini nakshatra [395] is a bad omen: it foreshadows
either a famine, [396] or a Boterun, i.e., complete cessation of rains
for seventy-two days after the thunder-claps are heard. According
to another view, if the Rohini nakshatra lasts for a fortnight and if
the sky is clear during the period and yet lightning and thunder occur,
a Boterun will be the consequence; but if lightning and thunder were
to accompany the clouds in the same nakshatra, heavy and plentiful
rains may be confidently expected. [397] Lightning without clouds in
the same nakshatra is believed to be the cause of what is popularly
called Rohini-dazi, i.e., the burning heat of Rohini. [398]
Some persons expect a Boterun after kadakas or crashing thunder. Others
apprehend a famine if they hear thunder on the second day of the
bright half of Jyeshtha (the eighth month).
Thunder or lightning in the Hasta [399] nakshatra foretells good
harvests and a prosperous year. [400] Thunder in the same nakshatra is
believed to muzzle the jaws of serpents and other noxious creatures,
and to achieve this object, also, a samelu (or a log of wood) is struck
against a mobhara (or a hollow stone used for threshing corn). [401]
If thunder is not heard during this nakshatra, mosquitoes and other
insects and vermin are believed to be likely to multiply. [402]
If thunder is heard during the Ardra nakshatra, the rainfall will be
delayed for a month. [403]
Lightning is commonly seen on the second and the fifth day of the
bright half of Ashadh, and is considered a sign of good rainfall,
while its absence indicates a probable scarcity of rain. [404] Its
appearance on the fifth day of Ashadh is believed by some to foretell
an early fall of rain. Since the rainfall, and therefore the state
of the crops during the ensuing year, are suggested by lightning on
this day, corn-dealers settle a rise or fall in the price of corn
according as lightning is or is not seen on that occasion. [405]
Thunder in the east predicts a speedy fall of rain. If flashes of
lightning are seen in the north-east or the north, rain will fall
within three days. Lightning in the south-east or the south
foretells extreme heat. [406]
Long-continued thunder shows that the rainfall is distant. Similarly,
continued flashes of lightning intimate danger to the lives and
property of people. Sudden thunder portends an immediate cessation
of rain. Thunder or lightning out of season threatens calamity
to the country. [407]
Vijli or lightning is said to be fettered on the fifth day of
the bright half of Ashadh--(or, as some say, on the second day of
Shravan)--after which date no apprehensions of its destructive
powers need be entertained. [408] Till then, however, it is free and
is likely to injure those persons [409] who have not cut or shaved
their hair from their birth. [410]
The occurrence of lightning is believed to cause the delivery and
sometimes even the death of pregnant women. [411]
Any period marked by the occurrence of lightning is considered
inauspicious. [412]
The Puranas speak of fourteen worlds--the seven swargas (celestial
regions) and the seven patals (nether regions) [413]. Underneath the
seventh patal [414] lies Shesha (the divine cobra) who supports all
the fourteen worlds on one of his one thousand hoods. On account of
the heavy burden, the serpent-god sometimes gets tired, and tries to
change his position. The result of the movement is an earth-quake.
According to another version, an earthquake occurs when Shesha changes
his posture in sleep, [415] or is the result of a hair falling from
the body of Shesha. [416] Some people say that ordinarily Shesha does
not feel the weight of the fourteen worlds on his head; he bears the
load as if it were only a single sesamum seed. But when too much sin
accumulates in any of the regions, the burden becomes unbearable for
him: he begins to shake under it, and an earthquake occurs. [417]
Some believe that there is a tortoise under the divine cobra who
supports the world; [418] others go further, and add a frog below the
tortoise: [419] and it is said that the slightest motion on the part
of either the tortoise or the cobra is the cause of an earthquake.
Another belief is that earthquakes occur whenever there is tyranny
or injustice on the part of a king, or whenever immorality spreads
in society, because the earth is unable to bear the sin, and trembles
at the sight of it. [420]
According to a different opinion, the earth is supported by the Pothia
or the favourite bull of Shiva on one of his horns. An earthquake
is caused whenever he transfers the earth from one horn to another
in order to relieve the former from the constant pressure of the
burden. [421]
There is also a belief that deities of some strange species reside
in the nether regions, and the earth is shaken whenever these beings
fight among themselves.
According to the Varaha-sanhita, an earthquake is always the precursor
of some unprecedented calamity. [422] The prevalent belief in the
popular mind seems to be that an earthquake is the result of immorality
and sin, and further that it forebodes some dire calamity, such as
famine, pestilence, an outbreak of fire, a revolution, or a great
war. [423] The phenomenon is, therefore, regarded with great fear;
and when it occurs, people endeavour to avoid the contingent evils by
such meritorious acts as the giving of alms, and generally by leading
a virtuous life. [424]
The most popular of the holy rivers are the Ganges, the Jumna (or
Jamuna), the Narbada, the Saraswati (near Sidhpur), the Kaveri, the
Godavari, the Gandaki, the Sarayu, the Damodari, the Sindhu (or Indus),
the Mahanad, the Gomati (near Dwarka), the Brahmaputra, the Sabarmati,
the Ghels (near Gaddheda), the Tungabhadra, the Suvarnabhadra, the
Bhadrashita, the Jambuvati, the Phalaku (or Phalgu), the Kaushiki, the
Tamraparni, the Sita and the Alakananda. Any point where three rivers
meet is also a sacred place. Most of the holy rivers are the subject of
many traditions, and books have been written to celebrate their merits.
The Ganges, the Jumna, and the Godavari are said to be the holiest of
all rivers. There are a number of beliefs about the origin of the
Ganges. One of them is that the Ganges is the stream caused by King
Bali washing the feet of Vaman (the Dwarf incarnation of Vishnu). [425]
Another story relates that the god Brahma was exhausted by overwork at
the time of the marriage of Shiva and Parvati. The gods, therefore,
created water from their own lustres, and gave it to Brahma in a
gourd, to be used in a similar contingency. When Vishnu in his Vaman
avatar (or Dwarf incarnation) bestrode the heavens with a single
step, Brahma washed his toe in the water from this gourd. A stream
was thus created called Swarga-ganga and brought down to the earth
by Bhagirath, the grandson of Sagar. When the Ganges fell from the
heavens, it was supported and held fast by God Shiva in his jata or
matted hair. It was released by his loosening the hair, and in its
course, inundated the sacrificial ground of King Jahnu. The latter,
being angry, drank up its waters. On the entreaties of Bhagirath,
he released the stream by tearing off his thigh. [426] The river then
flowed to the spot where the sixty thousand sons of Sagar were burnt
to ashes; and it is said by some that one of the sixty thousand was
saved at the end of each year up to the year 1955 of the Samvat era
(corresponding to A. D. 1899), by the end of which period all the
sixty thousand had attained salvation. From the earth the Ganges went
to the nether regions. Thus flowing in the heavens, on the earth and
in the Patal, the Ganges is called Tripathaga (i.e., flowing in three
courses). In its divine form, the Ganges is the wife of Shiva. Owing
to the curse of Brahma, she was born in human form in this world and
was married to Shantanu, by whom she became the mother of Bhishma,
the heroic uncle of the Kauravas and the Pandavas. [427]
It is customary among Hindu pilgrims, when they visit Kashi (Benares)
to take with them copper-vessels filled with Gangajal (water of the
Ganges), and to worship the Ganga when they reach their homes after
the pilgrimage. A figure is drawn in seven different kinds of corn;
the bowl is placed on it; abil gulal (red powder), frankincense, and
naivedya (an oblation of food) are offered: a ghi lamp is lighted:
a Brahman woman is dressed as Uma, the wife of Shiva, and Brahmans
are entertained at a feast, dakshina being given to them. [428]
The water of the Ganges, as well as that of the Jumna, is believed to
be so pure that it cannot be affected by microbes, even if kept for
years in the house. This quality is believed to be a manifestation of
its divine nature. It is further called patit-pavan (lit. purifier
of the fallen), and exculpates the sinful from their sins, either
by a single draught or by bathing in it. [429] Gangajal is kept in
most Hindu families, a draught of it taken by a dying person being
believed to secure moksha or eternal salvation for the soul. [430]
A vow is observed by women, in honour of the Ganges, for the first
ten days of the month of Jyeshtha. On these days they rise early in
the morning and bathe in the holy waters of the Ganges. [431]
Sometimes ghi lamps are placed upon the waters of the Ganges or the
Jumna, and vessels of metal, pice, and cocoanuts are cast into the
stream. At such a time, when many people are standing on the banks
offering prayers with folded hands, or engaged in the arati, [432]
the river presents a very picturesque scene, the numerous lights
being reflected in the water. [433]
The Jamuna or Yamuna is the daughter of the Sun, and the sister of
Yama, the god of Death. The banks of the Jumna are well known as
the scene of the amorous sports of God Krishna. [434] The story of
the defeat of the demon Kaliya Nag who was ejected from the Jumna by
Krishna is well-known.
It is said that those who have bathed in the Jumna or have once tasted
its water, need not be afraid of Yama, the god of Death. [435] It
is considered meritorious among the Hindus to bathe the image of god
Shiva in water from the holy Jumna or the Ganges or the Godavari. [436]
There is a popular shloka in honour of the Jumna which runs:--"Victory
to thee! Oh Yamuna, flowing through the Madhu-vana (the Madhu woods),
the bearer of shining waters, the companion of Jahnavi, the daughter
of Sindhu, the ornament of the enemy of Madhu (viz., Krishna),
the appeaser of Madhava, the dispeller of the danger of Gokal,
the destroyer of the sins of the world, the giver of intellect, the
scene of the amorous sports of Keshava. Victory to thee! O remover
of difficulties, purify me." [437]
The banks of the Godavari are known as the site of the hermitage of
Gautama. When the planet Brihaspati (Jupiter) enters the Sinha-rashi
(the constellation Leo) [438] the holy Ganges goes to the Godavari,
and remains there for one year. During that year, all the gods are
believed to bathe in this river. Thousands of pilgrims visit Nasik
to offer prayers to the Godavari, and after bathing in the river,
give alms to Brahmans. Similarly, on the Kapilashashti day, on which
six jogs or conjunctive incidents occur simultaneously, the virtue
of all tirthas or holy places is believed to be concentrated in the
Godavari at Nasik.
The mere sight of the Narbada has the same effect as a bath in the
Ganges or the Jumna. [439] It is said that the Narbada is the image of
Shiva, and that fragments of the stony bow of Shiva are to be found
in its bed. [440] The stones in the bed of this river have the same
sanctity as the images of god Shiva. [441] Shaligram stones, which
are worshipped as the images of Vishnu, are found in this river.
It is an act of high merit among Hindus to take a pradakshina round the
Narbada, i.e., to travel along the banks of the river, inhabited as the
region is by many Sadhus and other holy persons. [442] Ashvatthama, the
immortal son of Drona, is believed to reside on the banks of this river
and to pay occasional visits to the Bhils in the neighbourhood.
The Shukla-tirtha, situated on the Narbada, is visited by numerous
pilgrims, and a fair is held there on every sixtieth year.
The sage Kapila instructed his mother Devahuti with divine knowledge
on the banks of the Saraswati. Since then, the river is held sacred and
funeral ceremonies--Shraddhas--are performed on its banks in honour of
departed female ancestors. Similarly Shraddhas in honour of male
ancestors are performed at the confluence of the Ganges, the Jumna,
and the Saraswati at Allahabad. [443] [444]
Of the Gandaki it is said that it contains as many shankars (images
of Shiva) as there are sankars (stones). The shaligram stone is found
in this river also. The Saryu is sacred as the scene of the childish
sports of Ramachandra, the hero of the Ramayana. On the banks of the
Phalaku or Phalgu, Ramachandra performed Shraddha ceremonies in honour
of his father Dasharath.
A bath in the waters of a holy river washes away the sins of the
bather. [445] It is also meritorious to repeat the names of the
several holy rivers. [446] The performance of Shraddha ceremonies on
the banks of a holy river secures the felicity of deceased ancestors
in heaven. At the time of performing Shraddhas at a holy place,
Hindus shave their moustaches, bathe in the sacred waters, and then
go through the necessary ceremonies, in the course of which pindas are
offered to the Pitars (spirits of dead ancestors). Brahmans are feasted
after the ceremonies, and dakshina is given to them. [447] Tarpan
or an offering of water with flowers, ointment, red lac, cocoanuts,
and betel, is frequently made to the river on the banks of which the
ceremonies are performed. [448] The bones of a deceased person, left
unburnt after cremation of the body, are gathered together and thrown
into holy rivers such as the Ganges, the Jumna, and the Godavari,
for the purification of his soul. [449]
When heavy floods threaten a village or a city with serious injury,
the king or the headman should go in procession to propitiate the
river with flowers, cocoanuts, and other offerings in order that
the floods may subside. [450] A story is related of the occurrence
of heavy floods in a village in the Jatalpur taluka, when a certain
lady placed an earthen vessel (ordinarily used for curdling milk),
containing a ghi lamp, afloat on the floods, whereupon the waters
were at once seen to recede. [451]
Besides the holy rivers, there are numerous kunds or sacred pools
which are regarded with equal reverence, and in which a bath has
the same efficacy for destroying sin. Similarly, they are equally
suitable places for the performance of Shraddha ceremonies. These
kunds are the subject of numerous beliefs, and each of them has a
certain mahatmya or peculiar merit of its own. Six miles to the east
of Dwarka, near the sea-coast, there is a kund called Pind-tarak,
where many persons go to perform the Shraddha and the Narayan-bali
ceremonies. They first bathe in the kund: then, with its water, they
prepare pindas, and place them in a metal dish: red lac is applied
to the pindas, and a piece of cotton thread wound round them; the
metal dish being then dipped in the kund, when the pindas, instead
of sinking, are said to remain floating on the water. The process is
believed to earn a good status for the spirits of departed ancestors
in heaven. It is further said that physical ailments brought on by
the avagati--degradation or fallen condition--of ancestors in the other
world, are remedied by the performance of Shraddha on this kund. [452]
The Damodar kund is situated near Junagadh. It is said that if the
bones of a deceased person which remain unburnt after his cremation
are dipped in this kund, the soul of that person obtains moksha
(or final emancipation).
There is a vav or reservoir on Mount Girnar, known as
Rasakupika-vav. It is believed that the body of a person bathing in
it becomes as hard as marble, and that if a piece of stone or iron
is dipped in the vav, it is instantly transformed into gold. But
the vav is only visible to saints and sages who are gifted with a
supernatural vision. [453]
Kashipuri (Benares) contains a vav called Gyan-vav, in which there is
an image of Vishweshwar (the Lord of the universe, i.e., Shiva). A
bath in the water from this vav is believed to confer upon a person
the gift of divine knowledge.
In the village of Chunval, a few miles to the north of Viramgam, there
is a kund known as Loteshwar, near which stands a pipal tree. Persons
possessed by ghosts or devils, are freed from possession by pouring
water at the foot of the tree and taking turns round it, remaining
silent the while. [454]
A bath in the Man-sarovar near Bahucharaji is said to cause the wishes
of the bather to be fulfilled. There is a local tradition [455] that
a Rajput woman was turned into a male Rajput of the Solanki class by
a bath in its waters.
There is a kund called Zilaka near Zinzuwada with a temple of Naleshwar
Mahadev near it. The kund is said to have been built at the time of
King Nala. It is believed locally that every year, on the 15th day
of the bright half of Bhadrapad, the holy Ganges visits the kund
by an underground route. A great fair is held there on that day,
when people bathe in the kund and give alms to the poor. [456] There
is also another kund close by, known as Bholava, where the river
Saraswati is believed to have halted and manifested herself on her
way to the sea. [457]
There is a kund in Baladana near Wadhwan, dedicated to Hol, the
favourite mata of the Charans. In this kund, black or red gagar
bedinus--pieces of cotton thread--are sometimes seen floating in the
water. They appear only for a moment, and sink if any one endeavours
to seize them. The appearance of black pieces forebodes famine:
but the red ones foretell prosperity. [458]
In Bhadakon near Chuda there is a kund called Garigavo. The place is
celebrated as the spot of the hermitage of the sage Bhrigu and a fair
is held there annually on the last day of Bhadrapad.
Persons anxious to attain heaven, bathe in the Mrigi kund on Mount
Girnar; and a bath in the Revati kund, which is in the same place,
confers male issue on the bather. [459] There is also a kund of the
shape of an elephant's footprint Pagahein on Mount Girnar. It never
empties and is held most sacred by pilgrims. [460] People bathe in the
Gomati kund near Dwarka and take a little of the earth from its bed,
for the purification of their souls. [461] In the village of Babara,
Babhruvahan, the son of Arjun, is said to have constructed several
kunds, all of which are believed to be holy.
The Lasundra kund near Lasundra in the Kaira District [462] and the
Tulsi-shyama kund on Mount Girnar [463] contain hot waters. There is
also a hot kund called Devki-unai, about thirty miles to the south of
Surat. There the waters remain hot throughout the whole of the
year, except on the fifteenth day of the bright half of Chaitra. On
this day, the waters cool, and people can bathe in the kund. Many
pilgrims visit the place on this occasion, to offer money, cocoanuts,
and red lac to the unai mata, whose temple stands near the kund. It is
said that King Rama built this kund while performing a local sacrifice,
and brought water up from the patal (nether regions) by shooting an
arrow into the earth. [464]
Other holy kunds are: the Bhim kund, the Gomukhi-ganga, and the
Kamandalu kund on Mount Girnar near the temple of Bhimnath Mahadeo;
the Radha kund, the Lalita kund, and the Krishna-sarovar in Dwarka;
the Rama-sarovar, the Sita kund and the Devki-unai kund in Ayodhya
(Oudh); [465] and the Suraj kund [466] and the Hanumandhara [467]
kund on Mount Girnar.
Waterfalls are not very familiar to the people of Gujarat. There is
a belief, however, that barren couples obtain issue if they bathe in
a waterfall, and offer a cocoanut. [468]
If a river source issues from an opening, in the shape of a go-mukh
(cow's-mouth), the stream is called dhodh, and is considered as sacred
as the holy Ganges. A bath in such a dhodh has the same efficacy for
absolving persons from their sins. [469]
When a person dies an accidental death and before the fulfilment of
his worldly desires, his soul receives avagati (i.e., passes into
a degraded or fallen condition), and it is not released from this
state till Shraddhas have been duly performed in its name, and the
objects of its desire dedicated to it with proper ritual. The same
fate befalls those souls which do not receive the funeral pindas with
the proper obsequies. Such fallen souls become ghosts and goblins,
[470] and are to be found where water is, i.e., near a well, a tank,
or a river. [471]
Those who meet death by drowning become goblins, residing near the
scene of their death, and are a source of danger to all who approach
the water; for instance, in Monapuri and Sasai, there are two ghunas
(mysterious watery pits) haunted by bhuts (ghosts) which take the
lives of one or two buffaloes every year. [472] Matas [473] and
Shankhinis also haunt wells, springs, and tanks and either drown,
or enter the persons of those who go near their resorts.
Persons who are possessed in this manner, can be freed by bhuvas,
who give them a magic thread to wear. [474]
There is a vav called Nilkanth vav near Movaiya, in which a Pinjari
(a female cotton-carder) is said to have been drowned, and to have
been turned into a ghost, in which form she occasionally presents
herself to the people. [475]
Another ghost haunts an old vav, called Madha, in Vadhwan and drowns
one human being every third year as a victim. But a male spirit named
Kshetrapal resides in the kotha (or entrance) of the vav, and saves
those who fall near the entrance. A person is, however, sure to be
drowned if he falls in any other part of the vav. [476] A ghost also
resides in the vav at Hampar near Dhrangadhra and terrifies the people
at times.
The goddess Rainadevi resides in water, and is worshipped by virgins
on the fifteenth day of the bright half of Ashadh, when they grow
javaras (tender wheat-plants) in an earthen vessel and present them
to her, remaining awake for the whole of the night to sing songs in
her honour.
Darya-Pir, the patron of Luvanas (merchants) and Kharvas (sailors),
resides in the sea; and vows are observed in his honour by these people
on the second day of the bright half of every month, when they pass
a little water through his sieve. [477]
It is well known that a drowning person clings fast to anyone who
tries to save him, and endangers the lives of both himself and his
saviour. [478] It is also believed by some people that the messengers
of Varuna (the lord of all waters) seize those persons who bathe in
a river earlier than the usual hour in the morning; and the act of
saving a drowning person thus deprives Varuna of his victim, and
brings down the wrath of that deity. [479]
Sometimes, for the sake of moksha, a person takes samadhi (i.e.,
drowns himself with a religious motive) in a holy river, such as the
Ganges or the Jumna. In such a case the relatives and other persons
refrain from interference, and do not try to rescue the person.
When a well is to be dug, an expert is first called to select a likely
spot on which to dig. A Brahman is then consulted as to the auspicious
hour on which the work of digging should be commenced. [480] For this
purpose, Tuesdays and those days on which the earth sleeps are to
be avoided. The earth is supposed to be asleep on the following six
days in every month, namely: the 1st, the 7th, the 9th, the 10th,
the 14th and the 24th days following a sankranti (i.e., the day on
which the sun crosses from one constellation to another). Excluding
these days, a date is generally fixed on which the Chandra-graha (or
the planet moon) is favourable to the constructor of the well. [481]
On the appointed day, the expert, the constructor of the well, the
Brahman priest, and the labourers go to the place where the well
is to be dug, and an image of the god Ganpati--the protector of all
auspicious ceremonies--is first installed on the spot and worshipped
with panchamrit. [482] [483] A green coloured piece of atlas (silk
cloth), about two feet long, is then spread on the spot, and a
pound and a quarter of wheat, a cocoanut, betels, dates and copper
coin are placed on it. A copper bowl containing some silver or gold
coins and filled with water, is also placed there; the mouth of the
bowl is covered with the leaves of the Ashoka tree (Jinesia Asoka)
and a cocoanut is placed over the leaves. After this, the priest
recites sacred hymns and asks his host to perform the khat [484]
ceremonies. [485] Among favourite offerings to Ganpati and the earth
in the course of worship and in the performance of the khat ceremonies
are: curds, milk, honey, molasses, cocoanuts, dhana (a kind of spices),
leaves of nagarvel (a kind of creeper) and red lac. The expert
who is called to choose a proper site for the well offers frankincense
and a cocoanut to the spot, and lights a lamp thereon. After the khat
[486] ceremonies are over, the host distributes sugar or molasses
among the bystanders, and offers a sum of money to the expert, who
usually refuses it, asking the host to spend it in charity. Those
who accept money give away a part of it in alms to the poor.
Sometimes, to secure the unobstructed completion of the work, the god
Ganpati and the goddess Jaladevi are installed and worshipped daily,
till water appears in the well. Some people, however, install
the goddess Jaladevi after the appearance of water, when a stone is
taken out from the bottom of the well and is plastered with red-lead
to represent the goddess and is ceremoniously worshipped. When the
construction of the well is complete, vastu, i.e., the ceremony
in vogue after the completion of a new building, or jalotsava (the
water-festival) is celebrated, Brahmans being entertained at a feast,
with dakshina given. [487]
The water of the Krukalas well in the island of Shankhodwar is believed
to cure fever and diseases caused by morbid heat. A draught of the
water of the Gomukhi-ganga near Girnar, makes one proof against an
attack of cholera. [488]
The water of a gozara well (i.e., a well which is polluted on account
of a person bring drowned in it) cures children of bronchitis and
cough. [489] [490]
There is a well near Ramdorana, of which the water is effective against
cough, [491] and the water of the Bhamaria well near Vasawad possesses
the same virtue. [492]
The water of the Mrigi kund near Junagadh remedies leprosy.
The Pipli well near Zalawad and the Detroja-vav near Kolki are
well-known for the stimulative effect of their waters on the
digestion. [493]
If a dark stone is found in the course of digging a well, the water
of that well is believed to have medicinal properties. [494]
The birth of a child under the mul nakshatra endangers the life
of its father: but the misfortune is averted if the child and its
parents bathe in water drawn from one hundred and eight wells.
Such water, if swallowed, is said to cure sanipat or delirium. [495]
In the island of Shial there is a vav called Than-vav, where mothers,
who cannot suckle their children for want of milk, wash their
bodices. When they afterwards wear these bodices, these are believed
to be able to cause the due secretion of milk. [496]
The most famous of the sacred lakes are Pampa [497], Bindu [498],
Pushkar and Sambhar near Ajmere, Man-sarovar near Bahucharaji,
Narayan-sarovar in Cutch, Ravanrhad in the Himalayas, and Ramarhad. The
following popular myth is related about Man-sarovar.
Two kings once agreed that the two children that should first be
born to them should marry each other. But it happened that both
the kings had daughters. One of them, however, concealed the fact,
and gave out that the child born to him was a son. So that when the
children attained a marriageable age, they were married to each other
according to the agreement.
But the wife found out the secret when she went to stay with her
supposed husband, and disclosed it to her parents, who invited the
counterfeit son-in-law to their house with the object of ascertaining
the truth. The alleged son, however, suspected the design and fled,
with a mare and a bitch. On arriving near Man-sarovar, the animals
went into the lake in order to refresh themselves, when there was an
immediate transformation; and the bitch and the mare came out a horse
and a dog. On observing this miracle, their mistress followed their
example and was also turned into a male. The story is still sung by
girls in a garabi (song) during the Navaratra holidays. [499]
There is a belief that the ancient golden city of Dwarka, the capital
of god Krishna, still exists in the sea, although it is invisible to
the eyes of mortals. A story is told of a man named Pipo Bhagat,
who, once perceiving a golden bowl floating in the sea, plunged into
the water and saw the golden palaces of Dwarka and god Krishna resting
therein. It is said that he returned with the tide and related his
experience to several people. [500]
Similarly, the golden Lanka of Ravan is still believed to exist
under the sea, ruled over by Bibhishan, the brother of Ravan, and
visible only to the eyes of saints and holy persons. [501] It is a
common belief that the nether regions are inhabited by a species
of semi-divine beings, half men and half serpents, called Nags,
who possess magnificent palaces under the water. [502] The story of
Kaliya Nag, who resided at the bottom of the Jumna and was driven
from that place by Krishna, is well known. [503] There are a number
of mythological traditions in the Puranas of kings and princes having
visited these palaces in watery regions, and of their having brought
back beautiful Nagakanyas (daughters of Nags) therefrom. [504] For
instance, Arjuna married a Nagakanya named Ulupi when he was living
in exile with his brothers. He also stayed for some time with the Nags.
Ghosts and demons sometimes inhabit palaces under the water. Deep
waters, unfrequented by men, are the favourite resorts of such
beings. [505]
The god Varuna resides in the waters, and is said to have once carried
off Nand (the adoptive father of Krishna) to his watery abode, for
having bathed in the Jumna before dawn.
Kalindi, the daughter of the king of the Kalingas, practised religious
austerities in a palace under the waters of the Jumna with the object
of securing a suitable husband. Krishna, on being informed of this
by Arjuna, went to the place and married her. [506]
There is a story in the Puranas that a king, named Nandraj, used to
bury his treasures in the sea with the assistance of a mani (jewel)
which furnished a safe passage through the water. The mani was in the
end burnt by the queen of Nandraj and the treasure still lies hidden
in the waters of the sea. [507]
It is narrated in the fourth chapter of Bhagvat-puran that the ten
thousand sons of Prachetas used to reside in palaces built under
water. [508]
Mountains are held to be sacred in a variety of circumstances; thus,
some are valued for possessing medicinal drugs: some are revered as
the birthplaces of the gods, or as the residences of saints: some for
possessing many tirthas (holy spots): some because they were visited
by Rama or the Pandavas: some serve as guardians of the four quarters:
and some contain the sources of holy rivers.
Both the important ranges of the Presidency, the Sahyadri and the
Satpuda, are subjects of veneration in the popular mind. The Himalayas,
the Vindhya Mountains, and the Nilgiris command special respect. Other
sacred mountains are Girnar and Shetrunja in Kathiawar, Mount Abu,
Pavagad near Baroda, Brahmagiri Arasur, Tryambak near Nasik, Koyalo,
Govardhan near Mathura, Revatachal near Dwarka, and Hinglaj in Sind.
It is said that in ancient times there were deep miry ditches where
Girnar and Abu stand at present. One day a cow belonging to the sage
Vasishtha fell into one of them and was found by Kacha, the son of
Brihaspati, after a long search. When the incident was brought to the
notice of Vasishtha, he requested Meru (a mythical mountain) to send
his two sons Girnar and Abu to occupy and fill the ditches. Girnar
required sixty-eight tirthas to accompany him; and the boon was
granted by the gods. [509]
Girnar is one of the seven great mountains which once possessed
wings. [510] [511] It is also known as the place where the sage
Dattatraya performed religious austerities. [512] The place is so
holy that any person dying within a radius of twelve gaus [513]
from it is believed to attain moksha. [514] A visit to the temples
on Girnar absolves one from all sins; and taking a turn round Girnar
and Shetrunja is said to bring good fortune. [515] Bhagwan manifests
himself to those who ascend the Bhairavajaya summit on Girnar. There
is a rock on this mountain of which it is said that those who cast
themselves from it directly attain heaven. [516]
Pavagad is known for the temple of Mahakali Mata. It is said that King
Patai once propitiated her by austerities, and on being desired to
demand a boon, asked the goddess to accompany him to his palace. The
goddess was highly incensed at this request, and promptly destroyed
him.
Hanuman, the monkey-god, once promised to take the Mountain
Govardhan to meet Rama. It is well known how the monkey allies of Rama
constructed a bridge of rocks across the sea to Lanka, and how Hanuman
supplied the requisite material by fetching huge mountains. Whilst
engaged on this work, he was one day carrying the Govardhan mountain
to the site of the bridge, when Rama issued an order that all monkeys
who were fetching mountains should deposit their burdens at the spot
where they stood at the moment of the order. Hanuman could not disobey
the order of his lord, and he had accordingly to drop the Govardhan
mountain near Mathura. In order to fulfil Hanuman's promise, however,
Vishnu held the mountain over his head for seven days, at the time
of his Krishna incarnation.
It is said that the inhabitants of the districts round Govardhan
formerly revered and adored Indra. But Krishna condemned this custom,
and introduced the worship of Govardhan. Indra was exasperated
at this conduct, and poured tremendous rains on Gokal in order to
drown Krishna and his followers. But Krishna held up the Govardhan
mountain on his little finger and sheltered all his people under
its cover. The mountain was supported in this manner for seven days,
by the end of which the rains subsided and Indra confessed himself
vanquished. Even now Vaishnavas form an image of Govardhan out of
mud and worship it on the Janmashtami day (i.e., the eighth day of
the dark half of Shravan). [517]
The Oshama Hill near Patanvav (in the jurisdiction of Gondal) is
noted for the beautiful temples of Tapakeshwar Mahadev, and Matari
Mata. It is said that Bhima [518] the second of the five Pandavas,
first met the giantess Hidimba, on this hill. [519] The charcoal-like
stones which are dug out in numbers from this hill are believed by
the people to have been blackened by the blood of the giant Hidimb,
the brother of Hidimba who was killed by Bhima. [520]
Mount Shetrunja (or Shatruñjaya) possesses numerous Jain shrines and
attracts thousands of pilgrims every year. The hearts of all pilgrims
are believed to be purified from the moment they come within six
miles of the mountain. [521]
Mount Abu possesses the temple of Amba Mata where Krishna's hair
was clipped for the first time. [522] Tryambak is known for the
temple of Tryambakeshwar and the source of the holy Godavari. [523]
About Revatachal, it is said that the mountain was golden in ancient
times. [524] In the Vindhya Mountains is situated the famous temple of
Omkar Mandhata. [525] The hermitage of Kakbhushundi in the Nilgiris
was visited by Rama when he listened to the religious stories read
out by that sage. The sage Agatsya also is said to have resided in
these mountains. [526]
The temple of Hinglaj stands on a hill, which is situated at a distance
of eighteen days' journey by road from Karachi. The Mata is ministered
to by a Musalman and the place is mostly visited by Atits, Bavas,
Khatris, Chhipas, Mochis, and other low-caste Hindus. On occasions the
doors of the temple spontaneously open, and after the devotees have
visited the Mata, they again shut in the same mysterious manner.
As the abode of Shiva and as containing the sources of the holiest of
rivers, the Himalayas are the most sacred of all mountains, and possess
many holy places of pilgrimage, such as Badrinarayan, Kedarnath,
Hardwar, etc. Badrinarayan is the favourite resort of those who have
relinquished the world and who only wish to meditate on the Divine
Being. The sages Nara and Narayan are said to have performed religious
austerities in this place, and eighty-eight thousand rishis (sages)
are believed to be similarly occupied there to-day. Owing to the
excessive cold, the place is extremely difficult to reach. Pilgrims
carry burning hearths with them to protect themselves against
cold. Besides, it is necessary to cross the Pathar-nadi (or stony
river), of which the water, if touched, turns one into stone. The
method of crossing this river is to suspend sikans or slings above
its water and to swing from one sling to another. [527]
A hill called Swargarohan is believed to be twenty miles to the north
of Badrikedarnath and is said to lead to heaven. In ancient times the
Pandavas had repaired to this place in order to do penance for the
sin of having killed their kinsmen in the Great War. But when they
tried to ascend to heaven by the Swargarohan Hill, only Yudhishthir
and his faithful dog were able to reach their goal: the rest were
frozen in the snow.
Mount Kailasa, the abode of Shiva, is supposed to be situated in the
northern part of the Himalayas. The mountain is described as always
covered with verdure and full of beautiful gardens and of palaces
made of jewels, with roads paved with golden dust and sphatika-mani
(crystal stone). It is said that Ravan, the king of Lanka, once
uprooted this mountain and held it on the palm of his hand, in order
to display his prowess. The demon Bhasmasur, who was enamoured of the
goddess Parvati, is said to have performed the same feat in order to
frighten Shiva.
Another mythical mountain is Meru, which is supposed to occupy the
centre of the earth. [528] The sun, the moon, and all the planets
revolve round this mountain, and it therefore plays an important part
in the causation of day and night. For night falls on one side of
the earth when the sun goes to the other side of Meru; and the day
begins when the sun emerges from that side of the mountain. Meru is
sixty-eight thousand yojans [529] in height, and penetrates the earth
to the depth of sixteen thousand yojans. Its eastern side appears
white, the southern is yellow, the western is black, and the northern
red. The mountain is also believed to consist of gold and gems. The
Ganges, in her fall from the heavens, is said to have descended first
on the top of this mountain and then to have flowed in four streams
in four directions. The southern stream is known as the Ganges; the
northern, in Tartary, is called Bhadrasoma; the eastern is the same as
the Sita; and the western is named Chax or the Oxus. The top of this
mountain is believed to be inhabited by gods, gandharvas (celestial
musicians) and rishis (sages). [530] According to the Yoga-vasishtha,
there is a kalpa-vriksha [531] on the Lalmani summit of Meru, where
a rishi named Bhushundkak is engaged in devotional prayers since time
immemorial. [532] The Puranas declare that Vaivaswat Manu, the first
man, resided near Meru, and that his descendants migrated to Ayodhya
to found there a kingdom which was afterwards ruled over by Rama.
It is believed by some people that mountain-tops are inhabited by a
class of recluses, called Aghori-bavas, who devour human beings. [533]
The Kalika hill near Girnar is believed to be frequented by Joganis
(female harpies) who take the lives of visitors to the hill, and it
is said that none who visits the place is ever known to return. [534]
Persons who visit the temple of Kalikamata on Mount Girnar always
lose one of their party, who falls a victim to the goddess. [535]
The changes in the seasons are attributed by some to Brahma, Vishnu,
and Mahesha (Shiva), the gods of the Hindu Trinity. Brahma sends down
the rains and produces corn, grass, etc., Vishnu protects and nourishes
the harvests in winter, and Shiva causes the heat of the summer. [536]
There is also a belief that these three gods go down in turns to the
patal (nether regions) and stay there for four months. Vishnu descends
on the eleventh day of the bright half of Ashadh, and on that day the
rainy season begins. When Vishnu comes up and Shiva takes his place,
people experience the cold of winter: but as this god always keeps
a dhuni [537] burning near him, the waters under the surface of the
earth, such as those in the wells, remain hot during this period. Such
waters are cooled when Shiva returns and Brahma goes down to the patal:
but the return of Shiva causes summer on the earth. [538]
According to another belief, the sequence of the seasons is
controlled by the sun-god. [539] There are six ritus or seasons:
and the changes in the ritus depend upon the position of the sun in
the twelve rashis or signs of the Zodiac. [540] Each ritu lasts for
a period of two months, during which time the sun travels through two
rashis. Vasant-ritu is the period which the sun takes to pass through
the Min (Pisces) and Mesha (Aries) rashis. Grishma-ritu corresponds
to the time during which the sun passes through Vrishabha (Taurus)
and Mithun (Gemini). During Varsha-ritu the sun moves through
the signs Karka (Cancer) and Sinha (Leo), and during Sharad-ritu
through Kanya (Virgo) and Tula (Libra). Hemant-ritu is the time
which the sun takes to travel through Vrishchika (Scorpio) and Dhanu
(Sagittarius). Shishir-ritu occurs when the sun stands in the Makar
(Capricornus) and Kumbha (Aquarius) rashis. [541]
Indra (the god of rain), Varuna (the lord of all waters), Vayu (the god
of wind), Agni (the god of fire), and the moon-god are also believed
by some to have power over the seasons. [542]
The belief is as old as the Vedas that demons sometimes obstruct
the fall of rain, and confine the waters of the clouds. It is Indra
who fights with them and breaks through their castles by means of
his thunderbolt, sending down showers of rain for the benefit of
his worshippers. So, whenever there is an unusual drought, people
still invoke the aid of this god, and celebrate a festival in his
honour, called Ujjani or Indramahotsava. Homas [543] are performed to
propitiate the god, and Brahmans are entertained at a feast. Sometimes
the festival is celebrated outside the village, where people go in
large parties to dine together. The usual dish on such an occasion
is Meghladu or sweet balls of wheat-flour fried in ghi.
Another favourite ceremony supposed to cause rain to fall is the
submersion of the image of Shiva in water, by blocking up the khal or
passage in the Shiva-linga by which water poured over the image usually
runs off. This ceremony is known as Jala-jatra. Rudrabhisheka, or
the ceremony of pouring water in a constant stream over the image of
Shiva for eleven consecutive days and nights, is sometimes performed
with the same object. [544]
Sometimes the assistance of Shringhi rishi is invoked to bring about
a fall of rain. The rishi is installed in water, mantras are recited,
and prayers are offered before a sacrificial fire. This ceremony,
called Parjanya-shanti, is said to have been performed within recent
years in Bombay, and to have been successful in bringing rain. [545]
It is also said that rainfall can be caused by singing a song or
a sacred hymn to the malar tune. There is a tradition that the
well-known saint Narsinha Mehta once sang this tune on the occasion
of the celebration of the first pregnancy of his daughter, and the
performance was immediately followed by a shower of rain. Rain, which
is brought down in this manner, can be put a stop to by singing to
a different tune. [546]
Low-caste women have recourse to the following expedient to bring
rain. Five or six of them place a quantity of muddy earth on a wooden
stool, which is carried by one of them. The lump of mud is covered
with leaves of the Gidotan or Tindotan creeper, and is called mehulo
or meghalo. The whole party then sing songs, and visit every house
in the village. A bowl of water is poured over the mehulo and the
women receive some corn for their trouble. [547]
Some believe that when the worship of the village-gods is neglected
and when the people grow corrupt, ill-treat the saints and are
given to the killing of cows and Brahmans, Yama, the God of Death,
directs his colleagues, Indra and Varuna, to threaten the world with a
drought. The rainfall returns only when the people revert to righteous
ways, and after Indra and Varuna have been conciliated by offerings.
The lower classes of the people believe a prolonged cessation of rain
to be due to the wrath of local minor deities, aroused by the neglect
of their worship. In such a contingency, therefore, they prepare baklan
[548] of udad (lentils), lapsi, [549] vadan [550] and other dishes,
and offer them to the local gods for their propitiation. [551]
To stop an incessant fall of rain, people often observe the Aladra
vow. The patel or headman issues a proclamation that on a particular
day none should cook, or churn whey, or fetch water, or wash clothes,
or attend to any of the multifarious household duties; but that all
should pass the day in prayer. A complete cessation from toil in favour
of earnest devotion to divine powers are the peculiar features of this
vow. People do not abstain from food: but food must be prepared on
the previous day. If the rains do not cease in spite of this vow, but
threaten the village with inundation, the headman leads a procession to
the confines of the village and makes an offering to the waters. [552]
In some places a spinning wheel, sometimes specially constructed
of human bones, [553] is turned by a naked person in the reverse
direction to the usual one, with the object of causing the cessation
of immoderate rainfall. [554]
A cessation of rains is also believed to be brought about by offering
an oblation to the god Kasatia, and by the observance of the vow called
Kasatia ganth (or tying the knot of Kasatia). The vow lasts for three
weeks, and those who observe it do not partake of anything except rice
[555] (or, according to others, jiran, a kind of spice [556]).
Some persons attribute a heavy fall of rain to the wrath of Indra,
and offer ceremonious prayers to appease that god. [557] In some
places people engage the services of magicians to restrain the fall of
rain. [558] Farmers sometimes brand the rain by casting burning sparks
upon it in order to stop an incessant fall. [559] Vows in honour of
samudra (the ocean) are also observed with the same object.
In the changing circumstances of life, women more readily have recourse
to religious vows for the fulfilment of their wishes than men. This
fondness of women for vows has brought into vogue a number of vrats or
religious observances which are practised by women only. Gangigor or
Ganagor, Vat-Savitri, Molakat, Goutrat, Alavana or Alunda, Eva-vrat,
Tulsi-vrat, Uma masheshwar-vrat, and Surya-vrat are instances of
such vows. The Molakat-vrat is observed by virgins from the
eleventh to the fifteenth day of the bright half of Ashadh. [560]
The Goutrat-vrat is believed to secure male progeny, as well as long
life to the husband. It is observed on the fourth day of the dark
half of Shravana, on which day women fast till the evening, and then
take food after worshipping a cow. [561] The object of the Eva-vrat
(or Jiva-vrat) is to secure eternal exemption from widowhood, the
day for this vow being the last day of Ashadh. It is then necessary
to observe a fast till the evening; and the only food allowed is a
preparation of wheat, taken at nightfall. [562]
On the fourth day of the dark half of Shravan, women observe a vrat
called Bolchoth. In the morning the woman worships a cow and her calf
(which must both be of the same colour), applies a little cotton to
the horns of the cow, and makes an auspicious mark on the foreheads
of both with red lac. She then places an offering of betel and rice
before the cow, takes four turns round the pair, and whispers in the
ears of the cow the words tarun satya marun vritya (your truth and
my devotion). A Brahman then recites the legend of the vrat. [563]
After narrating this story, the Brahman takes the betel and other
things placed before the cow. The woman then returns home and takes
food for the first time during that day, the meal consisting of loaves
of bajra-flour and some preparation of mag (phaseolus mungo). Some
women take ghi and khir: but any preparation of cow's milk is strictly
forbidden. Similarly, there is a prohibition against using things
which have been cut by a knife or scissors. [564]
The worship of the goddess Randal is a favourite vrat with Gujarati
women. A bower is erected for the installation of the goddess, and
a bajat or a wooden stool is placed therein. A piece of fine cloth
is spread on the bajat, and a figure is drawn in seeds of corn. A
kalasio or bowl, with a cocoanut on it, is placed over the figure. The
cocoanut has two eyes painted on it in black collyrium and a nose in
red lac, and is decorated with rich clothes and ornaments to represent
the goddess Randal. Ghi lamps are kept constantly burning before the
goddess for three consecutive days and nights. An invitation is sent
to the neighbouring women, who bring offerings of ghi to the goddess,
and dance in a group at night to the accompaniment of melodious garabis
(songs). [565] Sometimes, if a child is ill, or some misfortune is
apprehended, goranis, i.e., a certain number of unmarried girls and
unwidowed women, are invited to a feast in honour of Randal.
On the Nagapanchami day, i.e., the 5th day of the bright half of
Shravan, [566] women draw an image of a nag (cobra), and worship it
with sprouts of bajra. In some places it is the custom to avoid all
food but khichedi [567] on this day.
The wad (the banyan tree) is worshipped on the first day of the dark
half of Shravan. On that day the woman wears a necklace of fifteen
leaves of this tree and prepares a dish called navamuthium. [568]
A dora or piece of string is also worn on the person to ward off
evil. [569]
Rishi-panchami, [570] Gauri-pujan, Shitalai-pujan, Shili-satem are
holidays observed only by women. On the Rishi-panchami day only niar
[571] rice is allowed to those who observe the vrat. [572]
Besides the observance of vrats, there are other ceremonies,
auspicious as well as inauspicious, in which women alone can take
part. Only women are concerned with all those ceremonies which are
gone through on the birth of a child. On the twelfth day after birth,
a name is given to the child by its aunt. The ceremony of making an
auspicious mark on the throne of a king is performed by an unwidowed
woman or an unmarried girl. [573]
At the time of a marriage, women make the auspicious mark on the
forehead of the bridegroom and carry a laman-divo [574] to fetch
ukardi. For nine days preceding the date of marriage the bride and
the bridegroom are besmeared with pithi or yellow turmeric powder,
when auspicious songs are recited by a party of women invited to
witness the ceremony. When the bridegroom reaches the entrance of
the marriage bower, he is welcomed there by his mother-in-law, who
carries him on her hip to his seat in the marriage booth. [575]
It is necessary to make certain marks on the corpse of a woman, and
these marks are made by women only. [576] Similarly, women alone take
part in the ceremony of getting a widow's hair shaved on the ninth
day after her husband's death. [577]
The Shastras have enjoined the worship of certain higher-grade deities,
and have prescribed certain ceremonials for the purpose. But women are
not authorised to make use of these ceremonies. The reason is that
the Shastras regard women as inferior to men and do not grant them
the privileges given to the latter. They are not allowed to learn
the Vedas nor can the Gayatri-mantra be taught to them. The result
is that women are not qualified to perform the ceremonial worship
of such higher-grade deities as Vishnu, Shiva, Durga, Ganpati,
and Hanuman; [578] similarly the sacrificial rites of Vishnuyag,
Shaktiyag, Ashvamedha, Raja-yajna, and Gayatri-purashcharan can only
be performed by men. [579]
It is the duty of men only to worship the shami tree (prosopis
spicegera) on the Dasara day, and the Hutashani fire on the day
of Holi.
Women are not allowed to worship the god Kartikey, who is said to
shun women, and to have pronounced a curse against all who visit
his image.
The fifteenth day of the bright half of Chaitra is the anniversary of
the birth of Hanuman, and a vrat called Hanuman-jayanti is observed
on this day. This vrat, [580] as well as the Ganesh-chaturthi-vrat
[581] are meant only for men.
The ceremonies of Shraddha [582] and the Baleva [583] ceremonies
can be performed by men only. The duty of giving agni-sanskar
to corpses, i.e., of performing the necessary rites at a funeral,
is also laid on men.
People who practise the art of attaining mastery over spirits and
fiends, usually remain naked while they are engaged in the performance
of their mysterious rites. There are many branches of this black
art: for instance, Maran, [584] Uchchatan, [585] Lamban, Vashikaran,
[586] Mohan, [587] Stambhan, [588] etc., and although the meli vidya
(sacrilegious art) is not held in respect by high-class Hindus, it is
popular among the lower classes. There is a belief that knowledge of
this art dooms a person to hell; but it secures to those who master it
a position of much importance, and therefore finds many followers. The
art consists in the knowledge of certain mysterious incantations,
which enable a person to influence the spirits and to bring about
certain results through their agency. Not only has every person when
learning this art, to remain naked, but all those who make prayogas
or experiments in it afterwards must observe the same precaution. The
night of Kali-chaudas or the 14th day of the dark half of Ashvin,
is considered to be the most favourable time for the sadhan or
accomplishment of this secret art of remaining naked. [589] On this
day, it is the custom of those who exercise the art, to go stripped
to a cemetery in the dead of night, and to cook food in a human skull
as an offering to the spirits residing in the neighbourhood. On the
same night, some sorcerers, after stripping themselves, are said to
ride round the village on some mysterious conveyance. [590]
A practice is noted among low-class people of performing a sadhana
before the goddess Jhampadi for the sake of progeny. The man who
performs the sadhana, has first to go naked to a cemetery on a Sunday
night, and to fetch therefrom the ashes of a corpse. At the time of
the sadhana, the man takes his seat on a corpse, fills a madaliun or
hollow bracelet with the ashes brought from the cemetery, and puts
it on his arm above the elbow. [591]
Dhobis, Malis, Valands and other low-caste people remain naked
while worshipping Bhairav. [592] In the performance of the anushthan
(propitiation) of such deities as Kal-Bhairav, [593] Batuk, Mani,
[594] Griva, etc., the devotees keep their persons uncovered. The
worshippers of the goddess Jakshani also remain naked when they attend
upon her. [595]
Persons who practise the art of curing men from the effects of
serpent-bites by means of incantations, have to sit naked under water
in order to gain efficacy for their mantras.
Followers of the Devi-panth, Shakti-panth and Aghori-panth sects
remain naked while worshipping or offering victims to their gods. [596]
Vama-margis worship a nude image of the goddess Digambara.
The hook-shaped instrument, known as ganeshio, which is used by
thieves in boring a hole through the walls of a house, is sometimes
prepared by a blacksmith and his wife on the night of Kali-chaudas,
both being naked at the time. Instruments prepared in this fashion
are believed to secure success for the thief, who scrupulously sets
aside the first booty acquired by the help of the ganeshio for the
blacksmith as a reward for his services. He does not grudge the reward
however large the booty may be.
In making dice according to the directions of Ramalashastra, the
workers should remain naked.
There is a belief that granulations in the eyes of a child are cured
if the maternal uncle fetches naked the beads of the Arani tree,
and puts a circlet of them round the neck of the child. [597]
If a person uncovers himself on hearing the screech of an owl, and then
ties and unties seven knots in a piece of string, repeating the process
twenty-one times, the piece of string is believed to possess the virtue
of curing Taria Tav or periodical fever. [598] Another remedy for the
same ailment is to go to a distance of three miles from the village
and there to eat food which has been cooked in a state of nudity.
In the preparation of Nargudikalpa [599] or Gujakalpa, some drugs
have to be procured by a naked person. [600]
It is considered meritorious by some persons to rise early in the
morning and to bathe naked on the Makar Sankranti day. [601]
A Brahman boy must be naked at the time of the performance of his
thread investiture ceremony. After the ceremony, the maternal uncle
of the boy presents garments to him, which he thereupon puts on. [602]
In Gujarat, for the most part, the people seem to be unacquainted
with the belief that certain stones possess the virtue of influencing
the rain. Some persons however attribute this quality to the stones
on such sacred mounts as Girnar, Abu, and Pavagadh. [603] There is a
point called Tonk, on mount Girnar, of which it is said that rain is
certain to fall whenever anyone succeeds in climbing it. [604] There
is also a common belief that arasi marble if heated has influence
over rain. [605]
It is a common practice to submerge the image [606] of Shiva in
water with the object of bringing rain. Similarly the image of
the goddess Harshadh is sometimes bathed when rain is desired. [607]
The bhuva or the bhui, i.e., the male and the female attendants of
the goddess are at the same time given a bath, and an offering of Khir
[608] is made to the goddess.
There are two goals which a pious Hindu tries to attain by leading
a life of purity and virtue, viz., (i) moksha or final emancipation,
merging into the Eternal Spirit, and (ii) swarga (heaven or paradise)
where meritorious persons enjoy pure pleasures unalloyed by earthly
cares. The stars are the spirits of so many righteous persons who are
translated to swarga for their good actions, and are endowed with a
lustre proportionate to their individual merits. But every moment of
enjoyment in swarga diminishes the store of merit: and those whose
whole merit is thus exhausted, on receiving their proportionate share
of pleasures, must resume their worldly existence. The Bhagavad-gita
says: "ksine punye martyalokam visanti" i.e., "they enter the mortal
world when their merit is expended." Meteors are believed to be
spirits of this description who fall from their position as stars,
to live again on this earth. [609]
Another explanation of meteors is that they are the sparks produced
when the vimans (or vehicles) of celestial people clash against each
other. [610]
Meteors are also held to be the agar or charak (i.e., excreta) dropped
either by a curious water-bird, or by Garud, the favourite eagle,
and vehicle of Vishnu, [611] or by a fabulous bird Anal. [612] The
latter is said to fly at an immeasurable height from the surface
of the earth, and to take food only once a day. It is almost
impossible to catch the charak when it falls to earth: but if ever
it can be secured, the application of it to the eyes of a blind man
will restore his eyesight. It also furnishes an effective remedy for
leprosy, and gives a golden lustre to the body of a person suffering
from that disease.
Some declare that meteors are stars which fall owing to the curse of
Indra, and subsequently assume the highest human form on earth. [613]
It is also said that the stars descend to earth in human form when
sins accumulate in the celestial world. [614]
The influence of meteors on human affairs is treated at length in the
Varahasanhita. [615] The phenomenon is popularly regarded as an evil
omen: it is supposed to portend devastation by fire, an earthquake,
a famine, an epidemic, danger from thieves, and storms at sea. [616]
The appearance of a bright shooting star is supposed to foretell the
death of some great man; [617] and on beholding one, it is customary
to repeat the words 'Ram Ram' [618] several times. [619] A shower of
meteors is believed to presage some civil commotion or a change in
the ruling dynasties.
Some persons, however, regard the appearance of meteors as auspicious
or baneful, according to the mandal or group of stars, from which they
are seen to fall. Meteors from the Vayu-mandal, (or the group of stars
known by the name of Vayu) portend the breaking out of an epidemic:
those from Varuna-mandal, are believed to be favourable to human
happiness; if they fall from Indra-mandal, they forebode danger to
all kings; those from Agni-mandal, threaten war between nations. [620]
During the monsoons, rain is believed to fall in that direction
in which a meteor is seen to shoot. [621] A meteor in the west is
ominous to kings, and if it falls into the sea, it forebodes evil to
the dwellers on earth. [622]
The appearance of a comet is believed to portend some dire calamity
to the king and the nation. It is said that if a heavenly body
is seen, chhogalo, [623] chhogala kings (i.e., great and celebrated
kings) are in danger of their lives. [624] A comet is also believed
to threaten all tailed animals with destruction.