FOLK LORE NOTES.
Vol. I--GUJARAT.
COMPILED FROM MATERIALS COLLECTED BY
the late A. M. T. JACKSON, indian civil service.
R. E. ENTHOVEN, c.i.e., i.c.s.
BRITISH INDIA PRESS, MAZGAON BOMBAY.
1914
INTRODUCTION.
The circumstances attending the murder of Mr. A. M. T. Jackson in
Nasik in December 1909 led to the raising of a small subscription
among his friends, to be devoted to a memorial in some shape or form,
showing the respect and affection with which he was regarded in
Western India. A large part of the fund then raised was expended on
the purchase of his valuable library, which now forms a part of the
collection owned by the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. It
was subsequently decided that the balance could not be better spent
than in defraying the cost of publishing certain folklore materials
which he had collected and intended, at the time of his untimely death,
to publish in the pages of the Indian Antiquary. These materials were
the result of an enquiry set on foot by him about the year 1900. His
plan of operation was to forward, through the agency of the Education
Department, Crooke's list of folklore questions to schoolmasters in
various parts of the Presidency. The question paper is given below;
the replies form the raw material from which these notes have been
compiled. For convenience they are divided into two series: Gujarat
and the Konkan.
I desire at the outset of these introductory remarks to explain that,
when at the request of the memorial committee I undertook the task
of seeing these notes through the press, I did not contemplate any
critical handling of the materials found in the papers made over
to me. I had neither the leisure nor the knowledge to carry out
Mr. Jackson's intention, i.e., to edit the notes carefully with
such criticisms and comparisons as his ripe scholarship would have
suggested. I make no claim, therefore, to have effected more than
to have rescued from the wastepaper basket a number of replies to
questions regarding the beliefs of the people in Gujarat and the
Konkan. The notes as now presented doubtless contain much that is
trivial, and possibly many inaccuracies; but among them students of
folklore may on the other hand discover material of real value--such
as they are, they will, I trust, repay careful study, and perhaps
serve one day to form the basis of a further and more comprehensive
examination of the folk-lore of the Bombay Presidency--an examination
which should not be too long deferred, for the old practices and
beliefs are yearly tending to decay and vanish in contact with
the spread of education. The field for enquiry is wide and rich,
but workers fail to come forward; and meanwhile the old beliefs and
practices slowly disappear. On the subjects with which these notes
deal, much information of value has already been collected and recorded
by another oriental scholar, the late Sir James Campbell, K.C.I.E.,
and will be found partly in the pages of the Bombay Gazetteer, and
partly in the notes on the Spirit Basis of Belief and Custom which he
published from time to time in the Indian Antiquary. The present notes
carry striking confirmation of Sir James Campbell's theory regarding
the extent to which beliefs and religious practices in this country
can be traced to the desire to propitiate spirit presences. It may be
remarked that Campbell's work in the domain of Indian folk-lore does
not seem to have received the notice that it deserves in the works
of writers on folk-lore generally, possibly because so much of it is
buried in the pages of the Bombay Gazetteer or in scattered numbers
of the Indian Antiquary. The notes would amply repay the labour of
republication, with a summary and suitable index. They deal very
fully with spirit worship and possession, witchcraft and magic,
and the evil eye. They differ from the present notes in being to
a large extent comparative, assembling under the various heads of
ancestor worship, spirit haunts, spirit possession, exorcism, etc.,
kindred beliefs from all parts of the world. Doubtless his work to
no small extent suggested to Mr. Jackson the line of enquiry which
is contained in the question paper. From the materials accumulated by
these two scholars a comprehensive study of the folk-lore of western
India may one day be compiled.
The notes illustrate very fully the common beliefs in unseen presences
causing mischief of various kinds. They illustrate the common methods
of protection by propitiation, of spirit and disease scaring, and of
avoidance of the effects of the evil eye. A full list will be found
(pp. 126-130) of the lucky and unlucky omens besetting the undertaking
of various acts, and much information is recorded regarding lucky and
unlucky numbers, and spirit scaring names which has not, so far as I
am aware, been made public before. Ceremonies for exorcising spirits
that have possessed human beings are given in some detail. There will
also be found an account of the interpretation commonly put on such
natural phenomena as the rainbow, an eclipse, thunder, lightning,
meteors, comets, &c.
Many examples are given of the beliefs regarding the means for securing
successful pregnancy. The trees and animals worshipped in the country
side are described, with the ceremony that is held to be suitable in
each case. An unusually interesting belief is that which attributes to
a certain lake in Gujarat the power to transform males into females
and vice versa (see p. 39). The curing of diseases by the wearing of
magic threads and the application of mantras or holy verses is also
dealt with in some detail. Finally a list is given of the shrines of
the country side with the tradition regarding the holy man in whose
honour and to whose memory they have been erected. They are for the
most part worshipped alike by Hindu and Musalman.
In conclusion, I would refer once more to the fact that no attempt
has been made to edit critically the information embodied in these
notes. In the scanty leisure available after official demands
on my time have been met, it has only been possible to see the
materials through the press as they stood, after translation. The
task has been greatly lightened by the generous assistance received
from R. B. P. B. Joshi who undertook the preparation of the whole
of the MSS. of the Konkan series. I am also greatly indebted to
Mr. G. M. Kalelkar for many arduous hours of work on the compilation of
the Gujarat papers. To both these gentlemen my cordial thanks are due
for their co-operation. If the publication of these materials serve
to stimulate interest in the subject of Indian folk-lore, they will
not have been printed in vain. Such as they are, they will, I trust,
remain as a small tribute to the memory of an oriental scholar, of
no mean merit, of whose services India was deprived in so untimely
a manner.
R. E. Enthoven.
QUESTIONS ON FOLKLORE.
By W. CROOKE, Late of the Indian Civil Service.
Author of the Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India.
I. NATURE POWERS.
1. Give any indications of the connection of the worship of the Deota
or minor local deities with the lower races, as, for instance, where
the village deity is served by a priest drawn from the lower castes.
2. Give any current beliefs about sun worship. How and at what
periodical feasts is the worship conducted and what form of ritual
is adopted?
3. Give any customs of moving round temples or sacred objects in the
course of the sun in the heavens: cases in which women after childbirth
are exposed to the sun: conception believed to be caused by exposure
to the rays of the sun: the use of the Swastika as an emblem.
4. Give any legends or customs connected with moon worship: the spots
on the surface of the moon: the moon as a healer of disease: the
custom of drinking the moon's rays: any ceremonies at new or full moon.
5. Give any legends and rites connected with eclipses.
6. Similarly for star worship; superstitions connected with the
rainbow; the milky way.
7. Rites connected with worship of the earth mother: sacred things
not to fall on earth: occasions when people sleep on the earth.
8. Superstitions connected with thunder and lightning.
9. Popular belief regarding earthquakes.
10. Collect instances of and ritual for worship of sacred rivers;
springs; waterfalls; water spirits and goblins: prejudice against
saving drowning people: ceremonies at digging and dedication of wells:
well water as a cure for disease: instances of sacred lakes: palaces
under the water.
11. Instances of sacred mountains and legends connected with them:
dread of climbing mountains.
12. Name any deities supposed to control the weather, and describe
the modes of causing or averting rain, of checking storms and hail.
13. Give instances of any rites in which women alone take part or
from which they are excluded: any rites in which the worshipper must
be nude.
14. Are there any sacred stones which are believed to influence
the rain?
15. Note any superstitions in connection with aerolites and meteors.
II. THE HEROIC GODLINGS.
16. Describe the ritual and any legends or superstitions connected
with the worship of Hanuman, Bhimsen, Bhishma.
17. Name and describe the local deities most generally worshipped in
your neighbourhood. What legends are connected with them; who are
their priests; what offerings and on what occasions are offerings
made to them?
18. How is the local deity of a new settlement selected and installed?
19. What local deity is considered responsible for crops and
cattle? When and how is he worshipped?
20. Describe the worship of Bhairon or Bhairava, Ganesa, the Matris
or Mothers, the deities of the jungle, those who assist parturition.
III. DISEASE DEITIES.
21. Describe the worship of any deities who are believed to have the
power of averting or causing disease, such as cholera, small pox,
fever, etc.
22. Is epidemic disease attributed to witchcraft, and, if so, what
precautions are taken? Give particulars of observances in connection
with cattle disease.
23. What methods are in vogue for the exorcism of disease? Give
examples of any rural charms used for this purpose.
24. Is dancing used in exorcism? If so, give instances of religious
dances.
25. What are the position and functions of the village sorcerer and
how is he appointed?
26. Give examples of the offering of rags, coins, etc., at sacred
trees, wells, etc.
27. Give any methods of transferring disease to another person.
28. Give instances of the use of scapegoats.
IV. THE WORSHIP OF ANCESTORS AND SAINTS.
29. Give instances of worship of ancestors: the belief that spirits
are mortal and that the spirits of the dead are re-born in children.
30. Give instances of miracle-working tombs, and of saints who have
been deified in modern times.
31. Give instances of Muhammadan saints whose worship has been adopted
by Hindus.
32. Give the rural methods in vogue for the cure of barrenness.
V. THE WORSHIP OF THE MALEVOLENT DEAD.
33. What are the current beliefs as to the cause of dreams and the
omens derived from them?
34. Is it considered possible for the soul to leave the body
temporarily? If so, give instances.
35. What is the popular conception of the character and functions of
the Bhut or disembodied soul?
36. What beliefs are current as to the state of the soul after death;
the path to the other world: the condition of souls in the other world:
the possibility of the soul returning thence?
37. What belief is current as to the souls of those dying by a sudden
or violent death?
38. What are believed to be the appearance and habits of the Bhut?
39. In what way do spirits enter or leave the body?
40. What is the current theory regarding sneezing and yawning?
41. What is known of the Rakshasa or malevolent demon?
42. Name and describe any other varieties of malignant spirits.
43. Do any evil spirits go about headless?
44. What special evil spirits infest burial or cremation grounds,
and what are the other haunts of such spirits?
45. Does any special class of evil spirit infest mountains, jungles,
trees?
46. What fiends attack the young mother and her child?
47. What belief prevails as to the spirits of those killed by tigers
or other wild beasts?
48. What form does the ghost of a woman dying at childbirth or during
her menses assume?
49. Is there any belief that the father has to take special precautions
at the birth of his child?
50. Is there any belief in a connection of the bat or owl with spirits
of the dead?
51. Describe the evil spirits which haunt ruins and guard buried
treasure: or occupy caves and mines.
VI. THE EVIL EYE AND THE SCARING OF GHOSTS.
52. Describe the belief in the Evil eye and the modes of evading it.
53. Does the belief in giving opprobrious names to children prevail,
and if so, how is it accounted for?
54. Can you give instances of change of sex?
55. Illustrate the value of the following protection against evil
spirits--iron and other metals: coral and shells: precious stones:
blood: incense: spittle: salt: water: grain: colours: grasses:
tattooing: leather: garlic: glass.
56. Describe the amulets generally used.
57. Illustrate the sacred circle as a protective.
58. Illustrate the belief in omens, numbers, lucky and unlucky days.
59. What means are adopted to help the spirit to the other world, to
prevent it from returning and to secure its good-will to the survivors?
60. Illustrate the prevalence of earth burial and cremation: the
customs of shaving the hair: placing food or other articles for the
use of the dead.
61. Does the spirit reappear in the form of insects and animals?
62. Are the earthen vessels of the household broken at death: if so,
why? Describe rites connected with mourning.
63. What spirits are benevolent?
64. Illustrate the belief in tree spirits.
65. What spirits are special protectors of crops and cattle?
66. What spirits are invoked to frighten children?
VII. TREE AND SERPENT WORSHIP.
67. Name any sacred groves in your neighbourhood and describe any
prejudice against cutting trees.
68. Are any trees specially connected with any local deity or saint?
69. Name any trees which receive particular respect or devotion and
note any legends or superstitions in connection with them.
70. Does the custom of marrying a bride or bridegroom to a tree
prevail? Any instances of marriage to a god: religious prostitution.
71. Give instances of snake worship and shrines of serpent deities:
of deified snake heroes.
72. Does the belief prevail that snakes guard treasure? Give details.
73. What snake festivals are observed? Describe the ritual.
74. What is the village treatment of snake-bite?
75. The snake has a jewel in his head: he is connected with the
rainbow: he has a palace under the water: he weds mortal girls:
he protects the household--illustrate these beliefs.
VIII. TOTEMISM AND FETISHISM.
76. Can you quote any beliefs which are suggestive of Totemism? Are
any clans named after or do they claim descent from animals or
plants? What animals are treated with special respect by particular
tribes? Do special castes refuse to eat any special food?
77. Are any local deities specially associated with animal worship?
78. Illustrate the worship of stocks and stones. Is any respect shown
to perforated stones?
79. Are there any modern survivals of human sacrifice?
80. Are fetish stones supposed to cure disease or to be the abode
of spirits?
81. Are any fetishes peculiar to particular families or castes?
82. Is special respect shown to the corn sieve, the winnowing basket,
the broom, the rice pounder, the plough?
83. Give instances of fire worship. Is the sacred fire maintained in
any shrine? Is fire made by friction for special rites?
IX. ANIMAL WORSHIP.
84. Illustrate from local examples the worship or respect paid to the
horse, ass, lion, tiger, dog, goat, cow, buffalo, antelope, elephant,
cat, rat and mouse, squirrel, bear, jackal, hare, crow, fowl, dove
and pigeon, swan, and other birds, alligators, fish and insects,
and give any legend or superstition in connection with them.
X. WITCHCRAFT.
85. How far does the belief in witches and their powers prevail? Do
they appear as animals and have they special haunts and seasons?
86. What ordeals are used to test a witch and what means to guard
against her witchcraft?
XI. GENERAL.
87. Describe the rural ceremonies in connection with ploughing,
sowing the various crops, reaping and harvesting.
88. Rites intended for the protection of cattle; to ensure sunshine
and favourable weather: to scare noxious animals or insects: to
protect special crops: illustrate these from local custom.
89. Are there any rites in which secrecy and silence are essential?
90. Describe the observances at the Holi.
91. Give details of any rites performed when boys or girls attain
puberty.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
Nature Powers. Page.
Worship of minor local deities. Sun-worship. Circumambulation
round images and other sacred objects. Exposure of women to the Sun
after child-birth. The Swastika. Moon-worship. Eclipses. Worship
of planets and stars. The rainbow. The milky way. Worship of
the earth. Thunder and lightning. Earthquakes. Worship of sacred
rivers, springs and pools. Water spirits and goblins. Ceremonies
at digging of wells. Well water as a cure for disease. Sacred
Lakes. Palaces under the water. Sacred mountains. Deities who
control the weather. Methods of causing or averting rain and
of checking storms. Vratas or religious vows practised only
by women. Rites in which women are excluded. Rites in which
the worshipper must be nude. Superstitions in connection with
aerolites and meteors. 1
CHAPTER II.
The Heroic Godlings.
The worship of Hanuman, Bhimsen and Bhishma. Local
deities. Installation of deities in new settlements. Deities
responsible for crops and cattle. The worship of Bhairow, Ganesh,
Matrikas or mothers, the deities of the jungle and the deities
who preside over childbirth. 54
CHAPTER III.
Disease Deities.
Deities who can cause or avert diseases such as cholera, small pox,
fever, etc. Causes of the outbreak of cholera. Remedies adopted
to stop cholera. Causes of the outbreak of small pox. Remedies
adopted for the cure of small pox. Causes of fever. Remedies
adopted in cases of fever. Cattle diseases. Remedies practised by
the village people in connection with them. The methods for the
exorcism of disease. Methods of expelling evil spirits from the
body. The village sorcerer. Offerings of rags, coins, etc. at
sacred trees and wells. The transferring of disease from one
person to another. Scapegoats. 74
CHAPTER IV.
The worship of ancestors and saints.
Shraddhas and other ceremonies performed for the propitiation and
emancipation of the deceased. Worship of the founders of religious
sects, of saints, etc. Ghosts. The length of their life. Rebirth
of ancestors in the same family. Miracle-working tombs. Muhammadan
saints whose worship has been adopted by Hindus. Rural methods
for the cure of barrenness. 89
CHAPTER V.
The worship of the malevolent dead.
Popular notions about dreams. Auspicious and inauspicious
dreams. Temporary abandonment of the body by the soul. Character
and functions of the bhut or disembodied soul. The state of the
soul after death. The rebirth of the soul. The souls of persons
dying a sudden or violent death. The ways by which ghosts enter
and leave the body. Methods of driving away evil spirits from the
body. Beliefs regarding sneezing and yawning. Rakshasa or the
malevolent demon. Maharakshasas. Other malignant spirits. Evil
spirits which go about headless. The haunts of evil spirits. Ghosts
of women dying an unnatural death. Spirits of persons killed
by tigers and other wild beasts. Ghosts of women dying in
child-bed or menses. Precautions taken by parents at the birth of
children. Beliefs in connection with bats and owls. Spirits which
haunt ruins, guard buried treasure and occupy valleys. 102
CHAPTER VI.
The evil eye and the scaring of ghosts.
Effects of the evil eye. Objects liable to be influenced by
the evil eye. Precautions taken to evade the influence of the
evil eye. Opprobrious names. Change of sex. Protection against
evil spirits. Amulets. Charmed circles. Omens. Numbers. Lucky
and unlucky days. Rites performed to help the soul to the
other world. Cremation and burial. The customs of shaving the
hair. Offerings of food to the dead. Manifestation of evil spirits
in form. The practice of breaking earthen vessels at death. Rites
connected with mourning. Benevolent spirits. Spirits which haunt
trees. The guardian spirits of crops and cattle. Spirits invoked
to frighten children. 120
CHAPTER VII.
Tree and Serpent worship.
Trees connected with deities and saints. Legends and superstitions
connected with them. Marriage of brides and bridegrooms
to trees. Snake worship. Shrines of snake deities. Deified
snakes. Snakes guarding treasure. The village treatment of
snake-bite. The jewel in the head of the snake. Its connection
with the rainbow. Weddings of snakes with human beings. Guardian
snakes. 136
CHAPTER VIII.
Totemism and Fetishism.
Names derived from animals. Names derived from plants. Clan names
derived from trees and animals. Sacred animals. Deities associated
with animal worship. Worship of stocks and stones. Survivals of
human sacrifice. Disease-curing stones. Respect shown to corn
sieves, corn pounders, the broom and the plough. Fire worship. 144
CHAPTER IX.
Animal worship.
Sacred animals and the legends and superstitions connected
with them. 150
CHAPTER X.
Witchcraft.
Human and ghost by Dakans or witches. 152
CHAPTER XI.
General.
Rural ceremonies connected with agricultural operations. Rites
performed for the protection of cattle. Rites performed for scaring
noxious animals and insects. Rites performed for ensuring sunshine
and favourable weather. Rites performed for the protection of
crops. Rites in which secrecy and silence are observed. The
observances at the Holi festival. Rites performed when girls
attain puberty. 153
THE FOLKLORE OF GUJARAT
NATURE POWERS
CHAPTER I
Besides the higher-grade deities, whose worship is enjoined and
treated of in the Shastras and Puranas, numerous other minor deities,
none of whom however find a place in the Scriptures, are worshipped
by the lower classes. The principle underlying the whole fabric of
the worship of these minor deities, who for the most part are the
spirits of dead ancestors or heroes, has more in it of fear for their
power of harming than of love for their divine nature. All untoward
occurrences in domestic affairs, all bodily ailments and unusual
natural phenomena, inexplicable to the simple mind of the villager,
are attributed to the malignant action of these nameless and numerous
spirits, hovering over and haunting the habitations of men. [1] The
latent dread of receiving injuries from these evil spirits results in
the worship by the low-class people of a number of devas and matas, as
they are called. The poor villager, surrounded on all sides by hosts
of hovering spirits, ready to take offence, or even to possess him,
on the smallest pretext, requires some tangible protector to save him
from such malign influences. He sets up and enshrines the spirit
that he believes to have been beneficent to him, and so deserving of
worship, and makes vows in its honour, often becoming himself the
officiating priest. Each such deity has its own particular thanak
(sthana) or locality. Thus there is hardly a village which has not
a particular deity of its own. But in addition to this deity, others
in far off villages are generally held in high esteem.
There are a number of ways in which these lower-class deities
can be installed. Their images are made either of wood, stone, or
metal. [2] No temples or shrines are erected in their honour. [3] An
ordinary way of representing them is by drawing a trident, (trishul,
a weapon peculiar to god Shiva) in red-lead and oil on an upright
slab of stone on a public road, on any dead wall, on the confines
of a village, or a mountain side, or a hill top, in an underground
cellar, or on the bank of a stream. [4] Some people paint tridents in
their own houses. The trishul, or trident, may also be made of wood,
in which case its three points are plastered with red-lead and oil
and covered with a thin coating of tin. [5] Sometimes carved wooden
images in human shape, daubed over with red-lead and oil, are placed
in a small wooden chariot or in a recess about a foot square. In
some shrines two brooms or whisks of peacock's feathers are placed
on either side of the image. [6] A slight difficulty overcome or a
disease remedied by a vow in honour of any of these deities offers
the occasion for an installation, and in all future emergencies of
the same kind similar vows are observed. A mata installed to protect
a fortress or a street is called a Gadheri Mata, and the worshippers
of a fortress, or street, mother are known as Pothias. [7] At the time
of installation flags are hoisted near the dedicated places. A troop
of dancers with jingling anklets recite holy verses, while the bhuva,
exorcist-priest, performs the ceremonies. Generally installations are
frequent during the Navaratra [8] holidays when, if no human-shaped
image is set up, a trishul at least is drawn in red-lead and oil. [9]
Some of these evil deities require, at the time of their installation,
the balidan (sacrifice or oblation) of a goat or a he-buffalo. Also,
when a spirit is to be exorcised, the symbol of the familiar spirit of
the exorcist is set up and invoked by him. After the installation,
no systematic form of worship is followed in connection with them. [10]
Regular forms are prescribed for the real gods of the Puranas. But
upon these the low-caste people are not authorised to attend.
Still, in practice there are two forms of worship: ordinary or
samanya-puja and special or vishesha-puja. [11] Ordinary worship is
performed by bathing the deity--which can be done by sprinkling a
few drops of water over it--burning a ghi, or an oil, lamp before it,
and by offering a cocoanut and a pice or a half-anna piece. The last
is taken away by the bhuva, or priest, who returns generally half or
three-quarters of the cocoanut as a prasad of the god.
There are no particular days prescribed for such worship, but Sundays
and Tuesdays would seem to be the most favoured. [12] On such days,
offerings are made for the fulfilment of a vow recorded in order
to avoid a badha, or impending evil. In the observance of this vow
the devotee abstains from certain things, such as ghi, butter, milk,
rice, juvar, betelnut till the period of the vow expires. When a vow
is thus discharged, the devotee offers flowers, garlands, incense,
food or drink according to the terms of his vow. The dhupa, i.e.,
burning incense of gugal (balsamodendron) is one of the commonest
methods of worship.
The days for special worship are the Navaratra holidays, the second day
of the bright half of Ashadh, the ninth month of the Hindu Calendar,
[13] Divasa [14] or the fifteenth day of the dark half of Ashadh, and
Kali-chaudas [15] or the fourteenth day of the dark half of Ashvin,
the last month; besides other extraordinary occasions when a spirit
has to be exorcised out of a sick person.
The Navaratra days are said to be the most auspicious days for
devi-worship. People believing in the power of the matas observe
fast on these days. Most of them at least fast on the eighth day of
the Navaratra known as Mata-ashtami, taking only a light meal which
consists of roots, as a rule, especially the suran (Amorphophallus
campanulatus), and of dates and milk. [16] On the Navaratra days
red-lead and oil are applied to the images of the devis, and a number
of oblations, such as loaves, cooked rice, lapsi [17], vadan [18]
and bakla [19] are offered. [20] The utmost ceremonial cleanliness
is observed in the preparation of these viands. The corn is sifted,
cleaned, ground or pounded, cooked, treated with frankincense, offered
to the gods and lastly partaken of before sunset, and all these
operations must be performed on the same day; for the offerings must
not see lamp-light. [21] Girls are not allowed to partake of these
offerings. All ceremonies should be conducted with much earnestness
and reverence; otherwise the offerings will fail to prove acceptable
to the matas or devis.
On Mata-ashtami and Kali-chaudas devotees sometimes offer rams, goats
or buffaloes as victims to the devis or devas in addition to the usual
offerings of lapsi, vadan and bakla. The night of Kali-chaudas
is believed to be so favourable for the efficacious recitation
(sadhana) of certain mantras, mysterious incantations possessing sway
over spirits, that bhuvas (exorcists) leave the village and sit up
performing certain rites in cemeteries, on burning-ghats, and in other
equally suitable places where spirits are supposed to congregate. [22]
On Divasa, the last day of Ashadh, the ninth month, low-caste
people bathe their gods with water and milk, besmear them with
red-lead and oil, and make offerings of cocoanuts, lapsi, bakla of
adad (Phaseoleus radiatus) or kansar [23]. Particular offerings are
believed to be favoured by particular deities: for instance, khichdo
(rice and pulse boiled together) and oil, or tavo (flat unleavened
loaves) are favoured by the goddess Meldi, boiled rice by Shikotar
and lapsi by the goddess Gatrad. [24]
On these holidays, as well as on the second day of the bright half of
Ashadh the devotees hoist flags in honour of the spirits, and play on
certain musical instruments producing discordant sounds. Meanwhile
bhuvas, believed to be interpreters of the wills of evil spirits,
undergo self-torture, with the firm conviction that the spirits have
entered their persons. Sometimes they lash themselves with iron chains
or cotton braided scourges. [25] At times a bhuva places a pan-full
of sweet oil over a fire till it boils. He then fries cakes in it,
and takes them out with his unprotected hands, sprinkling the boiling
oil over his hair. He further dips thick cotton wicks into the oil,
lights them and puts them into his mouth and throws red-hot bullets
into his mouth, seemingly without any injury. [26] This process secures
the confidence of the sevakas or followers, and is very often used
by bhuvas when exorcising spirits from persons whose confidence the
bhuvas wish to gain. A bowl-full of water is then passed round the
head of the ailing person (or animal) to be charmed, and the contents
are swallowed by the exorcist to show that he has swallowed in the
water all the ills the flesh of the patient is heir to.
In the cure of certain diseases by exorcising the process known as
utar is sometimes gone through. An utar is a sacrificial offering of
the nature of a scapegoat, and consists of a black earthen vessel,
open and broad at the top, and containing lapsi, vadan, bakla, a
yard of atlas (dark-red silk fabric), one rupee and four annas in
cash, pieces of charcoal, red-lead, sorro (or surmo-lead ore used
as eye-powder), an iron-nail and three cocoanuts. Very often a
trident is drawn in red-lead and oil on the outer sides of the black
earthen vessel. [27] The bhuva carries the utar in his hands with
a drawn sword in a procession, to the noise of the jingling of the
anklets of his companions, the beating of drums and the rattling of
cymbals. After placing the utar in the cemetery the procession returns
with tumultuous shouts of joy and much jingling of anklets. [28]
Sometimes bhuvas are summoned for two or three nights preceding the
day of the utar ceremony, and a ceremony known as Danklan-beswan
or the installation of the dankla [29] is performed. (A dankla
[30] is a special spirit instrument in the shape of a small
kettle-drum producing, when beaten by a stick, a most discordant,
and, by long association, a melancholy, gruesome and ghastly
sound--K. B. Fazlullah).
Many sects have special deities of their own, attended upon by a bhuva
of the same order. [31] The bhuva holds a high position in the society
of his caste-fellows. He believes himself to be possessed by the devi
or mata whose attendant he is, and declares, while possessed by her,
the will of the mata, replying for her to such questions as may be put
to him. [32] The devis are supposed to appear in specially favoured
bhuvas and to endow them with prophetic powers. [33]
The following is a list of some of the inferior local deities of
Gujarat and Kathiawar:--
(1) Suro-puro.--This is generally the spirit of some brave ancestor
who died a heroic death, and is worshipped by his descendants as a
family-god at his birthplace as well as at the scene of his death,
where a pillar (palio) is erected to his memory. [34]
(2) Vachhro, otherwise known by the name of Dada (sire).--This is
said to have been a Rajput, killed in rescuing the cowherds of some
Charans, who invoked his aid, from a party of free-booters. [35] He
is considered to be the family-god of the Ahirs of Solanki descent,
and is the sole village-deity in Okha and Baradi Districts. [36]
Other places dedicated to this god are Padana, Aniala, Taluka Mengani,
[37] Khajurdi, Khirasara and Anida. [38] He is represented by a stone
horse, and Charans perform priestly duties in front of him. [39]
Submission to, and vows in honour of, this god, are believed to cure
rabid-dog-bites. [40]
(3) Sarmalio commands worship in Gondal, Khokhari and many other
places. Newly-married couples of many castes loosen the knots tied
in their marriage-scarves as a mark of respect for him. [41] Persons
bitten by a snake wear round their necks a piece of thread dedicated
to this god.
(4) Shitala is a goddess known for the cure of small-pox.--Persons
attacked by this disease observe vows in her honour. Kalavad and
Syadla are places dedicated to her.
(5) Ganagor.--Virgins who are anxious to secure suitable husbands and
comfortable establishments worship this goddess and observe vows in
her honour.
(6) Todalia.--She has neither an idol nor a temple set up in her
honour, but is represented by a heap of stones lying on the village
boundary--Padal or Jampa. All marriage processions, before entering
the village (Sanka) or passing by the heap, pay homage to this deity
and offer a cocoanut, failure to do which is believed to arouse her
wrath. She does not command daily adoration, but on occasions the
attendant, who is a Chumvalia Koli, and who appropriates all the
presents to this deity, burns frankincense of gugal (balsamodendron)
and lights a lamp before her. [42]
(7) Buttaya also is represented by a heap of stones on a hillock in
the vicinity of Sanka. Her worshipper is a Talabdia Koli. A long
season of drought leads to her propitiation by feasting Brahmans,
for which purpose four pounds of corn are taken in her name from each
threshing floor in the village.
(8) Surdhan.--This seems to have been some brave Kshatriya warrior who
died on a battlefield. A temple is erected to his memory, containing
an image of Shiva. The attending priest is an Atit.
(9) Ghogho.--This is a cobra-god worshipped in the village of Bikhijada
having a Bajana (tumbler) for his attending priest.
(10) Pir.--This is a Musalman saint, in whose honour no tomb is
erected, the special site alone being worshipped by a devotee.
(11) Raneki is represented by a heap of stones, and is attended upon
by chamars (tanners). Her favourite resort is near the Dhedvada (i.e.,
a quarter inhabited by sweepers). A childless Girasia is said to have
observed a vow in her honour for a son, and a son being born to him,
he dedicated certain lands to her; but they are no longer in the
possession of the attendants. [43]
(12) Hanuman.--On a mound of earth there is an old worn-out image of
this god. People sometimes light a lamp there, offer cocoanuts and
plaster the image with red-lead and oil. A sadhu of the Maragi sect,
a Koli by birth, acts as pujari.
(13) Shakta (or shakti).--This is a Girasia goddess attended upon by
a Chumvalia Koli. On the Navaratra days, as well as on the following
day, Girasias worship this goddess, and if necessary observe vows in
her name.
(14) Harsidh.--Gandhavi in Barda and Ujjain are the places dedicated
to this goddess. There is a tradition connected with her that her
image stood in a place of worship facing the sea on Mount Koyalo
in Gandhavi. She was believed to sink or swallow all the vessels
that sailed by. A Bania named Jagadusa, knowing this, propitiated
her by the performance of religious austerities. On being asked
what boon he wanted from her, he requested her to descend from her
mountain-seat. She agreed on the Bania promising to offer a living
victim for every footstep she took in descending. Thus he sacrificed
one victim after another until the number of victims he had brought
was exhausted. He then first offered his four or five children,
then his wife and lastly himself. In reward for his self-devotion
the goddess faced towards Miani and no mishaps are believed to take
place in the village. [44]
(15) Hinglaj.--This goddess has a place of worship a hundred and fifty
miles from Karachi in Sind, to which her devotees and believers make
pilgrimage.
In the village of Jasdan, in Kathiawar, there is an ancient shrine of
Kalu-Pir in whose memory there are two sepulchres covered with costly
fabrics, and a large flag floats over the building. Both Hindus and
Musalmans believe [45] in this saint, and offer cocoanuts, sweetmeats
and money to his soul. A part of the offering being passed through the
smoke of frankincense, burning in a brazier near the saint's grave
in the shrine, the rest is returned to the offerer. Every morning
and evening a big kettle-drum is beaten in the Pir's honour. [46]
Other minor deities are Shikotar, believed by sailors to be able to
protect them from the dangers of the deep; [47] Charmathvati, the
goddess of the Rabaris; [48] Macho, the god of the shepherds; Meldi,
in whom Vaghries (bird-catchers) believe; [49] Pithad, the favourite
god of Dheds; [50] Dhavdi, who is worshipped by a hajam (barber); [51]
Khodiar; [52] Géla, Dadamo, Kshetrapal, Chavad, [53] Mongal, Avad,
Palan, Vir Vaital, [54] Jalio, Gadio, Paino, Parolio, Sevalio,
Andhario, Fulio, Bhoravo, Ragantio, Chod, [55] Gatrad, Mammai and
Verai. [56] There are frequent additions to the number, as any new
disease or unusual and untoward incident may bring a new spirit into
existence. The installation of such deities is not a costly concern,
[57] and thus there is no serious check on their recognition.
The sun, the beneficent night-dispelling, light-bestowing great
luminary, is believed to be the visible manifestation of the Almighty
God, [58] and inspires the human mind with a feeling of grateful
reverence which finds expression in titles like Savita, Life-Producer,
the nourisher and generator of all life and activity [59].
He is the chief rain-sender [60]; there is a couplet used in Gujarat
illustrative of this belief. It runs:--"Oblations are cast into the
Fire: the smoke carries the prayers to the sun; the Divine Luminary,
propitiated, responds in sending down gentle showers." "The sacred
smoke, rising from the sacrificial offerings, ascends through the
ethereal regions to the Sun. He transforms it into the rain-giving
clouds, the rains produce food, and food produces the powers of
generation and multiplication and plenty. Thus, the sun, as the
propagator of animal life, is believed to be the highest deity."
It is pretty generally believed that vows in honour of the sun are
highly efficacious in curing eye-diseases and strengthening the
eyesight. Mr. Damodar Karsonji Pandya quotes from the Bhagvadgita
the saying of Krishna:
Prabhasmi sasisuryayoh
"I am the very light of the sun and the moon. [61]" Being the
embodiment or the fountain of light, the sun imparts his lustre either
to the bodies or to the eyes of his devotees. It is said that a Rajput
woman of Gomata in Gondal and a Brahman of Rajkot were cured of white
leprosy by vows in honour of the sun. [62] Similar vows are made
to this day for the cure of the same disease. Persons in Kathiawar
suffering from ophthalmic disorders, venereal affections, leucoderma
and white leprosy are known to observe vows in honour of the sun. [63]
The Parmar Rajputs believe in the efficacy of vows in honour of the
sun deity of Mandavraj, in curing hydrophobia. [64]
Women believe that a vow or a vrat made to the sun is the sure means of
attaining their desires. Chiefly their vows are made with the object
of securing a son. On the fulfilment of this desire, in gratitude to
the Great Luminary, the child is often called after him, and given
such a name as Suraj-Ram, Bhanu-Shankar, Ravi-Shankar, Adit-Ram. [65]
Many cradles are received as presents at the temple of Mandavraj,
indicating that the barren women who had made vows to the deity have
been satisfied in their desire for a son, the vows being fulfilled
by the present of such toy-cradles to the sun. In the case of rich
donors, these cradles are made of precious metal. [66]
At Mandvara, in the Muli District of Kathiawar, the Parmar Rajputs, as
well as the Kathis, bow to the image of the sun, on their marriage-day,
in company with their newly-married brides. After the birth of
a son to a Rajputani, the hair on the boy's head is shaved for the
first time in the presence of the Mandavraj deity, [67] and a suit
of rich clothes is presented to the image by the maternal uncle of
the child. [68]
The sun is sarvasaksi the observer of all things and nothing can
escape his notice. [69] His eye is believed to possess the lustre
of the three Vedic lores, viz., Rigveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda,
and is therefore known by the name of vedatrayi. The attestation of a
document in his name as Surya-Narayana-Sakshi is believed to be ample
security for the sincerity and good faith of the parties. [70] Oaths
in the name of the sun are considered so binding that persons swearing
in his name are held to be pledged to the strictest truth. [71]
Virgin girls observe a vrat, or vow, called the 'tili-vrat' in the
sun's honour, for attaining akhamda saubhagya--eternal exemption from
widowhood. In making this vrat, or vow, the votary, having bathed
and worshipped the sun, sprinkles wet red-lac drops before him. [72]
According to Forbes's Rasmala, the sun revealed to the Kathis the
plan of regaining their lost kingdom, and thus commanded their devout
worship and reverence. The temple named Suraj-deval, near Than, was
set up by the Kathis in recognition of this favour. In it both the
visible resplendent disc of the sun and his image are adored. [73]
People whose horoscopes declare them to have been born under the
Surya-dasha, or solar influence, have from time to time to observe
vows prescribed by Hindu astrology. [74]
Cultivators are said to observe vows in honour of the sun for the
safety of their cattle. [75]
The following are some of the standard books on sun-worship:--
(1) Aditya-hridaya--literally, the Heart of the Sun. It treats of
the glory of the sun and the mode of worshipping him.
(2) Brihadaranyakopanishad and Mandula-Brahmans--portions of Yajurveda
recited by Vedic Brahmans with a view to tender symbolic as well as
mental prayers to the sun.
(3) Bibhrad--the fourth chapter of the Rudri.
(4) A passage in Brahman--a portion of the Vedas, beginning with the
words svayambhurasi Thou art self-existent--is entirely devoted to
Sun-worship. [76]
(5) Surya-Purana--A treatise relating a number of stories in
glorification of the sun.
(6) Surya-kavacha. [77]
(7) Surya-gita.
(8) Surya-Sahasranama--a list of one thousand names of Surya. [78]
It is customary among Hindus to cleanse their teeth every morning with
a wooden stick, known as datan [79] and then to offer salutations
to the sun in the form of a verse which means: "Oh God, the datans
are torn asunder and the sins disappear. Oh the penetrator of the
innermost parts, forgive us our sins. Do good unto the benevolent
and unto our neighbours." This prayer is common in the mouths of the
vulgar laity. [80]
Better educated people recite a shloka, which runs: "Bow unto Savitri,
the sun, the observer of this world and its quarters, the eye of
the universe, the inspirer of all energy, the holder of a three-fold
personality (being an embodiment of the forms of the three gods of
the Hindu Trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvar)--the embodiment of
the three Vedas, the giver of happiness and the abode of God. [81]
After his toilet a high-caste Hindu should take a bath and offer
morning prayers and arghyas to the sun. [82] The Trikala-Sandhya
is enjoined by the Shastras on every Brahman, i.e., every Brahman
should perform the Sandhya thrice during the day: in the morning,
at mid-day and in the evening. The Sandhya is the prayer a Brahman
offers, sitting in divine meditation, when he offers three arghyas
to the sun and recites the Gayatri mantra 108 times. [83]
The arghya is an offering of water in a spoon half filled with barley
seeds, sesamum seeds, sandal ointment, rice, and white flowers. In
offering the arghya the right foot is folded below the left, the spoon
is lifted to the forehead and is emptied towards the sun after reciting
the Gayatri mantra. [84] If water is not available for offering the
arghyas, sand may serve the purpose. But the sun must not be deprived
of his arghyas. [85]
The Gayatri is the most sacred mantra in honour of the sun, containing,
as it does, the highest laudations of him. A Brahman ought to
recite this mantra 324 times every day. Otherwise he incurs a sin as
great as the slaughter of a cow. [86] Accordingly a Rudrakshmala, or
a rosary of 108 Rudraksh beads, is used in connecting the number of
Gayatris recited. [87] It is exclusively the right of the twice-born
to recite the Gayatri. None else is authorised to recite or even to
hear a word of it. Neither females nor Shudras ought to catch an echo
of even a single syllable of the Gayatri mantra [88].
A ceremony, called Suryopasthan, in which a man has to stand facing
the sun with his hands stretched upwards at an angle towards the sun,
is performed as a part of the sandhya. [89]
Of the days of the week, Ravivar, or Sunday is the most suitable
for Sun worship [90]. Persons wishing to secure wealth, good-health
and a happy progeny, especially people suffering from disorders
caused by heat and from diseases of the eyes, barren women, and
men anxious for victory on the battlefield, weekly observe vows in
honour of the sun, and the day on which the vow is to be kept is
Sunday. [91] It is left to the devotee to fix the number of Sundays
on which he will observe the vrat, and he may choose to observe all
the Sundays of the year. [92] On such days the devotees undergo
ceremonial purifications by means of baths and the putting on of
clean garments, occupy a reserved clean seat, light a ghi-lamp and
recite the Aditya-hridaya-patha, which is the prescribed mantra for
Sun worship. [93] Then follows the Nyasa, (nyasa) in the recitation
of which the devotee has to make certain gestures (or to perform
physical ceremonials). First the tips of all the four fingers are
made to touch the thumb as is done in counting. Then the tips of
the fingers are made to touch the palm of the other hand. Then one
hand is laid over the other. Then the fingers are made to touch the
heart, the head, the eyes, and the hair in regular order. The right
hand is then put round the head and made to smite the left. An
ashtadala or eight-cornered figure is drawn in gulal, (red powder) and
frankincense, red ointment and red flowers are offered to the sun. [94]
Durva grass is also commonly used in the process of Sun-worship. [95]
Sometimes a hexangular figure is drawn instead of the ashtadal, a
copper disc is placed over it and the sun is worshipped by Panchopachar
or the five-fold ceremonials. [96] Of all ceremonials a namaskar is
especially dear to the sun. [97] It is said:--
Namaskarapriyo bhanurjaladharapriyah sivah |
Paropakarapriyo visnurbrahmano bhojanapriyah ||
A namaskar or bow is dear to the sun; a stream of water (pouring water
in a small stream over Shiva's idol) is dear to Shiva: benevolence
to Vishnu and a good dinner to a Brahman.
In observing vows in the sun's honour on Sundays, the following
special foods are prescribed in particular months: [98]--
(1) In Kartika, the first month, the devotee is to take only three
leaves of the Tulsi or the holy basil plant.
(2) In Margashirsha, the devotee may only lick a few pieces of
candied sugar.
(3) In Pausha, the devotee may chew three stalks of green darbha grass.
(4) In Magha, a few seeds of sesamum and sugar mixed together may
be swallowed.
(5) In Phalguna, a consecrated draught of curds and sugar may be drunk.
(6) In Chaitra, people should break their fasts with a little ghi
and molasses.
(7) In Vaishakha, the only satisfaction allowed to those observing
the vrat is to lick their own palms three times.
(8) In Jyeshtha, the fast is observed simply on three anjalis or
palmfuls of pure water.
(9) In Ashadha, three chillies may be eaten.
(10) In Shravana, only cow-urine and molasses are tasted.
(11) In Bhadrapada, cow-dung and sugar are partaken of.
(12) In Ashvina, the application of chandan (sandal wood) either in
the form of an ointment or of powder.
Only a few very pious and enthusiastic devotees observe all Sundays in
the above manner. In average cases, the devotee allows himself rice,
ghi, sugar, milk, i.e., white food, the restriction being only as
to colour.
People observing vows in honour of the sun take food only once during
the day, and that too in bajas or dishes made of khakhara (or palash)
leaves. This is considered one of the conditions of worship, there
being some mysterious relation between Surya and the khakhara. [99]
If the Pushya Nakshatra happens to fall on a Sunday, the worship of
the sun on that day is believed to be most efficacious in fulfilling
the desires of the devotees. [100]
Of the days of the month, the seventh day of both the bright and the
dark halves of each month [101] and the Amavasya day, i.e., the last
day of a Hindu calendar month, [102] are set apart for Sun-worship. The
ceremonies of the worship are the same as those on Sundays. In fact,
in almost all the observances in connection with the sun the same
ceremonials are to be gone through. Very often a Brahman recites the
patha directing his hosts or hostesses to perform certain ceremonial
gestures. On the last of the number of days which the devotee
has decided to observe, the vrat is celebrated and Brahmans are
feasted. This celebration of the vrat is known as vratujavavun. [103]
The special occasions for Sun-worship are the Sankranti days and the
solar eclipses.
In each year there are twelve Sankranti days on which the sun moves
from one sign of the zodiac to another. Sun-worship is performed
on all these Sankrantis, but Makara-Sankranti, which falls on the
12th or 13th of January, is considered the most important. [104] The
Uttarayana-parvan falls on this day, i.e., the sun now crosses to
his northern course from his southern, and the time of that Parvan
is considered so holy that a person dying then directly attains
salvation. [105] On this day, many Hindus go on a pilgrimage to
holy places, offer prayers and sacrifices to the sun, and give
alms to Brahmans in the shape of sesamum seeds, gold, garments and
cows. [106] Much secret, as well as open, charity is dispensed, [107]
grass and cotton-seeds are given to cows, and lapsi [108] and loaves
to dogs. Sweet balls of sesamum seeds and molasses are eaten
as a prasad and given to Brahmans, and dainties such as lapsi are
partaken of by Hindu households, in company with a Brahman or two,
who are given dakshina after the meals. [109]
On solar eclipse days, most of the Hindu sects bathe and offer prayers
to God. During the eclipse the sun is believed to be combating with
the demon Rahu, prayers being offered for the sun's success. When the
sun has freed himself from the grasp of the demon and sheds his full
lustre on the earth, the people take ceremonial baths, offer prayers
to God with a concentrated mind, and well-to-do people give in alms
as much as they can afford of all kinds of grain. [110]
The Chaturmas-vrat, very common in Kathiawar, is a favourite one with
Hindus. The devotee, in performing this vrat, abstains from food on
those days during the monsoons on which, owing to cloudy weather,
the sun is not visible. Even if the sun is concealed by the clouds
for days together, the devout votary keeps fasting till he sees the
deity again. [111]
Barren women, women whose children die, and especially those who
lose their male children, women whose husbands suffer from diseases
caused by heat, lepers, and persons suffering from ophthalmic ailments
observe the vow of the sun in the following manner. [112] The vows
are kept on Sundays and Amavasya days, and the number of such days is
determined by the devotee in accordance with the behests of a learned
Brahman. The woman observes a fast on such days, bathes herself at
noon when the sun reaches the zenith, and dresses herself in clean
garments. Facing the sun, she dips twelve red karan flowers in red
or white sandal ointment and recites the twelve names of Surya as
she presents one flower after another to the sun with a bow. [113]
On each day of the vrat, she takes food only once, in the shape of
lapsi, in bajas of khakhara or palash leaves; white food in the form
of rice, or rice cooked in milk is sometimes allowed. She keeps a
ghi-lamp burning day and night, offers frankincense, and sleeps at
night on a bed made on the floor. [114]
People who are declared by the Brahmans to be under the evil influence
(dasha) of Surya, observe vows in the sun's honour and go through
the prescribed rites on Sundays. Such persons take special kinds
of food and engage the services of priests to recite holy texts in
honour of the sun. If all goes well on Sunday, Brahmans, Sadhus and
other pious persons are entertained at a feast. This feast is known as
vrat-ujavavun. Some persons have the sun's image (an ashtadal) engraved
on a copper or a golden plate for daily or weekly worship. [115]
On the twelfth day after the delivery of a child, the sun is worshipped
and the homa sacrifice is performed. [116]
If at a wedding the sun happens to be in an unfavourable position
according to the bridegroom's horoscope, an image of the sun is drawn
on gold-leaf and given away in charity. Charity in any other form is
also common on such an occasion.
A Nagar bride performs sun-worship for the seven days preceding her
wedding. [117]
In Hindu funeral ceremonies three arghyas are offered to the sun,
and the following mantra is chanted [118]:--
Adityo Bhaskaro Bhanu Ravih Suryo Divakarah |
Sannama smarennityam mahapatakanasanam ||
It means--one should ever recite the six names of the Sun, Aditya,
Bhaskar, Bhanu, Ravi, Surya, Divakar, which destroy sin.
The sun is also worshipped on the thirteenth day after the death of
a person, when arghyas are offered, and two earthen pots, containing
a handful of raw khichedi--rice and pulse--and covered with yellow
pieces of cotton are placed outside the house. This ceremony is called
gadaso bharvo.
Rajahs of the solar race always worship the rising sun. They also
keep a golden image of the sun in their palaces, and engage learned
Brahmans to recite verses in his honour. On Sundays they take only
one meal and that of simple rice (for white food is most acceptable
to the sun). [119]
Circumambulations round images and other holy objects are considered
meritorious and to cause the destruction of sin. [120] The subject
has been dwelt on at length in the Dharma-sindhu-grantha, Vrataraja,
and Shodashopachara among the Dharma-Shastras of the Hindus. [121]
The object round which turns are taken is either the image of a god,
such as of Ganpati, Mahadev or Vishnu [122] or the portrait of a
guru, or his footmarks engraved or impressed upon some substance,
or the agni-kunda (the fire-pit), [123] or the holy cow [124], or
some sacred tree or plant, such as the Vad (banyan tree), the Pipal
(ficus religiosa), [125] the Shami (prosopis spicegera), the Amba
(mango tree), the Asopalava tree (Polyalthea longifolia), [126]
or the Tulsi (sweet basil) plant.
It is said to have been a custom of the Brahmans in ancient times to
complete their daily rites before sunrise every morning, and then
to take turns round temples and holy objects. The practice is much
less common now than formerly. [127] Still, visitors to a temple
or an idol, usually are careful to go round it a few times at least
(generally five or seven). The usual procedure at such a time is to
strike gongs or ring bells after the turns, to cast a glance at the
shikhar or the pinnacle of the temple, and then to return. [128]
Women observing the chaturmas-vrat, or the monsoon vow, lasting
from the eleventh day of the bright half of Ashadh (the ninth month)
to the eleventh day of the bright half of Kartik (the first month)
first worship the object, round which they wish to take turns, with
panchamrit (a mixture of milk, curds, sugar, ghi and honey). The
number of turns may be either 5, 7, 21 or 108. At each turn they keep
entwining a fine cotton thread and place a penda [129] or a bantasa
[130] or a betel-leaf or an almond, a cocoanut, a fig or some other
fruit before the image or the object walked round. These offerings
are claimed by the priest who superintends the ceremony. [131] When
a sacred tree is circumambulated, water is poured out at the foot of
the tree at each turn. [132]
During the month of Shravan (the tenth month) and during the
Purushottama (or the intercalatory) month, men and women observe
a number of vows, in respect of which, every morning and evening,
they take turns round holy images and objects. [133]
People observing the chaturmas-vrat (or monsoon vow), called
Tulsi-vivaha (marriage of Tulsi), worship that plant and take
turns round it on every eleventh day of both the bright and the dark
halves of each of the monsoon months. The gautrat-vrat (gau = cow)
necessitates perambulations round a cow, and the Vat-Savitri-vrat round
the Vad or banyan tree. The banyan tree is also circumambulated on the
Kapilashashthi day (the sixth day of the bright half of Margashirsha,
the second month) and on the Amavasya or the last day of Bhadrapada
(the eleventh month). [134]
Women who are anxious to prolong the lives of their husbands take
turns round the Tulsi plant or the banyan tree. At each turn they
wind a fine cotton thread. At the end of the last turn, they throw
red lac and rice over the tree and place a betelnut and a pice or a
half-anna piece before it. [135]
The Shastras authorise four pradakshinas (or perambulations) for
Vishnu, three for the goddesses, and a half (or one and a half) [136]
for Shiva. [137] But the usual number of pradakshinas is either 5,
7, 21 or 108. In taking turns round the image of Vishnu, one must
take care to keep one's right side towards the image, while in the
case of Shiva, one must not cross the jaladhari [138] or the small
passage for conducting water poured over the Shiva-linga.
Sometimes in pradakshinas the votary repeats the name of the deity
round which the turns are taken while the priest recites the names
of the gods in Shlokas. [139] Sometimes the following verse is
repeated. [140]
Papoham papakarmaham papatma papasambhavah |
Trahi mam pundarikaksa sarvapapaharo bhava ||
Yani kani ca papani janmamtarakrtani ca |
Tani tani vinasyantu pradaksinapadepade ||
'I am sinful, the doer of sin, a sinful soul and am born of sin. O
lotus-eyed One! protect me and take away all sins from me. Whatever
sins I may have committed now as well as in my former births, may
every one of them perish at each footstep of my pradakshina.'
The recitation and the turns are supposed to free the soul from the
phera of lakh-choryasi [141]. Alms are given many times to the poor
after pradakshinas. [142]
The reason why pradakshinas are taken during the day is that they
have to be taken in the presence of the sun, the great everlasting
witness of all human actions. [143]
As all seeds and vegetation receive their nourishment from solar and
lunar rays, the latter are believed in the same way to help embryonic
development. [144]
The heat of the sun causes the trees and plants to give forth new
sprouts, and therefore he is called 'Savita' or Producer. [145]
Solar and lunar rays are also believed to facilitate and expedite
delivery. [146] The medical science of the Hindus declares the Amavasya
(new-moon day) and Purnima (full-moon day) days--on both of which
days the influence of the sun and the moon is most powerful--to be
so critical for child-bearing women as to cause, at times, premature
delivery. [147] Hence, before delivery, women are made to take turns in
the sunlight and also in moonlight, in order to invigorate the foetus,
thus securing that their delivery may be easy. [The assistance rendered
by solar rays in facilitating the delivery is said to impart a hot
temperament to the child so born, and that by the lunar rays a cool
one.] [148] After delivery, a woman should glance at the sun with her
hands clasped, and should offer rice and red flowers to him. [149]
Sitting in the sun after delivery is considered beneficial to women
enfeebled by the effort. [150] It is a cure for the paleness due to
exhaustion, [151] and infuses new vigour. [152]
The Bhils believe that the exposure of a new-born child to the sun
confers upon the child immunity from injury by cold and heat. [153]
The practice of making recently delivered women sit in the sun does
not seem to be widespread, nor does it prevail in Kathiawar. In
Kathiawar, on the contrary, women are kept secluded from sunlight in
a dark room at the time of child-birth, and are warmed by artificial
means. [154] On the other hand, it is customary in many places to
bring a woman into the sunlight after a certain period has elapsed
since her delivery. The duration of this period varies from four
days to a month and a quarter. Sometimes a woman is not allowed to
see sunlight after child-birth until she presents the child to the
sun with certain ceremonies, either on the fourth or the sixth day
from the date of her delivery. [155]
A ceremony called the Shashthi-Karma is performed on the sixth day
after the birth of a child, and the Namkaran ceremony--the ceremony
of giving a name--on the twelfth day. The mother of the child is
sometimes not allowed to see the sun before the completion of these
ceremonies. [156] Occasionally, on the eleventh day after child-birth,
the mother is made to take a bath in the sun. [157]
Exactly a month and a quarter from the date of delivery a woman
is taken to a neighbouring stream to offer prayers to the sun
and to fetch water thence in an earthen vessel. This ceremony is
known as Zarmazaryan. [158] Seven small betel-nuts are used in the
ceremony. They are carried by the mother, and distributed by her to
barren women, who believe that, by eating the nuts from her hand,
they are likely to conceive. [159]
In difficult labour cases, chakrava water is sometimes given to
women. The chakrava is a figure of seven cross lines drawn on a
bell-metal dish, over which the finest white dust has been spread. This
figure is shown to the woman in labour: water is then poured into
the dish and offered her to drink. [160] The figure is said to be a
representation of Chitrangad. [161] It is also believed to be connected
with a story in the Mahabhaarata. [162] Subhadra, the sister of god
Krishna and the wife of Arjuna, one of the five Pandavas, conceived
a demon, an enemy of Krishna. The demon would not leave the womb of
Subhadra even twelve months after the date of her conception, and
began to harass the mother. Krishna, the incarnation of god, knowing
of the demon's presence and the cause of his delay, took pity on the
afflicted condition of his sister and read chakrava, (Chakravyuha)
a book consisting of seven chapters and explaining the method of
conquering a labyrinthine fort with seven cross-lined forts. Krishna
completed six chapters, and promised to teach the demon the seventh,
provided he came out. The demon ceased troubling Subhadra and emerged
from the womb. He was called Abhimanyu. Krishna never read the seventh
chapter for then Abhimanyu would have been invincible and able to take
his life. This ignorance of the seventh chapter cost Abhimanyu his
life on the field of Kuru-kshetra in conquering the seven cross-lined
labyrinthine forts. As the art of conquering a labyrinthine fort when
taught to a demon in the womb facilitated the delivery of Subhadra,
a belief spread that drinking in the figure of the seven cross-lined
labyrinthine fort would facilitate the delivery of all women who had
difficulties in child-birth.
The figure Swastika (literally auspicious), drawn as shown below,
is an auspicious sign, and is believed to be a mark of good luck and
a source of blessings. It is one of the sixteen line-marks on the
sole of the lotus-like feet of the god Ishwar, the Creator of the
Universe. [163] The fame of the good effects of the Swastika figure
is said to have been first diffused throughout society by Narad-Muni,
as instructed by the god Brahma. [164]
Various conjectures have been made concerning the origin of
this figure. The following explanation is found in a work named
Siddhantsar. The Eternal Sat or Essence, that has neither beginning
nor end nor any maker, exhibits all the religious principles in a
chakra or a wheel-form. This round shape has no circumference; but
any point in it is a centre; which being specified, the explanation
of the whole universe in a circle is easy. Thus the figure [dotted
circle] indicates the creation of the universe from Sat or Essence.
The centre with the circumference is the womb, the place of creation
of the universe. The centre then expanding into a line, the diameter
thus formed represents the male principle, linga-rup, that is the
producer, through the medium of activity in the great womb or
maha-yoni. When the line assumes the form of a cross, it explains the
creation of the universe by an unprecedented combination of the two
distinct natures, animate and inanimate. The circumference being
removed, the remaining cross represents the creation of the world.
The Swastika, or Sathia, as it is sometimes called, in its winged
form suggests the possession of creative powers by the opposite
natures, animate and inanimate. [165]
Another theory is that an image of the eight-leaved lotus, springing
from the navel of Vishnu, one of the Hindu Trinity, was formerly drawn
on auspicious occasions as a sign of good luck. The exact imitation of
the original being difficult, the latter assumed a variety of forms,
one of which is the Swastika. [166]
Some people see an image of the god Ganpati in the figure. That god
being the master and protector of all auspicious ceremonies has to
be invoked on all such occasions. The incapacity of the devotees to
draw a faithful picture of Ganpati gave rise to a number of forms
which came to be known by the name of Swastika. [167]
There are more ways than one of drawing the Swastika, as shown below,
but the original form was of the shape of a cross. The first consonant
of the Gujarati alphabet, ka, now drawn thus [KA], was also originally
drawn in the form of a cross (+). Some persons therefore suppose that
the Swastika may be nothing more than the letter ka, written in the
old style and standing for the word kalyan or welfare. [168]
Though the Swastika is widely regarded as the symbol of the sun,
some people ascribe the figure to different deities, viz., to Agni,
[169] to Ganpati, [170] to Laxmi, [171] to Shiva, [172] besides the
sun. It is also said to represent Swasti, the daughter of Brahma, who
received the boon from her father of being worshipped on all auspicious
occasions. [173] Most persons, however, regard the Swastika as the
symbol of the sun. It is said that particular figures are prescribed
as suitable for the installation of particular deities: a triangle for
one, a square for another, a pentagon for a third, and the Swastika for
the sun. [174] The Swastika is worshipped in the Ratnagiri district,
and regarded as the symbol as well as the seat of the Sun-god. [175]
The people of the Thana district believe the Swastika to be the central
point of the helmet of the sun; and a vow, called the Swastika-vrat,
is observed by women in its honour. The woman draws a figure of the
Swastika and worships it daily during the Chaturmas (the four months
of the rainy season), at the expiration of which she presents a Brahman
with a golden or silver plate with the Swastika drawn upon it. [176]
A number of other ideas are prevalent about the significance of the
Swastika. Some persons believe that it indicates the four directions;
[177] some think that it represents the four margas--courses or objects
of human desires--viz., (1) Dharma, religion; (2) Artha, wealth; (3)
Kam, love; (4) Moksha, salvation. [178] Some again take it to be an
image of the ladder leading to the heavens. [179] Others suppose it
to be a representation of the terrestrial globe, and the four piles
of corn placed in the figure, as shown below (p. 16) represent the
four mountains, Udayachala, Astachal, Meru and Mandarachala. [180]
The Swastika is also believed to be the foundation-stone of the
universe. [181]
The Swastika is much in favour with the gods as a seat or couch, and
as soon as it is drawn it is immediately occupied by some deity. [182]
It is customary therefore to draw the Swastika on most auspicious
and festive occasions, such as marriage and thread ceremonies, the
first pregnancy ceremonies and the Divali holidays. [183] In the
Konkan the Swastika is always drawn on the Antarpat, or the piece
of cloth which is held between the bride and the bridegroom at the
time of a Hindu wedding. [184] And at the time of the Punyaha-wachan,
a ceremony which precedes a Hindu wedding, the figure is drawn in rice
and is worshipped. Throughout the Chaturmas some persons paint the
auspicious Swastikas, either on their thresholds or at their doors,
every morning. [185]
On the sixth day from the date of a child's birth, a piece of cloth
is marked with a Swastika in red lac, the cloth is stretched on a
bedstead and the child is placed upon it. [186] An account of this
ceremony is to be found in the treatises Jayantishastra, Jatakarma,
and Janakalaya.
Before joining the village-school, little boys are made to worship
Saraswati, the goddess of learning, after having installed her
on a Swastika, in order that the acquisition of learning may be
facilitated. [187]
A Brahman host, inviting a party of brother-Brahmans to dinner,
marks the figure one (1) against the names of those who are eligible
for dakshina, and a Swastika against the names of those who are not
eligible. These latter are the yajamans or patrons of the inviting
Brahman, who is himself their pujya, i.e., deserving to be
worshipped by them. A bindu or dot, in place of the Swastika, is
considered inauspicious. [188]
The Swastika is used in calculating the number of days taken in
pilgrimage by one's relations, one figure being painted on the wall
each day from the date of separation.
It is said that the Swastika when drawn on a wall is the representation
of Jogmaya. Jogmaya is a Natural Power, bringing about the union of
two separated beings. [189]
The Jains paint the Swastika in the way noted below and explain
the figure in the following manner:--The four projectors indicate
four kinds of souls: viz., (1) Manushya or human, (2) Tiryach or of
lower animals, (3) Deva or divine, (4) Naraki or hellish. The three
circular marks denote the three Ratnas or jewels, viz., (1) Jnan or
knowledge, (2) Darshana or faith, (3) Charita or good conduct; and
the semi-circular curve, at the top of the three circles, indicates
salvation. [190]
Every Jain devotee, while visiting the images of his gods, draws a
Sathia (Swastika) [191] before them and places a valuable object over
it. The sign is held so sacred that a Jain woman has it embroidered on
the reticule or kothali in which she carries rice to holy places. [192]
'I am the very light of the sun and the moon,' observes Lord Krishna
in his dialogue with Arjuna, [193] and the moon also receives divine
honours like the sun. Moon-worship secures wealth, augments progeny,
and betters the condition of milch-cattle. [194] The suitable days
for such worship are the second and the fourth days of the bright half
of every month (Dwitiya or Bij and Chaturthi or Choth, respectively)
and every full-moon day (Purnima or Punema). On either of these days
the devotees of Chandra (the moon) fast for the whole of the day and
take their food only after the moon has risen and after they have
seen and worshipped her. [195] Some dainty dish such as kansar, [196]
or plantains and puris, [197] is specially cooked for the occasion.
A sight of the moon on the second day of the bright half of every
month is considered auspicious. After seeing the moon on this day
some people also look at silver and gold coins for luck. [198] The
belief in the value of this practice is so strong that, immediately
after seeing the moon, people refrain from beholding any other
object. Their idea is that silver, which looks as bright as the
moon, will be obtained in abundance if they look at a silver piece
immediately after seeing the moon. [199] Moon worship on this day is
also supposed to guarantee the safety of persons at sea. [200] In the
south, milk and sugar is offered to the moon after the usual worship,
and learned Brahmans are invited to partake of it. What remains after
satisfying the Brahmans is divided among the community. On this
day, those who keep cattle do not churn whey nor curd milk nor sell it,
but consume the whole supply in feasts to friends and neighbours. [201]
The Ahirs and Rabaris especially are very particular about the use of
milk in feasts only: for they believe that their cattle are thereby
preserved in good condition. [202]
The fourth day of the dark half of every month is the day for the
observance of the chaturthi-vrat (or choth-vrat). This vrat is observed
in honour of the god Ganpati and by men only. The devotees fast on
this day, bathe at night after seeing the moon, light a ghi lamp,
and offer prayers to the moon. They also recite a path containing
verses in honour of Ganpati, and, after worshipping that god, take
their food consisting of some specially prepared dish. This vrat is
said to fulfil the dreams of the devotees. [203]
The day for the chaturthi-vrat in the month of Bhadrapad (the 11th
month of the Gujarati Hindus) is the fourth day of the bright half
instead of the fourth day of the dark half, [204] and on this day
(Ganesh Chaturthi [205]) the moon is not worshipped. The very sight
of her is regarded as ominous, and is purposely avoided. [206] The
story is that once upon a time the gods went out for a ride in their
respective conveyances. It so happened that the god Ganpati fell off
his usual charger, the rat, and this awkward mishap drew a smile from
Chandra (the moon). Ganpati, not relishing the joke, became angry and
cursed Chandra saying that no mortal would care to see his face on
that day (which happened to be the fourth day of the bright half of
Bhadrapad). If any one happens to see the moon even unwittingly on
this day, he may expect trouble very soon. [207] There is one way,
however, out of the difficulty, and that is to throw stones on the
houses of neighbours. When the neighbours utter abuse in return, the
abuse atones for the sin of having looked at the moon on the forbidden
night. The day is therefore called (in Gujarat) Dagad-choth, i.e.,
the Choth of stones. [208]
On the fourth day of the dark half of Phalgun (the 5th month of
Gujarati Hindus) some villagers fast for the whole of the day and
remain standing from sunset till the moon rises. They break their
fast after seeing the moon. The day is, therefore, called ubhi (i.e.,
standing) choth. [209]
Virgins sometimes observe a vow on Poshi-Punema or the full-moon day
of Pausha (the 3rd month of the Gujarati Hindus). On this day a virgin
prepares her evening meal with her own hands on the upper terrace
of her house. She then bores a hole through the centre of a loaf,
and observes the moon through it, repeating while doing so a verse
[210] which means: O Poshi-Punemadi, khichadi (rice and pulse mixed
together) is cooked on the terrace, and the sister of the brother takes
her meal. [211] The meal usually consists either of rice and milk or
of rice cooked in milk and sweetened with sugar, or of kansar. She
has to ask the permission of her brother or brothers before she may
take her food; and if the brother refuses his permission, she has to
fast for the whole of the day. [212] The whole ceremony is believed
to prolong the lives of her brothers and her future husband. The moon
is also worshipped at the time of griha-shanti, i.e., the ceremonies
performed before inhabiting a newly-built house. [213]
If the moon is unfavourable to a man born under a particular
constellation, on account of his occupying either the 6th, the 8th or
the 12th square in a kundali [214] (see below) prayers are offered
to the moon; and if the occasion is a marriage, a bell-metal dish,
full of rice, is presented to Brahmans. [215]
The appearance of the moon and the position of the horns of her
crescent at particular times are carefully watched as omens of future
events. Cultivators believe that if the moon is visible on the second
day of the bright half of Ashadh (the 9th month of Gujarati Hindus),
the sesamum crops of that season will be abundant; but if the moon be
hidden from sight on that day, the weather will be cloudy during the
whole of Ashadh, and will prove unfavourable to vegetable growth. [216]
If the moon appears reddish on a Bij day (or the second day of the
bright half of a month), and if the northern horn of the crescent be
high up, prices in the market are believed to rise; if, on the other
hand, it is low, it prognosticates a fall in prices. If the two horns
are on a level, current prices will continue.
Similarly, the northern horn of the crescent, if it is high up on
the Bij day of Ashadh, augurs abundant rainfall; if it is low, it
foreshadows a season of drought. [217]
If the moon presents a greenish aspect on the full-moon day of Ashadh,
excessive rains may be expected in a few days; if on that day she rises
quite clear and reddish, there is very little hope of good rains; if
she is partly covered by clouds when she rises and then gets clear of
the clouds, and then again disappears in the clouds in three ghadis,
[218] three pohors, or three days, rain is sure to fall. [219]
If on the 5th day of the bright half of Chaitra, the moon appears to
the west of the Rohini constellation, the prices of cotton are believed
to rise; if to the east, they are said to fall; and if in the same
line, the current rates are believed to be likely to continue. [220]
The Bij (2nd day) and the ninth day of Ashadh (the 9th month of the
Gujaratis and the 4th month of the Hindus of the Deccan) falling on
a Sunday is a combination that foretells excessive heat. If they fall
on Wednesday, intense cold is said to be the result. Their occurring
on a Tuesday, threatens absence of rains, and on a Monday, a Thursday
or a Friday, foreshadows excessive rainfall. [221]
Thunder on Jeth-Sud-Bij, or the second day of the bright half of
Jyeshtha, is a bad omen and threatens famine. [222]
The spots on the moon have given rise to numerous beliefs, mythological
as well as fanciful. One of them is that they are the result of a
curse, pronounced by the sage Gautama on Chandra. Indra, the god of
rain, was infatuated with the charms of Ahalya, the wife of Gautama,
and with the help of Chandra laid a cunning plot to gain his ignoble
object. Accordingly, one night, Chandra set earlier than usual, when
Indra assumed the form of a cock and crowed at midnight in order to
deceive Gautama into the belief that it was dawn, and therefore his
time for going to the Ganges to perform his religious services. The
trick was successful, and the holy sage being thus got rid of,
Indra assumed the form of Gautama himself and approached Ahalya,
who was surprised to see her husband (as she thought) so quickly
returned. The wily god allayed her suspicions by explaining that it
was not yet time for the morning ceremonies, and thus enjoyed the
favours due to her husband. Gautama, in the meanwhile, finding the
water of the Ganges cool and placid, and discovering that it was not
yet dawn, returned to his hermitage. On reaching home he detected
the treachery of Indra, who tried to escape in the disguise of a
tom-cat. The exasperated sage then cursed Indra, Chandra and his wife:
Indra to have a thousand sores on his person, Ahalya to turn into a
stone, and Chandra to have a stain on his fair face. [223]
Another mythological story is that Daksha Prajapati, the son of
Brahma, gave all his twenty-seven daughters in marriage to Chandra,
who was inspired with love for one of them only, named Rohini, the most
beautiful of them all. The slighted twenty-six sisters complained to
their father, Daksha, of Chandra's preference for Rohini. Daksha in
anger cursed Chandra to be attacked by consumption (which is supposed
to be the reason of the waning of the moon) and his face to be marred
by a stain. [224]
The curse of Gautama and the curse of Daksha are also supposed to be
reasons of the waxing and the waning of the moon.
Another belief regarding the moon-spots is that when the head of
Ganpati was severed by Shiva's trident, it flew off and fell into
the chariot of the moon. The spots are either the head itself [225]
or are due to drops of blood fallen from the flying severed head. [226]
The spots are also said to be explained by the fact of the image of
god Krishna or Vishnu [227] residing in the heart of the moon who,
as a devotee of Vishnu, holds his image dear to his heart. [228]
The moon is often called mriganka (lit. deer-marked) and
mriga-lanchhana (lit. deer-stained); and a further explanation of
the spots in this connection is that the moon-god took into his lap a
strayed deer, out of compassion, and thus his lap became stained. [229]
Jains believe that in the nether parts of the moon's viman or vehicle,
there is an image of a deer whose shadow is seen in the spots. [230]
Some persons declare the spots to be a shami tree (prosopis
spicigera). [231] The belief of the masses in Gujarat is said to
be that the spot on the moon's disc is the seat of an old woman,
who sits spinning her wheel with a goat tethered near her. [232]
If the droppings of the goat were to fall on earth, departed souls
would return to the earth. [233]
It is said that a child and a tree are never seen to grow except
during the night. Such growth is therefore held to be due to lunar
rays. [234] As all trees, plants, etc., thrive owing to the influence
of the moon, the moon-god is called the lord of herbs. The moon is
also a reservoir of nectar and is called Sudhakar, i.e., one having
nectarine rays. [235] As the lord of herbs, the moon-god is supposed
to have the power of removing all diseases that are curable by drugs,
and of restoring men to health. [236]
Persons suffering from white leprosy, black leprosy, consumption
and diseases of the eyes are believed to be cured by the observance
of the Bij and Punema vows. [237] Consumption in its incipient and
latter stages is also said to be cured by exposure to the rays of
the moon. [238] Constant glimpses of the moon add to the lustre of
the eyes. [239] On the Sharad-Punema, or the 15th day of the bright
half of Ashvin (the last month of the Gujaratis and the 7th month of
the Deccani Hindus), tailors pass a thread through their needles in
the belief that they will thereby gain keener eyesight. [240]
A cotton-wick is exposed to the moon on Sharad-Punema, and is
afterwards lighted in oil poured over the image of Hanuman. The soot,
which is thus produced, if used on the Kali-chaudas day--the fourteenth
day of the dark half of Ashvin--is said to possess much efficacy in
strengthening the eyesight and also in preserving the eyes from any
disease during the ensuing year. [241]
Sweetened milk or water is exposed to moonlight during the whole of the
night of Sharad-punema (the full-moon day of Ashvin) in order to absorb
the nectarine rays of the moon, and is drunk next morning. Drinking in
the rays of the moon in this manner is believed to cure diseases caused
by heat as well as eye-diseases, and it similarly strengthens the
eyesight and improves the complexion. [242] Sugar-candy thus exposed
and preserved in an air-tight jar is partaken of in small quantities
every morning to gain strength and to improve the complexion. [243]
The absorption of the lunar rays through the open mouth or eyes is
also believed to be of great effect in achieving these objects. [244]
Once upon a time the gods and demons, by their united efforts,
churned the ocean and obtained therefrom fourteen ratnas or precious
things. [245] These were distributed among them. Lakshmi, the kaustubha
jewel, the Sharnga bow and the conch-shell fell to the share of Vishnu,
and the poison, Halahal visha, was disposed of to Shiva. Only two
things remained, sudha, or nectar, and sura or liquor. To both gods
and demons the nectar was the most important of all the prizes. A hard
contest ensuing between them for the possession of it, the demons,
by force, snatched the bowl of nectar from the gods. In this disaster
to the gods, Vishnu came to their help in the form of Mohini--a most
fascinating woman--and proposed to the demons that the distribution of
the immortalising fluid should be entrusted to her. On their consent,
Vishnu or Mohini, made the gods and the demons sit in opposite rows
and began first to serve the nectar to the gods. The demon Rahu,
the son of Sinhika, fearing lest the whole of the nectar might be
exhausted before the turn of the demons came, took the shape of a god
and placed himself amongst them between Chandra (the moon) and Surya
(the sun). The nectar was served to him in turn, but on Chandra and
Surya detecting the trick, the demon's head was cut off by Vishnu's
discus, the sudarshana-chakra. Rahu however did not die: for he had
tasted the nectar, which had reached his throat. The head and trunk
lived and became immortal, the former being named Rahu, and the latter
Ketu. Both swore revenge on Chandra and Surya. At times, therefore,
they pounce upon Chandra and Surya with the intention of devouring
them. In the fight that ensues, Chandra and Surya are successful
only after a long contest, with the assistance of the gods, and by
the merit of the prayers that men offer. [246]
The reason of the eclipse is either that Chandra and Surya bleed in
the fight with Rahu and their forms get blackened [247]; or that the
demon Rahu comes between the two luminaries and this earth, and thus
causes an eclipse [248]; or because Rahu obstructs the sun and the moon
in their daily course, and this intervention causes an eclipse [249];
or because Rahu swallows the sun and the moon, but his throat being
open, they escape, their short disappearance causing an eclipse. [250]
Besides the mythological story, there is a belief in Gujarat that
a bhangi (scavenger or sweeper), creditor of the sun and the moon,
goes to recover his debts due from them, and that his shadow falling
against either of them causes an eclipse. [251]
A third explanation of the eclipse is that the sun and the moon revolve
round the Meru mountain, and the shadow of the mountain falling upon
either of them causes an eclipse. [252]
It is believed amongst Hindus that eclipses occur when too much
sin accumulates in this world. [253] Most Hindus regard an eclipse
as ominous, and consider the eclipse period to be unholy and
inauspicious. The contact of the demon Rahu with the rays of the sun
and the moon pollutes everything on earth. Great precautions therefore
become necessary to avoid pollution. [254] A period of three pohors
[255] (prahars) in the case of the moon, and of four in the case
of the sun, before the actual commencement of an eclipse, is known
as vedha, i.e., the time when the luminaries are already under the
influence of the demon. During this period and during the time of an
eclipse people observe a strict fast. Anyone taking food within the
prohibited period is considered sutaki or ceremonially impure, as if
a death had happened in his family. [256] An exception is, however,
made in the case of children, pregnant women and suckling mothers
who cannot bear the privation of a strict fast. From the beginning
of an eclipse to its end, everything in the house is believed to be
polluted, if touched.
As the sun and the moon are believed to be in trouble during an
eclipse, people offer prayers to God from the beginning of the vedha
for their release. It is the custom to visit some holy place on an
eclipse-day, to take a bath there, and to read holy passages from the
Shastras. Some people, especially Brahmans, sit devoutly on river-banks
and offer prayers to the sun. Much secret as well as open charity
is given at the time of an eclipse. But the receivers of charity
during the actual period of an eclipse are the lowest classes only,
such as bhangis, mahars and mangs. When an eclipse is at its full,
these people go about the streets giving vent to such cries as apó
dan chhuté chand (give alms for the relief of the moon!). [257]
Among the gifts such people receive are cotton clothes, cash, grain
such as sesamum seeds, udad, pulses, and salt. [258] The gift of a pair
of shoes is much recommended. [259] Sometimes a figure of the eclipsed
sun or moon is drawn in juari seeds and given away to a bhangi. [260]
Although the period of an eclipse is considered inauspicious, it is
valued by those who profess the black art. All mantras, incantations,
and prayogas, applications or experiments, which ordinarily require
a long time to take effect, produce the wished for result without
delay if performed during the process of an eclipse. [261]
If a man's wife is pregnant, he may not smoke during the period of an
eclipse lest his child become deformed. [262] Ploughing a farm on a
lunar-eclipse day is supposed to cause the birth of Chandra-children,
i.e., children afflicted by the moon.
After an eclipse Hindus bathe, perform ablution ceremonies, and dress
themselves in clean garments. The houses are cleansed by cowdunging
the floors, vessels are rubbed and cleansed, and clothes are washed,
in order to get rid of the pollution caused by the eclipse. [263]
Unwashed clothes of cotton, wool, silk or hemp, according to popular
belief, do not become polluted. The placing of darbha grass on
things which are otherwise liable to pollution is also sufficient to
keep them unpolluted. [264]
Brahmans cannot accept anything during the impious time of an eclipse,
but after it is over, alms are freely given to them in the shape of
such costly articles as fine clothes, gold, cattle and the like. [265]
After an eclipse Hindus may not break their fast till they have
again seen the full disc of the released sun or the moon. It sometimes
happens that the sun or the moon sets gherayala (while still eclipsed),
and people have then to fast for the whole of the night or the day
after, until the sun or the moon is again fully visible. [266]
There is a shloka in the Jyotish-Shastra to the effect that Rahu would
surely devour Chandra if the nakshatra, or constellation of the second
day of the dark half of a preceding month, were to recur on the Purnima
(full-moon day) of the succeeding month. Similarly, in solar eclipses,
a similar catastrophe would occur if the constellation of the second
day of the bright half of a month were to recur on the Amavasya (the
last day) of that month. [267] The year in which many eclipses occur
is believed to prove a bad year for epidemic diseases. [268]
The Jains do not believe in the Hindu theory of grahana (or the
eclipse). [269] Musalmans do not perform the special ceremonies
beyond the recital of special prayers; and even these are held to be
supererogatory. [270]
With the exception that some people believe that the stars are the
abodes of the gods, [271] the popular belief about the heavenly
bodies seems to be that they are the souls of virtuous and saintly
persons, translated to the heavens for their good deeds and endowed
with a lustre proportionate to their merits. [272] And this idea
is illustrated in the traditions that are current about some of the
stars. The seven bright stars of the constellation Saptarshi (or the
Great Bear) are said to be the seven sages, Kashyapa, Atri, Bharadwaj,
Vishwamitra, Gautama, Jamadagni and Vasishtha, who had mastered several
parts of the Vedas, and were considered specialists in the branches
studied by each, and were invested with divine honours in reward for
their proficiency. [273] Another story relates how a certain hunter and
his family, who had unconsciously achieved great religious merit, were
installed as the constellation Saptarshi [274] (or the Great Bear). A
hunter, it is narrated in the Shivaratri-mahatmya, was arrested for
debt on a Shivratri [275] day, and while in jail heard by chance the
words 'Shiva, Shiva' repeated by some devotees. Without understanding
their meaning, he also began to repeat the same words, even after
he was released in the evening. He had received no food during the
day, and had thus observed a compulsory fast. In order to obtain
food for himself and his family, he stationed himself behind a Bel
[276] tree, hoping to shoot a deer or some other animal that might
come to quench its thirst at a neighbouring tank. While adjusting
an arrow to his bowstring, he plucked some leaves out of the thick
foliage of the tree and threw them down. The leaves, however, chanced
to fall on a Shiva-linga which happened to stand below, and secured
for him the merit of having worshipped god Shiva with Bel-leaves on
a Shivratri day. He was also all the while repeating the god's name
and had undergone a fast. The result was that not only were his past
sins forgiven, but he was placed with his family in heaven. [277]
Similarly, Dhruva, the son of king Uttanapad, attained divine favour
by unflagging devotion, and was given a constant place in the heavens
as the immovable pole-star. [278]
According to Hindu astrology, there are nine grahas [279] or planets,
twelve rashis [280] or signs of the zodiac, and twenty-seven nakshatras
[281] or constellations. Books on astrology explain the distinct forms
of the nakshatras. For instance, the Ashvini constellation consists
of two stars and presents the appearance of a horse. It ascends the
zenith at midnight on the purnima (the 15th day of the bright half) of
Ashvin (the first month of the Gujarati Hindus). The constellation of
Mrig consists of seven stars, four like the legs of a sofa and three
others under them in a line. All these twenty-seven groups of stars
reach the zenith at midnight on particular days in particular months;
and the months of the Hindu calendar are named after them. [282]
All planets influence the life of a person, one way or the
other, according to their position in the heavens at the time of
his birth. A kundali, i.e., a figure like the one shown here, is
drawn by astrologers to illustrate the respective positions of the
planets. The twelve squares of the diagram represent the twelve signs
of the zodiac, and the positions of the planets in different squares
influence persons in different ways. Ravi (the Sun), Budha (Mercury)
and Shukra (Venus) occupy one rashi for one month; Chandra (the Moon)
occupies a rashi for 135 ghadis, [283] i.e., two days and a quarter;
Mangal (Mars) for one month and a half; Guru (Jupiter) for thirteen
months; Shani (Saturn) for two years and a half, and Rahu for a
year and a half. This is their normal and ordinary motion. But if
they take an abnormal course and move either too fast or too slow,
they finish their revolution through a rashi within a shorter or a
longer period. [284]
If the planet Guru (Jupiter) occupies either the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 6th,
8th, 10th, or 12th, square of a kundali, it is said to bring about a
rupture with friends, pecuniary wants, and an increase in the number
of enemies. [285]
If Shani (Saturn) occupies the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, 7th, 8th, 9th,
or the 12th square in a man's kundali, it causes despondency of
mind, family quarrels, imminent injuries from foes, and pecuniary
wants. [286]
The presence of Mangal (Mars) in the 3rd, the 6th, or the 11th square
is auspicious.
Of the nine planets, Budha, Guru, and Chandra are benevolent, Mangal
and Ravi are neither benevolent nor baneful; and Shani, Rahu, and Ketu
are downright malevolent. [287] Each planet has a story connected
with it concerning its benevolence or malevolence, and showing also
the way to secure its propitiation. For instance, the malevolence of
Shani drove King Vikrama to unknown countries, and subjected him to
grave calamities. On the advice of a wise man, however, he observed
the Saturday-vows and thus overcame his difficulties. [288]
When a planet is unfavourable to a person, it has to be propitiated
by vows, and the person who is under its evil influence often lays
upon himself the obligation of abstaining from particular articles
of food or from wearing certain articles of clothing for a certain
number of days. [289] Particular days of the week are set apart as
appropriate for the worship of particular planets, and, on such days,
the person keeping the vow observes a fast and worships the planet
through the medium of a Brahman. [290] For instance, vrats or vows
are observed on Tuesdays in honour of Mangal (Mars), when an image
of the planet, engraved on a golden dish, is worshipped, and the
person observing the vow takes food consisting of wheat only, and
that too, only once during the day. This mode of fasting is followed
for a number of consecutive Tuesdays prescribed by an astrologer;
and on the last Tuesday, when purnahuti [291] is offered, Brahmans
are feasted and dakshina is given to them. A piece of red cloth and
some corn are used in the installation of the planet; these and the
golden engraving are carried away by the priest.
Similarly, in propitiating Rahu and Ketu the same ceremonies are gone
through: only, instead of wheat, mug (Phaseolus mungo) is eaten by the
devotee. In the same way Shani (Saturn) is said to favour the diet
of adad (or lentils): Guru (Jupiter) inclines to chana (or gram),
while Shukra (Venus) favours chola (dolichos sinensis).
Certain forms or figures, called mandals, are favoured by particular
grahas, and are drawn in their honour in worshipping them. Different
things, too, are given in charity in honour of different planets. [292]
All the nine grahas and the twenty-seven nakshatras are worshipped on
the occasion of the Griha-Shanti ceremony, which is performed before
occupying a newly erected building.
It is considered inauspicious to hold a marriage ceremony while Shukra
(Venus) is invisible. In such a case, however, the ceremony may be
performed after setting up and worshipping a small golden image of
the planet.
Of the stars, the constellation of saptarshi is perhaps the one most
often worshipped. Its worship forms a part of the ceremonies performed
on the occasion of investing boys with the sacred thread [293] and
also of the ceremonies of marriage. The worship of the saptarshi on
marriage occasions is believed to be an attestation of the marriage,
and to secure the benign care of the saptarshi for the couple. The form
of worship is sometimes as follows: a red and white piece of cloth is
stretched on the ground, bearing an image of the saptarshi over it;
wheat and rice are scattered over the cloth, a ghi-lamp is lighted,
and red lac and flowers are offered to the image. [294] Another form
of worship is to mark seven red-lac-dots on a patla or a wooden stool,
and to place seven pice and seven betel-nuts thereon. After worshipping
the seven pice, the bridal pair are made to take four turns round
the stool, touching the stool with their great toes at every turn. A
proverb runs to the effect that, whatever may happen to the couple,
still the seven pice of satpati (i.e., the ceremony described) are
secure. [295] A third process is to form seven small piles of kamod,
[296] on each of which, successively, the bride places her right foot
while the bridegroom removes each pile one by one. [297]
The fifth day of the bright half of Bhadrapad (the eleventh month
of the Gujarati Hindus) is observed as a day of worship in honour of
the saptarshi group. People observe a fast on that day. Brahmans set
up seven chats [298] in honour of the seven sages, adding an eighth
in honour of Arundhati, the wife of Vasishtha, and worship them by
shodashopachar (i.e. sixteen-fold ceremonial). The worship is said
to secure felicity for departed souls. [299]
The saptarshi are also annually worshipped by Brahmans on cocoanut-day
(the 15th day of the bright half of Shravan) on the occasion
of changing their sacred threads. Hindu seamen also worship the
constellation on the same day. [300]
In the performance of the Nil-parvan ceremony, which is held to
propitiate the spirits of departed ancestors, and which requires a calf
and a heifer to be married, an entertainment being simultaneously given
to one hundred and eight Brahmans, and on the occasion of Vastu or the
ceremonies performed before or at the time of occupying a newly-built
house, burnt offerings and worship are offered to the saptarshi. [301]
Every Brahman must offer arghyas [302] to, and worship, the agastya
constellation, in a hut of darbha [303] and kasada, within
seven days from the date of its appearance. Failure to make this
offering brings pollution on him for seven months, and disqualifies
him from performing any of the rites or ceremonies prescribed by
the Shastras.
Married couples are made to look at the Pole star immediately after
the Hymenal knot is tied by the priest, in the hope that they may
be as long-lived or as inflexible or unmoved by the ups and downs
of life.
The twelfth day after the death of a person, known as Tara-baras (or
the star-twelfth) is kept as the day of star-worship by the relatives
of the deceased, when one member of the family observes a fast on that
day in honour of the deceased, and takes food only after worshipping
the stars at night. It is customary on this day to give up the use
of bronze vessels and to give them away in charity. [304]
Just as persons carrying or accompanying a corpse to the cemetery are
considered sutaki (under ceremonial impurity), so those who witness
this rite are also considered unclean: but they are purified by a
sight of the stars. [305]