MEETING ORGANIZATION: ITS CONNECTION WITH EDUCATION
[Sidenote: An organization developed]
The organization of meetings in the Society of Friends was based almost
entirely on the recommendation of its founder, and still obtains
without many variations from the type which was thus early begun. The
organization thus planned was not developed completely at one time, but
depended rather on the growth of the society in this or that section of
the country. Meetings, as at first established, were not so specialized
in their functions as they came to be later; there were those for worship
and sufferings, the latter becoming in due time a specialized part of the
yearly meeting, and for taking action in regard to poor members. The time
was further occupied in disciplining those members who were not faithful
to the doctrines of the church.
[Sidenote: The place of organization in the establishment of schools]
It is of particular importance for us to understand the ordinary
arrangement of the meetings and their relation to each other, since
it was by virtue of this organization of the church that its schools
were set up. Perhaps no other factor played so important a part in the
success which was met with in setting up schools, as that through the
organization of the meetings all localities were kept in closer touch
with each other than would otherwise have been possible at that time.
As it was, the local meetings were literally forced to listen to the
school-proposition, even though they were in the backwoods of America,
or inhabited the Barbados. The chief means of communication established
were church letters, travelling ministers, representatives from the
constituent meetings, and reports of general meetings which were
distributed to all those belonging thereunto.[38]
[Sidenote: Purposes of the organization]
Originally the purpose of the church organization seems to have been
twofold. It was realized that among those who became members some
would be less constant in their behavior than others; hence some sort
of oversight was necessary to keep each and every one in line. In the
second place, there were many adherents in limited circumstances and the
Quakers’ belief made it imperative that these people be taken care of in
the best manner possible.[39] Realizing the existence of these conditions
among members, it was clear to Fox that a definitely organized meeting
was necessary whereby (1) the necessary assistance could be extended to
those in need, (2) discipline could be enforced for the maintenance of
the religious life of the organization, and (3) new meetings could be
officially established when and where they became necessary.
[Sidenote: Early meetings established]
The earliest mention that is made of a meeting established for these
purposes is in the case of Balby, in Yorkshire, in 1658.[40] This
statement is not exactly accurate, it seems, for we have also mention
made of a general meeting, or what came to be known as a yearly meeting,
as early as 1654 when one was held at Swannington in Leicestershire.[41]
The meeting at Balby seems to have been of considerable importance and
is frequently mentioned as one of the stopping places of George Fox. He
recounts a meeting held at that place in 1660 “in a great orchard of
John Killam’s where it was supposed some thousands of people and Friends
were gathered together.”[42] The business of the yearly meeting seems to
have been to devote some time to the affairs of the church; at any rate,
this idea is expressed by Fox in writing of a similar meeting held at
Skipton in 1660.[43] The characteristic of these meetings, that is always
mentioned, is that they were attended by representatives from various
towns and counties. The yearly meeting is still a representative body.
[Sidenote: Meetings develop from larger to the smaller]
The smaller meetings for worship were, of course, the first established.
Aside from the question of worship, however, the development of the
organization was from the larger unit to the smaller. We have noted
above the beginning of the general or yearly meeting. As the sect grew
in numbers, and the labor of caring for these, sometimes in a physical
sense and again in the religious, increased, it became necessary to have
a finer organization, the smaller units of which would reach the smallest
communities. By 1665 there were established (1) the _yearly_ and (2) the
_quarterly_ meetings, and in 1666 Fox recommended the establishment of a
smaller unit, the _monthly_ meeting, saying:
Then I was moved of the Lord to recommend the setting up of
five monthly meetings of men and women in the City of London
(besides the women’s meetings and the quarterly meetings) to
take care of God’s glory, and to admonish and exhort such as
walked disorderly or carelessly, and not according to the
truth. For whereas Friends had had only quarterly meetings,
now truth was spread, and Friends were grown more numerous,
I was moved to recommend the setting up of monthly meetings
throughout the nation. And the Lord opened to me what I must
do, and how the men’s and the women’s monthly and quarterly
meetings should be ordered and established in this and other
nations; and that I should write to those where I did not come,
to do the same.[44]
[Sidenote: Number of monthly meetings set up]
Immediately after this, there is mentioned the establishment of monthly
meetings in Essex, Suffolk and Norfolk, Huntingdonshire, Nottinghamshire,
Leicestershire and Warwickshire and many others.[45] Three years later
(1669) he reports fourteen monthly meetings in the county of York.[46]
The rapid increase in the number of meetings and the extent of territory
covered by them is a fair indication of the phenomenal growth of the
society.
Following his resolve and subsequent exertions toward setting up of
monthly meetings, during which he made very extensive campaigns, there
came the great step which was taken to organize all under the general
leadership of a yearly meeting, that of London. This was accomplished
in 1672.[47] This general meeting of ministers drew up a resolution or
minute to this effect:
[Sidenote: London Yearly Meeting established]
It is concluded agreed and assented to by Friends present
that for the better ordering, managing and regulating of the
public affairs of Friends relating to the Truth and the service
thereof, there be a general meeting of Friends held at London
once a year, in the week called Whitsun-week, to consist of six
Friends for the City of London, three for the city of Bristol,
two for the city of Colchester and one or two from each of the
counties of England and Wales respectively.[48]
The meeting convened in the year following, in accordance with the
above resolution. Many of the duties performed by the General Meeting
of Ministers were transferred to the representatives of the various
meetings. The ministers, though in fact subject to the approval or
disapproval of monthly meetings, did not relinquish their oversight of
each other.
[Sidenote: The preparative meeting the smallest unit]
The smallest unit in the organization was the _particular_ or
_preparative_ meeting. This meeting is not mentioned in all localities,
though it is clear from Fox’s statements that he recognized this as a
part of the organization, for in a letter of 1669 he writes concerning
the representatives of the quarterly meetings that,
none that are raw or weak and are not able to give a testimony
of the affairs of the church and Truth, may go on behalf of
the particular meetings to the quarterly meetings, but may be
nursed up in your monthly meetings.[49]
[Sidenote: Details of organization worked out by Fox]
This statement is given here merely for the purpose of pointing out how
completely the ideas of Fox were embodied in even the smallest unit of
church organization. There is adequate proof of their existence in all
sections occupied by the Quakers in Pennsylvania, and of their great
importance in carrying out the details both of relief work for the poor,
and in the establishment of schools.[50]
There have been noted different phases of the development of the meeting
organization. When finally it was complete in all its parts, there
existed a hierarchy of meetings, the lower and smaller units of which
were subject to and under the direction of the higher. This resultant
organization may be made somewhat clearer by means of a diagrammatical
representation.
[Illustration]
[Sidenote: Functions of yearly meeting]
The above diagram represents the relation of the various kinds of
meetings in the organization of the Society of Friends. The yearly
meeting (Fig. 1, Y) is the general head of the entire organization. Its
functions are of a general directive nature and its influence of very
wide extent. For example, it will be shown a little later that the Yearly
Meeting of London issued, very early, certain communications concerning
education which were sent to each meeting belonging to the London Yearly
Meeting. In the same manner it exercised its influence along other lines
than education. There is no special virtue in the number of meetings
represented above; for example, the three Q’s do not mean that each
and every yearly meeting had three quarterly meetings under its care.
The number is not specified. In the case of the Philadelphia Yearly
Meeting there are at present nine quarterly meetings and two half-yearly
meetings.[51] The same variation is also true in the number of monthly
meetings in a quarter, Caln Quarterly having only one monthly meeting,
while Western Quarterly has six.[52] The same is true as to the number of
preparative meetings.
[Sidenote: Functions of the quarterly meeting]
The quarterly meeting is representative of the monthly meetings which
comprise it. Its functions are chiefly directive and advisory, though
it may often occur that a bad case of discipline may be turned over to
it by the monthly meeting. In the case of school regulations, its chief
concern was to pass on the recommendations of the yearly meeting to the
monthly meetings and to repeat them frequently, that the lower meetings
might be stirred up to action.[53] It was also through the quarterly
meetings that the reports on the conditions of schools in the monthly
meetings were collected and sent to the yearly meeting. It was also quite
customary for the monthly units to pass any of their decisions on a
matter up to the quarterly unit for its formal approval or disapproval.
Especially is this marked in educational affairs, and particularly in the
Philadelphia Quarter.[54] This is most marked in the earliest years after
establishment, and is due, no doubt, to a lack at that time of a very
close differentiation in the functions of the meetings.
[Sidenote: Monthly meeting the business unit]
The monthly meetings are primarily the business units of the
organization. Before them come all cases of care for the poor,
apprenticing of children, enforcement of discipline, establishment of
schools, requests for permission to marry, to remove to a new location
and still many others. They may settle some of these finally, or they may
act in connection with their superior meeting as mentioned above.
[Sidenote: Function of the preparative meeting]
The preparative meeting is the smallest organization unit and has its
finger on the pulse of the local community at all times.[55] Officially
it acts as the agent of the monthly meeting in carrying out the details
of any piece of work that must be done, and which the monthly meeting
is willing to delegate thus far.[56] Thus in the case of Horsham, for
instance, the business of the schools in the scope of the preparative
meeting is turned over to it and their organization and maintenance
are under the care of its school committee.[57] The preparative meeting
is at all times cognizant of breaches of discipline among its members
and responsible to report such to the monthly meeting for settlement.
One might go to great length to enumerate and explain all the detailed
duties of each of these branches of the organization, but it is believed
sufficient has been said of them, to make their action in educational
matters intelligible.
We have noted, somewhat briefly to be sure, the organization and
interrelation of the meetings in the Society of Friends. It is now
necessary to point out what connection existed between this organization
and the program put forward for the establishment of schools. This
will be done by the presentation of certain extracts from meeting
records which seem in all cases to have been responsible for kindling
an interest in education in near and distant meetings, and keeping that
interest alive by virtue of many advices until some material results were
forthcoming. The selections presented are not continuous; they are chosen
because they are representative and illustrative of the point in question.
[Sidenote: Attention of yearly meeting to education in 1690]
The Yearly Meeting of London was established (see page 17) in 1672.
Consistent with the purpose of its establishment, as then stated, it
began at once to busy itself with certain important problems of the
church. Among the first that received a considerable amount of attention
was the education of the youths of members in the society, which was, of
course, soon extended to include others. For instance, in 1690, there is
given out this educational advice.
And, dear Friends, it is our Christian and earnest advice and
counsel to all Friends concerned (so far as they are able or
may be capable) to provide schoolmasters and mistresses who
are faithful Friends, to teach and instruct their children,
and not to send them to such schools where they are taught the
corrupt ways, manners and fashions of the world and of the
Heathen in their authors and manners of the heathenish gods and
goddesses....[58]
And again in the year following we find the following advice:
[Sidenote: 1691]
We are glad to hear that care is taken in some places,
according to former advices, for the providing of schoolmasters
and mistresses who are faithful Friends to instruct Friends’
children in such method as Truth allows. And we desire that
Friends may go on in the care to provide such education and
schools, for the advantage of their children and posterity.[59]
More specific instructions follow in 1695.
[Sidenote: 1695]
And it is desired ... to take special care for the good
education and order of Friends’ children in God’s holy fear,
... and also to see that schools and schoolmasters who are
faithful Friends, and well qualified, be placed and encouraged
in all counties, cities and great towns, or places where they
may be needed; and that such schoolmasters, as much as may
be, sometimes correspond with one another for their help and
improvement in such good and easy methods as are agreeable to
the Truth and the children’s advantage and benefit; and that
care be taken that poor Friends’ children may freely partake of
such education, in order to apprenticeship.[60]
At a much later date, 1745, very similar instructions are found among
those issued.
[Sidenote: and 1745]
And, dear Friends, though frequently and repeated advices have
been given from this meeting, respective of the education of
our youth in sobriety, godliness and Christian virtues; yet,
this being a matter of very great moment for the welfare of
the present and future generations, we think it our incumbent
duty again to recommend an especial care therein.... We also
recommend to schoolmasters and mistresses, to educate the
children committed to their charge, in the frequent reading
of those sacred writings and such other good books as tend to
their instruction in true Christianity; whereby their minds
are in danger of being corrupted and led aside from the way of
truth and holiness.[61]
A casual reading of the above statements, or any of numerous others like
them, will suffice to point out to what great extent they are similar
to the statements of Fox and other Quakers who were interested in
education.[62] For convenience, the content of these extracts from the
yearly meeting minutes may be summarized in something like the following:
1. To educate morally, according to Friends’ standards.
2. To train the individual in some practical employment.
[Sidenote: A summary of important points in the extracts]
They are accompanied by:
1. Select schools.
2. Teachers of approved morality.
3. Selected subject matter.
4. Apprenticeship training.
5. Schools to be in all communities, the stronger assisting the
weaker.[63]
[Sidenote: Exemplified in schools set up]
The influence of these fundamental ideas about education is clearly
reflected in the type of schools that were first set up in England.
Those recommended by Fox at Waltham and Shacklewell in 1667, for both
boys and girls, represent the first attempt.[64] At a later date, 1702,
Clerkenwell was established under the oversight of London and Middlesex
Quarterly Meetings, and in the latter part of the century the Ackworth
School, founded by John Fothergill in 1779.[65] In all the schools
established, of which those mentioned are representative, there is always
found this primary emphasis on _moral_ and _useful_ training.[66]
[Sidenote: Influence exerted by means of ministers, epistles and tracts]
The great influence of English Quaker education on that in America was
made secure by virtue of the very intimate relation between the meetings
in both countries; this relation being constantly maintained through
the traveling ministers, and tracts and epistles sent out by the yearly
meetings. The same alertness, characteristic of London Yearly Meeting in
these affairs, was likewise assumed by the Burlington and Philadelphia
Meetings, from whence came numerous advices. As concrete evidence of
this close relation existing, and the consequent communications, a few
extracts thereof are inserted.
There was brought to this meeting (Middletown Monthly) the
last London printed epistle, which was read, containing sundry
weighty advices and exhortations with some comfortable account
of the prosperity of the Truth in divers places, as also the
extracts of our last yearly meeting (Philadelphia) wherein
is recommended amongst other things, a half collection for
the next year, and some proposals concerning the settling of
schools in the country....[67]
That these letters of advice were not mere formalities but were really
seriously considered and acted upon favorably or unfavorably, as in the
first case below, is shown adequately in the following:
This meeting taking into consideration the proposals of last
yearly meeting concerning the settling of schools in the
country, are of the opinion that the method proposed will not
answer for the Friends who live remote from each other in the
country....[68]
[Sidenote: Had definite results]
In the case of Darby Monthly Meeting, later in the century, there is an
instance in which the recommendations of the yearly meeting (1778) are
followed most minutely in the reorganization.
In consideration of improving our school, agreeable to the
recommendations of the last Yearly Meeting in 1778, and
subsequent advices down to this time having been spread in
this meeting and so and several remarks made thereon, pointing
out the advantages which may arise therefrom to the present
rising and succeeding ages, and the loss sustained for the want
thereof, tending to animate a desire to pursue the interesting
prospect. It is therefore now agreed that in future five
Friends be appointed and called the overseers of the Darby
School, three of whom shall be deemed a sufficient number to
transact any business within their appointment, viz.: to have
the oversight of and visit the school, examine the progress the
scholars make in their learning, remark thereon as appears to
them necessary; inspect the teachers’ conduct, and from time to
time as occasion may be, with the approbation of the meeting,
agree with and employ a teacher or teachers, and on sufficient
cause appearing, discharge any such teacher or teachers, as
also any unruly scholars who cannot be brought to submission
to the rules and orders of the school; hear and determine upon
all differences relative to the school which may arise between
any teacher and employer, take into consideration and endeavor
out after some eligible plan for raising a fund for the benefit
of the school and as way shall open for it, pursue the same
accordingly, and every matter and thing tending to promote a
settlement for a school agreeable to the recommendations before
cited; and as some of our deceased brothers have made donations
to this meeting for the benevolent purpose of schooling
children of the poor, therefore, the aforesaid overseers are
hereby empowered and directed to receive and collect from the
trustees thereof for the time being, the interest arising from
the said donations, dispose thereof agreeable to the intentions
of the Donors, and when necessary, advise and assist the
trustees in taking better securities for the principal, and as
future donations may be made for the benefit of the school, the
overseers are directed to extend care therein, as the same
shall become necessary, and keep fair minutes of all moneys
received and expended and other matters of importance which
come before them, to be produced in this meeting when called
for, and preceding the quarterly meeting in the 8th month
annually make to this meeting a clear statement of the amount
received, expended and remaining in hand and outstanding and
of the capital under their care; what donations made within
the year past and for what purposes; and of such other matters
as they may judge needful to enable this meeting to transmit
the true estate of the school to the Quarterly Meeting, and
as a fundamental of their proceedings they transcribe a copy
of their minutes, together with such other writings as are
necessary for their government in what is now constituted their
cares.[69]
A committee was accordingly appointed and directed to choose their
officers, that their business might be begun at once and properly
performed.
[Sidenote: Works of Penn, Barclay, Sewell, Turford, and others
distributed]
In addition to the advices sent out in the form of letters from the
yearly sessions, the meeting also furthered regularly the distribution
of books, tracts and pamphlets, usually the expression of prominent
Friends, such as, for example, Penn’s _Advice to His Children_, Barclay’s
_Apology_, Sewell’s _History of Quakers_, Barclay’s _Catechism_,
Turford’s _Grounds of a Holy Life_, and many others of similar nature.
Works of this kind were frequently sent over in lots, sometimes for free
distribution, or to be sold to members; as witness the following:
Joseph Kirkbride and Walter Faucit, having been lately in
London upon the service of Truth, did subscribe for 100 of
Barclay’s Apologies on behalf of this yearly meeting, which the
said meeting approves of; and agreed that Samuel Carpenter pay
for them out of the yearly meeting stock and distribute them to
each meeting according to their proportion of books that they
usually receive, that so they may be given away by the several
meetings for the service of truth.[70]
Sam Nixon informs the meeting that he brought from last
quarterly meeting ten small books, entitled _Reflections and
Maxims_, wrote by William Penn and printed for the use of
schools, which he desired us to take the care of and to apply
to the use intended as occasion may require.[71]
Produced at this meeting, 6 Barclay’s _Apologies_, 12 Richard
Davis’ _Journals_, 7 Daniel Stanton’s _Journals_, 4 Hugh
Turford’s _Grounds of a Holy Life_, 8 Barclay’s _Catechisms_;
37 books under care of Thos. Pickering, Thos. Watson, and
Robert Kirkbride—to lend to the poor or others, as they think
useful.[72]
The foregoing presentation of conditions within the church organization,
their method of interaction, has been made so that the reader may
understand that whatever activities may be later noted among the Quakers
in Pennsylvania in connection with the establishment of schools, were
intimately connected with and were in fact the result of the English
influence.
SUMMARY
The form of organization of the meeting in the Society of Friends
was due to the needs then existing, and was planned, even to the
smallest unit, by the founder of the society. The chief purposes of the
organization, when first begun, were (1) moral and religious discipline
of members, (2) assistance to the poor among their number, and (3) to
protect themselves against the oppression of outsiders (function of the
meeting on sufferings). The functions of the higher meeting (yearly)
were chiefly advisory in character, while those of the lower meetings
(preparative) were to work out the details. Educationally, the yearly
meeting exercised an influence very early by its frequent recommendations
and the literature sent to the smaller individual meetings. This rôle was
likewise assumed by the Burlington and Philadelphia Yearly Meeting.[73]
This close relationship between the meetings of different order and the
educational influence is in part shown by extracts taken from the meeting
records.