[Illustration: MAP OF SOUTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA SHOWING LOCATION OF
PRINCIPAL MEETINGS]
EARLY QUAKER EDUCATION
IN PENNSYLVANIA
By
THOMAS WOODY, PH.D.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION. No. 105
Published by
Teachers College, Columbia University
NEW YORK CITY
1920
Copyright, 1920, by THOMAS WOODY
PREFACE
The purpose of this monograph is to present to the students of education,
especially to those interested in the historical phase of it, some
materials relating to education among the Quakers in Pennsylvania
previous to 1800. Since the greater part of the source material on
the subject is almost inaccessible, it has been thought desirable
to incorporate in this work many reports on schools, such as may be
convenient references for others who are interested in the early
educational history of Pennsylvania.
The manuscript records which furnish the most direct light on this study
are found in various depositories in southeastern Pennsylvania. Those
that have been preserved and made accessible to the writer have been
examined by him in person. With the exception of a few cases, the minutes
of the preparative meetings have not been well kept; hence, that source
of information is very limited.
If this work possesses merit, it is by reason of the coöperation of many
men and women. I am obligated to the members of the Society of Friends
who, as custodians of records, have been instrumental in forwarding
the investigation. It is also a great pleasure to acknowledge the
friendly encouragement and assistance given by Albert Cook Myers, of The
Historical Society of Pennsylvania. I wish also to thank Professor Paul
Monroe for the initial encouragement and continued interest during the
progress of the investigation.
T. W.
Teachers College, New York July 11, 1917
CONTENTS
I Origin of the Quakers 1-13
II Meeting Organization: Its Connection with Education 14-25
III Educational Ideals of the Quakers 26-40
IV Education in Philadelphia 41-84
V Schools of Bucks County 85-104
VI Schools of Montgomery County 105-121
VII Schools of Chester County 122-146
VIII Schools of Delaware County 147-166
IX School Support, Organization, and Curriculum 167-203
X Masters and Mistresses 204-227
XI Education of Negroes and Indians 228-267
XII Conclusion 268-271
Bibliography 272-282
Abbreviations 283
Index 285-287
EARLY QUAKER EDUCATION IN PENNSYLVANIA
CHAPTER I
ORIGIN OF THE QUAKERS
[Sidenote: An essential in leaders]
Reforms, discoveries and inventions are, at the outset, conceived by
individual minds; seldom, if ever, are they the simultaneous product
of several. The original connection is seen and made by an individual,
and afterwards may be accepted by his fellows, who may appropriate the
new idea to themselves and make its applications manifold. The novel
idea or relationship, once seen, thoroughly comprehended and expressed
becomes either the common property of many, extending far afield from
its original source, or is rejected because it fails to prove attractive
to human interests or necessary for the satisfaction of human needs. By
this means changes are wrought in a group or society of individuals,
and the belief or the contribution of one individual becomes the faith
or the possession of a nation. The meaning of the above statement is at
once made clear by mere mention of a few names, such as Luther, Bacon,
Pestalozzi, Confucius, Whitefield, Gœthe and Fox. It is with the ideas
and the formally stated doctrines of the last mentioned that we are in
this connection chiefly concerned.
[Sidenote: Brief study of Quaker beliefs necessary]
In a study of education among the Quakers it is desirable, if not
absolutely imperative, to go back to the origin of the society and note,
at least in part, the tenets of the society and the reasons for its
foundation. For this purpose the best materials are to be found in the
life and works of George Fox, the founder of the Society of Quakers. It
would, perhaps, be unnecessary at present to make any considerable study
of beliefs or tenets, if it were not for the fact that, in times past,
some of the expressions of their belief have been misconstrued. For
instance, reference may be made here to the so-called doctrine of _inner
light_ which was promulgated by George Fox at the very beginning of his
work in 1647.[1] It will be of advantage to first sketch briefly the
early life of this exponent of Quakerism.
[Sidenote: Fox’s youth and early education]
George Fox was born July, 1624 (old style), at Drayton-in-the-clay,[2]
in Leicestershire, England. His father, Christopher Fox, otherwise known
as “Righteous Christer,” was a weaver by trade and “an honest man.” His
mother, he says, was of the stock of martyrs.[3]
His earliest life was spent in the home of his parents, under whose
tutelage he received a careful religious training. He says of himself
that he was unusually grave for a youth of his age and that his thought
constantly turned to subjects of religious nature. This characteristic
religious disposition, noticed by his mother, was the cause of a more
indulgent attitude toward him than was granted the other children in
the family, especially in regard to their religious instruction. Of his
school education we have but a meagre account; according to Sewell,
his only education was received in the home and consisted of the bare
necessaries such as reading and writing.[4] The essence of his religious
education seems to be adequately summarized in his own words as follows:
The Lord taught me to be faithful in all things, and to act
faithfully two ways, _viz._, inwardly to God, and outwardly to
man; and to keep to yea and nay in all things.[5]
As he advanced in years some of his people, being aware of his religious
tendencies, would gladly have had him enter the priesthood, but others
dissenting, he was placed with a man who was a shoemaker, grazier and
dealer in wool.[6] In this employment he seems to have given much
satisfaction to his employer, and, as for himself, he too enjoyed the
work of shepherd, affording, as it did, ample opportunity for close
communion with nature and limiting his connections with the corrupt
society of mankind, from which he sought to free himself.[7]
[Sidenote: Beginning of his travels]
About the age of nineteen, his dissatisfaction with the world and the
people about him caused him to leave his relations and acquaintances and
to seek out a more lonely existence in some place where he was quite
unknown. This decision being made, he journeyed “at the command of God,”
first to Lutterworth, Northampton, Newport-Pagnell, and came finally,
in 1644, to Barnet. During these days he was often in great despair
and questioned whether he had done rightly in leaving his parents and
friends. In these periods of misgiving he consulted often with priests
concerning his condition and sought thereby a remedy, which, however, he
did not find. Driven by sheer desperation he continued to travel, and,
after leaving Barnet, came to London where he remained for a short time
only, having come now to a decision that he should return again to the
home of his parents.[8]
[Sidenote: His return home]
The return to his native village, however, was no cure for his mental
ill, though his conscience was thereby somewhat stilled. He continued his
visits to various priests, especially one Nathaniel Stevens, with whom he
was wont to argue religious questions, and who, after Fox had enunciated
certain beliefs, which will be mentioned later, became one of his most
cruel persecutors.[9] Each succeeding experience with the priests was but
a repetition of a former and it became clear to him that they saw nothing
but the externals of his condition and had not the power to penetrate to
the innermost complexities of his situation. According to his view their
recommendations met only the demands of the ecclesiastics; his need was
genuine and he was enabled to see the narrow limitations which hamper the
activity of one man who attempts to parcel out salvation to another.
[Sidenote: Three of Fox’s conclusions; fundamental]
George Fox was now in his twenty-second year. It is pertinent that
mention be made at this place of three fundamental beliefs or principles,
whose truth, up to this time, had made itself manifest in his mind. The
second of these is the one which, being so often misquoted, has become
the basis for the belief on the part of many, that the Society was
opposed to education.
1. And the Lord opened to me that, if all were believers, then
they were all born of God, and passed from death unto life, and
that none were true believers but such; and though others said
they were believers, yet they were not.
2. The Lord opened unto me, that being bred at Oxford or
Cambridge was not enough to fit and qualify men to be ministers
of Christ; and I wondered at it, because it was the common
belief of the people.
3. At another time it was opened to me, that God, who made the
world, did not dwell in temples made with hands.... But the
Lord showed me clearly that he did not dwell in these temples
which men had commanded and set up, but in people’s hearts; for
both Stephen and the apostle Paul bore testimony that he did
not dwell in temples made with hands, not even in that which he
had once commanded to be built, since he put an end to it; but
that his people were his temple, and he dwelt in them.[10]
These doctrines which he began to promulgate in 1647 were recognized
as fundamental, and their influence is plainly to be seen in the
organization and discipline of the society which finally resulted.[11]
[Sidenote: But not untried]
It may well be mentioned here that though these tenets were incorporated
in the foundation principles of the Quakers, they were by no means new,
in the sense that they had never been accepted, in part, at least, by any
other group of people. J. Brown, writing concerning the Quakers, states
that Caspar Schwenkfeld, a Silesian of high birth, had promulgated the
same doctrines of _inner light_, _direct revelation_ and the inadequacy
of the sacraments at least two centuries before the time of Fox in
England.[12] The dispersion of Schwenkfeld’s adherents in 1547 led to
the spread of their doctrines outside of Silesia, being embraced by a
part of the Mennonite Church of Amsterdam, whence their entrance was
made into England, and found acceptance in the minds of the Quakers.[13]
This view is held also by other students of Quaker history,[14] and the
similarity of doctrine is clearly seen in the statement of the Mennonite
creed, as given by B. L. Wicks, a student of Mennonite history.[15]
Further, it is known that some of the earliest preachers among Quakers
went to Amsterdam and vicinity and found there a kindly reception by a
part of the people, making converts among both the Baptists[16] and the
Mennonites.[17] An instance of their kindly attitude toward Quakers and
also of the recognition given their belief on the part of the Quakers, is
shown in the account by Thomas Chalkley, concerning his journey of some
nine hundred miles in Holland, Friesland and Germany.[18]
[Sidenote: Kindly reception given to Quaker ministers]
As I have had great peace and satisfaction in my travels in
Holland and Germany, so, for inciting others under the like
exercise, I may truly say that there is encouragement for
faithful ministers to labor in the work of the gospel. I know
not that I ever met with more tenderness and openness in people
than in those parts of the world. There is a great people
whom they call Mennonites, who are very near to truth, and
the fields are white unto the harvest among divers of them,
spiritually speaking.[19]
At Kriegsheim in the Palatinate Quaker exhorters like Ames and Rolfe,
who had been sent out by the direction of George Fox, 1657, succeeded
in winning converts among the Mennonites, though they were received
unfavorably by the magistrates who fined those who offered to give
them any entertainment.[20] It is from this same district that both
Quakers and Mennonites made their voluntary departure and came to settle
in Pennsylvania. Their prompt attention to school affairs on their
first arrival is very similar to that of the Quakers, though in their
case it was often the work of the laity, and not through the church
organization.[21]
[Sidenote: Journey of Fox, Penn, Furly, Barclay and Keith]
A still more extensive missionary journey was undertaken at a later
date, 1677, by several Quakers, among them Fox, Penn, Furly, Barclay and
Keith. They visited Brill, Leyden and Haarlem where they held meetings,
preaching to both Quakers and Mennonites.[22] The tour continued up into
the Rhine region where Penn and his party came into touch with members
of the Pietist group. It is doubtless true that this journey and the
impression which was made by Penn must have played an important part a
few years later when he opened his colony to settlers on the well known
liberal principles.
In the presentation of the foregoing material it has been pointed out:
(1) how the doctrines of the Quakers were rapidly spread broadcast by the
itinerant preachers; and (2) that there was a great similarity between
Quaker and Mennonite in doctrine and belief.
[Sidenote: Increased number of ministers]
[Sidenote: The number of adherents estimated]
The work of spreading the new gospel, as instanced by the work of Ames
and Rolfe in 1657, was carried rapidly forward; as early as 1654, seven
years after George Fox had begun to preach, he had enlisted the services
of some sixty preachers who travelled continually up and down the
country.[23] Such a number of leaders bespeaks a considerable following,
though we have no record of a census of the followers made during Fox’s
lifetime. Brown is apparently willing to accept Barclay’s statement
that by 1675 they numbered ten thousand in London and by the end of the
century, sixty thousand.[24] It does not seem that this is too large an
estimate. It can be estimated from the work of Besse on _Sufferings_
that between 1650 and 1689 there were approximately fifteen thousand
individual cases of “sufferings.”[25] Since his work is compiled from
“authentic records” it may be considered to be fairly accurate, though
the errors, if any, would likely be to make the number too small rather
than too large. As a matter of fact his collection includes some cases
between 1689 and 1700, but the vast majority of them are from the period
above stated. Certainly we must suppose that if such a large number
actually came under the hand of English tolerance, then the total number
of adherents very probably equalled or exceeded the estimate previously
mentioned. Whatever objection may be made to the accuracy of these
figures they may certainly be taken as fairly indicative of the growth of
the sect; for that purpose they are intended.
[Sidenote: Fox’s doctrine the basis in their educational practice]
Just as the church discipline and organization are traceable to the
hand of Fox, so also is the attitude on educational affairs. It has
been said that the doctrine of the _inner light_ made all education
unnecessary, and this perverted idea has doubtless possessed even some
members of Quakers to the extent that they came to regard learning as
an instrument of Satan, a thing to be carefully avoided. However true
this statement may have been of some members of the group, it certainly
is not representative of the belief and practice of the Quakers as a
whole. Some of the more ignorant may have interpreted the _inner light_
to mean just that thing; but it is certainly true that such an idea was
never expressed by George Fox, nor did it become the accepted belief of
the organization, as is shown by their practices. The actual practice,
educational, among Quakers is to be followed in this monograph. A later
chapter will be devoted to a consideration of the views on education held
by various individuals who have left some tangible monuments to their
beliefs. In the present chapter, however, it is intended to indicate
merely the position assumed by Fox in regard to the question at the
outset of his labors.
As has been previously mentioned (page 2) George Fox had the advantage
of only a limited education. Opposition to the higher education, if he
exhibited such, might find an explanation in this fact, assuming that
not having shared its delights and advantages, he chose to deprecate it
altogether. From a study of his utterances and his actions throughout
his career it seems, however, that the facts point rather to a true
appreciation rather than deprecation of education. The evidence appears
to support, in a very satisfactory manner, the following points:
[Sidenote: Fox’s educational creed]
1. That he placed a great emphasis on moral and religious
training.
2. Education should be of practical value; apprenticeship
education recommended.
3. That the establishment of schools was believed to be
necessary.
4. The objection to classical training was its inadequacy to
prepare for a minister of the gospel.
5. That the scope of education was not limited to Quakers
alone, nor even to the Whites, but should include also Negroes,
Indians and the poorer classes of society as well as the rich.
The remainder of this chapter will be devoted to a brief
consideration of the foregoing statements.
_First_, in regard to moral and religious instruction, it seems hardly
necessary to do more than state simply that he did urge moral education
at all times. His whole life being permeated with the desire to propagate
his newly founded society, it certainly is to be expected that he would
recommend and insist on instruction of that nature. If proof be desired,
however, it may be found in statements made from time to time, which
are quoted below. The system of moral education based on the utterances
of Fox was chiefly a prohibitory one, and it might well be questioned
whether the result would not be passive rather than active virtues.
[Sidenote: Prohibitions, moral, social and educational]
... in warning such as kept public houses for entertainment,
that they should not let people have more drink than would do
them good; and in testifying against their wakes and feasts,
May games, sports, plays and shows, which trained up people to
vanity and looseness and led them from the fear of God: ...
in fairs also, and in markets I was made to declare against
their deceitful merchandise, cheating and cozening; warning
all to deal justly, to speak the truth, to let their yea be
yea and their nay be nay: ... I was moved also to cry against
all sorts of music, and against the mountebanks playing tricks
on their stages, for they burdened the pure life and stained
the people’s mind to vanity. I was much exercised, too, with
schoolmasters and schoolmistresses, warning them to teach their
children sobriety in the fear of the Lord, that they might not
be nursed and trained up in lightness, vanity and wantonness.
Likewise I was made to warn masters and mistresses, fathers and
mothers in private families, to take care that their children
and servants might be trained up in the fear of the Lord; and
that they themselves should be therein examples and patterns of
sobriety and virtue to them.[26]
I was to bring them off from all the world’s fellowship and
prayings and singings, which stood in forms without power:
...[27]
[Sidenote: Kept prominent place in the church]
These prohibitions and many others that were enunciated from time to time
in his speaking and writing, were to be in time a part of the discipline
of the organization, and were as religiously imposed on all members as
the ardor of the meeting and the difficulty of the task would permit. The
cases coming up before the monthly meetings for discipline are largely
composed of infringements of the regulations, which grew out of Fox’s
recommendations. These are, without question, of very ascetic nature.
One instance which illustrates the incorporation of these ideals in the
discipline of the organization may be cited in this connection.
All Friends, train up your children in the fear of God; and as
they are capable, they may be instructed and kept employed in
some lawful calling; that they may be diligent, serving the
Lord in the things that are good; that none may live idle and
be destroyers of the creation, and thereby become burdensome to
others, and to the just witness in themselves.[28]
[Sidenote: Apprenticeship education recommended]
_Second_, the emphasis placed on the values to be derived from a
practical education, to be gotten, to a large degree, through a careful
system of apprenticing the children of members to people, members if
possible, who would also be careful in regard to their moral instruction,
is unmistakable. The practice as recommended, indicated below, became the
general rule in Quaker communities, as is adequately evidenced in the
meeting records. In this connection, however, it should be kept in mind
that apprenticeship education could be _legally_ enforced.
Being in London, it came upon me to write to Friends throughout the
nation, about putting out poor children to trades. Wherefore I sent
the following epistle to the quarterly meetings of friends in all
counties:
MY DEAR FRIENDS,
Let every quarterly meeting make inquiry through all the
monthly and other meetings, to know all Friends that are
widows, or others that have children fit to put out to
apprenticeship; so that once a quarter you may set forth an
apprentice from your quarterly meeting; and so you may set
forth four in a year in each county, or more, if there be
occasion. This apprentice, when out of his time, may help his
father or mother, and support the family that is decayed; and
in so doing all may come to live comfortably. This being done
in your quarterly meetings you will have knowledge through the
county in the monthly and particular meetings, of masters fit
for them, and of such trades as their parents or the children
are most inclinable to. Thus, being placed out with Friends,
they may be trained up in truth; and by this means in the
wisdom of God, you may preserve Friends’ children in the truth,
and enable them to be strength and help to their families, and
nurses, and preservers of their relations in their ancient
days.... For in the country you know, you may set forth an
apprentice for a little to several trades, as bricklayers,
masons, carpenters, wheelwrights, ploughwrights, tailors,
tanners, curriers, blacksmiths, shoemakers, nailers, butchers,
weavers of linen and woolen stuffs and serges, etc., and you
may do well to have a stock in your quarterly meetings for that
purpose. All that is given by any Friends at their decease
(except it be given to some particular use, person or meeting)
may be brought to the public stock for that purpose. This will
be the way for the preserving of many that are poor among you,
and it will be the way of making up poor families. In several
counties it is practised already. Some quarterlies set forth
two apprentices; and sometimes the children of others that are
laid on the parish. You may bind them for fewer or more years,
according to their capacities....[29]
G. F.
London, 1st of 11th month, 1669.
The following lines, taken from the meeting records, are sufficient proof
of the working out of this recommendation concerning apprenticeship
education.
[Sidenote: And executed in various meetings]
It is agreed and concluded upon by this meeting, that the
meeting take care of all Friends’ children that are left as
orphans and unsettled, to inspect and see that all such be
taken care of and settled in the best and suitablest manner,
according to their capacity, that thereby they may discharge
their duty and all such be eased by taking such due care.[30]
_Third_, the establishment of schools was believed to be necessary;
for a proof of this attitude may be cited his action in regard to the
establishment of schools at Waltham and Shacklewell.
[Sidenote: Establishment of school advised]
Then returning towards London by Waltham, I advised the setting
up of a school there for teaching boys; and also a girls’
school at Shacklewell, for instructing them in whatsoever
things were civil and useful.[31]
This statement would certainly indicate a liberal attitude towards
education. Fox himself makes no further comment on what the nature of the
school was to be. His interest in these schools, it is asserted, never
flagged, and many visits were made in behalf of their prosperity.[32]
[Sidenote: But classical education not the first essential for ministers]
_Fourth_, the popular idea that has at times prevailed, that Quakers
objected to giving an education such as was enjoyed by other sects, was
probably founded on a misunderstanding of certain statements made by Fox
with regard to education. Let us examine some of these statements, and
seek to learn his intended meaning.
I saw that to be a true believer was another thing than they
looked on it to be; and I saw that being bred at Oxford or
Cambridge did not qualify or fit a man to be a minister of
Christ; what then should I follow such for? So neither these,
nor any of the dissenting peoples could I join with, but was a
stranger to all, relying wholly upon the Lord Jesus Christ.[33]
I was to bring people off from Jewish ceremonies and from
heathenish fables, and from men’s inventions and worldly
doctrines, by which they blew the people about this way and
the other way, from sect to sect; and from all their beggarly
rudiments, with their schools and colleges for making ministers
of Christ, who are indeed ministers of their own making but not
of Christ; ...[34]
They could not know the spiritual meaning of Moses; the
prophets and John’s words, nor see their paths and travels,
much less see through them, and to the end of them into the
kingdom, unless they had the spirit of Jesus; nor could they
know the words of Christ and of his apostles without his
Spirit.[35]
Then we came to Durham, where was a man come from London to set
up a college there, to make ministers of Christ, as they said.
I went, with some others, to reason with him and to let him see
that to teach men Hebrew, Greek and Latin, and the seven arts,
which were all but the teachings of the natural man, was not
the way to make them ministers of Christ.[36]
These statements represent a small selection from many similar ones,
and may be fairly taken as indicative of his position concerning this
one point. They are the most drastic prohibitory statements made on
the subject in all of his works. But even here we fail to find either
(1) a condemnation of general or ordinary education or (2) a wholesale
condemnation of classical education; indeed we read no objection to a
minister’s possessing a knowledge of classical authors, such as was the
case of both Penn and Barclay, provided he possess also the “light.” His
statements may be summarized as follows:
[Sidenote: Summary of educational statements]
1. Classical training is inadequate as a preparation for
ministers of the gospel.
2. Divine guidance is the one requisite for their preparation.
3. There is no objection to the classical learning if it be
added to the qualification under (2).
[Sidenote: Education not limited to Friends]
_Fifth_, their conception of the scope of education did not limit it to
their own people alone, but extended it rather to all peoples, Negroes
and Indians, the rich and the poor. This is made perfectly plain in his
address sent to the Governor of the Barbados in 1671.
Consider, Friends, it is no transgression for a master of a
family to instruct his family himself, or for some others to do
it in his behalf; but rather it is a very great duty incumbent
upon them.... We declare that we esteem it a duty incumbent on
us to pray with and for those in and belonging to our families;
... and to teach, instruct and admonish them; ... now Negroes,
Tawnies and Indians make up a very great part of the families
in this island; for whom an account will be required by him
who comes to judge both quick and dead, at the great day of
judgment, when every one shall be rewarded according to the
deeds done in the body, whether they be good or whether they be
evil.[37]
The effect of the above statements must tend to convince even the
skeptical that any statement or belief, to the effect that the founder
of Quakerism was opposed to education, is chiefly a myth based on either
ignorance or gross misunderstanding.
SUMMARY
The origin of the Quakers and the organization and discipline of the
Society are due almost entirely to the influence which first came from
the founder, George Fox. He extended his belief in his native country
and even into foreign countries by (1) preaching, (2) letters, (3)
extensive travels on his own part, and (4) through the agency of many
capable men whom he attracted to his service. For this service the
leading of the _inner light_ was deemed the only preparation which was
absolutely necessary. The society experienced a rapid growth in numbers
and, due to the policy of its founder, laid great stress on the moral and
practical education of their youth. A great similarity existed between
the beliefs of Quakers and those of the Mennonites, both of which came to
form a large part of the population of the colony of Pennsylvania. The
Mennonite beliefs are thought, by some special students of their history,
to have been the determining influence in forming those of Friends; but
this is not clearly proven. It is pointed out, by certain references to
utterances of George Fox, which to a great extent formed the basis for
Quaker practices, that the common belief in their objection to education
is erroneous. The system of moral education was exacting and full of
sweeping prohibitions, and, in those respects, according to modern
ideals, quite inadequate.