_BRAZIL; THE WAR OF THE SEVEN REDUCTIONS._
1750-1761.
[Sidenote: 1750.]
The discovery of mining districts in the interior of _Brazil_ caused
both Spanish and Portuguese statesmen to perceive that the period had
arrived when it was desirable, in the interests of both countries and of
their respective colonies, to establish a boundary-line between their
several possessions in South America. The famous Bull of Pope Alexander
VI. had long become a dead letter. The fact of the Spanish Queen of
Ferdinand VI. being a Portuguese princess, and having great influence
over her husband, tended in no small degree to bringing about an
amicable and equitable settlement of the territorial question existing
between the two nations in South America.
All pretensions on either side founded upon the Bull of Alexander having
been formally annulled, the demarcation between the two territories
began on the south, at the mouth of a small stream which rises at the
foot of the _Monte de Castilhaos Grande_, whence it proceeded in a
straight line to the mountains, following their summits to the sources
of the _Rio Negro_ and continued to those of the _Ybicuy_; it then
followed the course of that river to its junction with the _Uruguay_,
skirting the _Uruguay_ upwards until it reached the _Pepiri_, and then
the latter river to its chief source; there it left the rivers and took
the line of highest ground until it came to the head of the first stream
which flows into the _Yguazu_; the boundary then first followed this
stream, and then the _Yguazu_ to its junction with the _Paraná_; it went
up the _Paraná_ to the _Igurey_, and then up the _Igurey_ to its source;
there it once more took the highest ground as far as to the first stream
that runs into the _Paraguay_; the water then became the line to the
mouth of the _Jauru_, whence the line was to be drawn straight to the
south bank of the _Guapore_, opposite to the mouth of the _Sarare_.
Wherever the line reached the _Guapore_ it was to follow that stream to
the _Mamore_, and then the _Mamore_ to the _Madeira_, and the _Madeira_
to a point half-way between its mouth and the mouth of the _Mamore_; it
then struck east and west until it touched the _Yavari_, when it
followed that river to the _Amazons_, and went down this great stream to
the western mouth of the _Japura_. It ascended this river until it
reached the summits of the _Cordillera_, between the _Amazons_ and the
_Orinoco_, when it was to go eastward along those summits, as far as the
territories of the contracting parties extended.
The commissioners were to be careful to trace the demarcation from the
westerly mouth of the _Japura_, so as not to touch the Portuguese
settlements on that river and on the _Rio Negro_. The Spaniards were to
avoid this part, whilst the Portuguese, on their side, were to abstain
from ascending the _Orinoco_, and from spreading towards the Spanish
territory. The line was to be drawn, without regard to extent of
territory, with the object of tracing a distinct boundary. As the limits
of the vast territories which were here for the first time separated
were imperfectly known to the negotiators on either side, considerable
latitude was given to the commissioners at several points. They were to
design a map as they traced the limits, and jointly to name all unnamed
rivers and mountains; these maps were, respectively, to be signed in
duplicate by both commissioners, and were to serve as authorities in
case of disputes.
By this treaty Portugal expressly ceded _Colonia_ to Spain, together
with all the territory on the northern shore of the _Plata_ as far as
the point where it was now determined the line of demarcation should
begin. Portugal likewise renounced all right to the navigation of the
_Plata_, which thenceforward was to belong exclusively to Spain. The
Spanish king, in turn, made certain concessions to Portugal on the
eastern side of the _Uruguay_. It was provided that the inhabitants of
_Colonia_ might remain there or remove at their option; but the
missionaries were to migrate from the settlements ceded by Spain, and
the “Reductions” were to be delivered up to the Crown of Portugal. All
trade between the two nations was forbidden; nor might the subjects of
one power enter the territories of the other without previous permission
from the governor of the district to which he was proceeding, unless he
were going on public business and provided with passports. In case of
any future war between the two contracting powers, the sovereigns
desired that their respective subjects in America might continue in
peace, without committing acts of hostility. Neither power should permit
the use of its ports to the enemy of the other; nor should such enemy be
permitted a passage through the dominions of either. Several minor
stipulations followed.
This memorable treaty bears witness to the sincerity and good sense of
the parties by whom it was contracted; but it is not surprising that in
undertaking to decide so vast a line of demarcation, some considerations
should have been overlooked on either side which were nevertheless of
vast importance. In view of the distance at which the treaty was drawn
up from the districts and territories to which it referred and the
imperfect information possessed concerning them, it was perhaps not
possible that it should have been otherwise. As it was, the treaty
contained one fatal clause which not only frustrated the good intentions
of the sovereigns and led to immediate war, but was productive of
consequences the baneful effects of which a century has not effaced.
The territory to the east of the _Uruguay_, which had been ceded by the
boundary treaty to the Portuguese, contained seven “Reductions,”
inhabited by about thirty thousand _Guaranís_, who had been bred up to
servitude and domestic life. According to the terms of the treaty, these
people, with all belonging to them, were to migrate into the Spanish
territory. The Spanish King and his ministers had inserted this clause,
or had agreed to it, in ignorance of the circumstances in which these
Indians were placed. They were actuated, moreover, by feelings of regard
to the Indians who were thereby affected. These had suffered much from
the ravages of the _Paulistas_, and they had good reason to detest the
Portuguese. To have left them, therefore, as subjects of the Crown of
Portugal would have been ungenerous and offensive. It would likewise cut
them off from the people of their own race. The negotiators were thus
reduced to a choice of evils; but it had been decided that the exodus of
these Indians was to take place within a year.
The commissioner sent on the part of Spain to see the treaty carried
into effect was the Marquis of Valdelirios; the Portuguese commissioner
was Gomes Freyre, the governor of _Rio de Janeiro_ and _Minas Geraes_,
who had himself experienced the inconvenience of an undefined
boundary-line, and who is credited with having been the projector of the
Treaty of Limits. The stipulation regarding the evacuation of the
_Misiones_ within a year was necessarily unaccomplished, owing to the
fact that the Spanish commissioners did not reach the _Plata_ until two
years after the treaty had been signed. In the meantime, the Jesuits of
_Paraguay_ had addressed a remonstrance on the subject to the Royal
Audience of _Charcas_, and had obtained from that tribunal a statement
in their favour. They next applied to the Audience of _Lima_, and the
Viceroy forwarded one copy of their memorial to the court of Spain and
another to the governor of _Buenos Ayres_. The governor was requested to
deliver it to the commissioners on their arrival.
The Jesuits, although relying on the effects of these memorials, were
prepared to act in obedience to the terms of the treaty. The Provincial
assembled the senior missionaries, who declared, almost unanimously,
that it would not be possible to carry out the stipulations of the
decree. He, nevertheless, instructed the Jesuits in the seven
“Reductions” to endeavour to persuade the people to obedience; whilst at
the same time he wrote to the King, pointing out the extreme difficulty
of carrying the order into effect. The Superior went through the
missions, making known the King’s pleasure. All appeared to acquiesce,
with the exception of one _cacique_, who replied, that they had
inherited from their forefathers the land of which they were now to be
dispossessed. In transmitting to the Provincial the promise of the
_Guaranís_ to obey, the Superior added, that he feared that the temper
of the people would render the removal impossible.
The intention of the Government was that the dispossessed _Guaranís_
should occupy the territory which had been ceded to Spain south of the
_Ybicuy_. It was desirable to people the ceded territory; but the
Jesuits were not anxious to be too near neighbours to the Spanish
regular settlements, whose vicinity would render more difficult the task
of restraining their disciples. Reconnoitering parties were sent out to
search for situations suitable for the settlement of large numbers of
people with their flocks and herds; but such were not readily found. It
was finally agreed that the missionaries should take refuge with their
brethren in the land of the “Reductions” between the _Uruguay_ and the
_Paraná_, and this project was accordingly carried into execution.
When affairs were in this state, the Marquis of Valdelirios arrived in
the _Plata_. He was met by Father Luiz, Altamirano having full powers
from the General of the Jesuits over his brethren in South America. The
commissioner was at once confronted by a whole load of arguments against
the project of migration; and even the Jesuits in whose college he
lodged urged the necessity of employing an armed force to clear the
country on the _Rio Negro_ from the _Charruas_ before the emigrants
should remove; they likewise represented that time should be given to
erect places of shelter for the people when they should arrive in their
new quarters; they also begged for a delay of three years in order that
crops might meanwhile be raised at the new settlements to support the
emigrants on their arrival. Their demands, though so far reasonable,
were excessive; and all they could extort from Valdelirios was a delay
of three months.
The Marquis, however, could perceive that the execution of the treaty
was not altogether an easy matter; and he repaired to _Castilhos
Grande_, in order to confer with Gomes Freyre, sending, at the same
time, Altamirano to the “Reductions,” in order that his authority might
be more readily available. When that Father had reached the “Reduction”
of _Yapayu_, he found that the spirit of resistance had already
displayed itself. There was, it appeared, a point at which even these
_Guaranís_, brought up as they had been from generation to generation in
implicit obedience, could turn; and when a community is in a state of
smothered discontent there is never wanting a person to urge them on to
deeds. Such a person now appeared in this “Reduction” in the person of a
traveller recently arrived from _Brazil_, and who pointed out to the
_Guaranís_ that they were being sacrificed not by the Portuguese but by
the Spaniards. The discontent now assumed a more solid form, the
magistrates being deposed, and persons elected in their stead who were
pledged to defend the people’s rights.
[Sidenote: 1752.]
As might be supposed, this news occasioned alarm at _S. Miguel_, where
preparations had been made for the emigration, and whence the first
division of four hundred families had actually set out. The first
emigrants were unfortunately met by a succession of heavy rains; and the
people, declaring that if they went farther they should all perish,
refused to proceed; in which resolution they were strengthened by the
arrival of a messenger stating that their fellow-settlers now declined
to quit their birthplace. Thereupon they returned immediately; when
their insurrection assumed a more aggressive form, two of their
office-bearers narrowly escaping with their lives, whilst the Indian
servant of one was slain.
The inhabitants of another “Reduction” had reached their appointed place
and begun to build; but, at the end of six months, wearied with labour
and with the task of repelling the Indians, they returned to their
former abode. With other settlements similar experiences took place. The
Jesuits had in all cases shown their willingness on all occasions to
obey the loyal orders; time had likewise proved the wisdom of the
measures of precaution suggested to the Marquis of Valdelirios upon his
arrival in the _Plata_. To that commissioner, therefore, must be
ascribed the chief of the evils which arose from the precipitancy which
he showed in carrying the emigration into effect. In his hasty measures,
however, he was supported both by Altamirano and by the bishop of
_Buenos Ayres_. The result was that the seven “Reductions” which were to
be removed were now in a state of declared resistance to the treaty;
whilst the other twenty-four showed that they not only sympathized with
them, but were even inclined to support them. The Jesuits became the
scapegoats; for whilst it was on them that the authorities depended for
the measure being effected, the _Guaranís_ of the “Reductions,” on the
other hand, publicly declared that the Jesuits had sold their towns and
possessions to the Portuguese; and the magistrates forbade all persons,
on pain of death, either to obey or listen to them upon any other than
religious matters. A resolution was even arrived at to assassinate
Altamirano; but he was enabled by a timely warning to effect his escape
to _Buenos Ayres_.
Fifty Portuguese and fifty Spanish troops, with a number of surveyors
and other officers attached to the commission, and with a convoy of
waggons and animals conveying stores, had by this time arrived at the
territory of the missions, for the purpose of marking out the line of
demarcation. They were to commence at _Castilhos_, on the coast, and to
survey to the mouth of the _Ybicuy_. They reached an _estancia_
belonging to the “Reduction” of _S. Miguel_. The men of that place, who
had been in pursuit of Altamirano, turned aside on hearing of the new
arrival, and the leader of the detachment informed the officer of the
Spaniards that the Portuguese troops could not be permitted to enter the
country. The officer, having proceeded to _Buenos Ayres_, added his
testimony to that already in the possession of the authorities, to the
effect that the _Guaranís_ would not yield their territory excepting to
force. Valdelirios had by this time returned from his conference with
Gomes Freyre; and the commissioners, without referring the matter to
their respective Governments, now declared war upon the people of the
seven “Reductions.”
When the above important decision was arrived at, Altamirano addressed
an instruction to the Jesuits, requiring them to destroy all gunpowder
within the disturbed districts, and to prevent the manufacture of
implements of war; after which, in case they should not be able to
persuade the _Guaranís_ to yield obedience to the treaty, they were to
quit their charges and repair to _Buenos Ayres_. The Provincial of the
Jesuits now addressed, in the name of the Company, a resignation of
their charges, not in the proclaimed districts alone, but in all the
_Guaraní_ “Reductions.” But the governor and the bishop, to whom the
resignation was addressed, declined to accept it; whilst Valdelirios
insisted that the Jesuits should not be ordered to withdraw.
The first hostilities occurred upon the river _Pardo_, between a
detachment of Portuguese and the _Guaranís_ of _S. Luiz_. Of the latter,
fifty were made prisoners, and they caused much prejudice against the
Jesuits by stating, in reply to questions, that there were Jesuits
amongst them, and that the latter had incited them to cut off the heads
of the Portuguese who fell into their hands,--statements which were
probably invented as being agreeable to their questioners. More serious
operations soon followed. It had been arranged between the commissioners
that whilst the Spaniards should advance against the _Guaranís_ from
_Buenos Ayres_, the Portuguese should attack them from _Rio Grande_. The
Spaniards set forth in May, proceeding upon the left bank of the
_Uruguay_; but they had advanced no further than the river _Igarapuy_
when want of stores and pasture compelled them to retire. They had not
retreated, however, without a collision with the people of one of the
“Reductions” outside of the ceded territory, and several skirmishes took
place, in one of which a number of Jesuits were slain.
In the meanwhile, Gomes Freyre had advanced from the coast towards
_Ybicuy_, where he determined to watch the _Guaranís_ until he should
receive some information respecting the proceedings of the Spaniards. He
was short of provisions, and when the rainy season commenced his men
were exposed to excessive hardships, being compelled to betake
themselves to the trees, and the communication being carried on by means
of canoes. It is said that they were quartered in this singular fashion
for two months, but that they were prevented from deserting owing to the
vigilance of the _Guaraní_ archers. At the end of this time, Gomes
Freyre thought it expedient to treat with the _Guaranís_, who permitted
him to retire without molestation. They then returned to their
“Reductions,” thinking, like children, that the affair was at an end,
and that all danger was over.
[Sidenote: 1755.]
The Jesuits took advantage of the interval between hostilities to
endeavour to procure a revocation of the clause in the Treaty
respecting the cession of the “Reductions.” But their hopes for a
favourable change in the Spanish councils were doomed to disappointment.
Their enemies were now numerous and powerful; and amongst the calumnies
revived or invented against them was one to the effect that they desired
to set up a _Guaraní_ kingdom, under a king of their own, named Nicolas,
such being the name of a _Guaraní_ chief. Valdelirios was advised that
his Government had ascertained that the Jesuits were the sole cause of
the _Guaraní_ rebellion; and that if the Fathers should not deliver up
the “Reductions” without further resistance, they should be held guilty
of high treason. Seeing that the Jesuits’ Superior had resigned on their
behalf their charge in the “Reductions,” and that the resignation had
not been accepted by Valdelirios, the treatment of the Fathers was more
high-handed than logical.
[Sidenote: 1756.]
The Spanish and Portuguese commissioners now prepared for a second
campaign, and decided that they should form a junction at _S. Antonio ó
Velho_, and enter the _Guaraní_ country at _Sta. Thecla_. Accordingly
Gomes Freyre set out from _Rio Grande_ with fifteen hundred men, with
artillery and baggage train; but before they arrived at the place of
rendezvous with the Spaniards, the whole force had narrowly escaped
being consumed by an accidental fire. The junction, however, was
effected in the month of January, the Spaniards bringing with them a
proportionate force.
_S. Antonio_, where the two expeditions met, was in the territory of _S.
Miguel_, and about ninety leagues from the “Reductions.” The forward
march was under the most difficult circumstances, and occupied more than
four months; as it was, they had to thank the remissness of their
enemies for having accomplished it in that time. From the fact that no
skill was shown by the _Guaranís_, it may safely be inferred that their
defence was not directed by the Jesuits. The Indians appear to have
relied entirely upon their numbers, and they were unfortunate enough to
lose, at an early stage in the campaign, their only competent leader,
Sepé. His death was followed by a great slaughter of his countrymen,
who, however, were not thereby induced to submission. Indeed, this war,
like most wars in South America, was of a protracted character, arising
chiefly from the nature of the country.
So long as the _Guaranís_ should keep the field, it was inevitable that
the communications of the invaders should be exposed to much risk. It
was therefore determined to fortify a position upon the _Jacuy_, by
which stores might be received from the river _Pardo_. When the allied
forces had continued their march to the plain of the _Vacacay_, they
found themselves in face of a considerable number of Indians, who,
however, continued to retreat so soon as the invaders prepared to
attack.
The troops had now to attempt the passage of _Monte Grande_, a range of
hills which forms the watershed in this direction. It was now the month
of March (corresponding to October in the northern hemisphere), and the
troops began to suffer from the cold, being badly provided with
clothing; they also found the labour of surmounting the pass excessive.
At this juncture their commander received the welcome news from the
Rector of _S. Luiz_ that he had at length succeeded in persuading the
people of his “Reduction” to obey; they lamented their error, and
besought pardon for their offence, entreating that their countrymen who
had been taken prisoners might be released. The Spanish officer replied
that the Father and the magistrates of the settlement should set the
example of absolute submission.
At length, after three weeks of exertion, the troops succeeded in
effecting the passage of _Monte Grande_; but they were still about two
hundred miles’ distance from the “Reductions.” On the 3rd of May a
considerable _Guaraní_ force made its appearance; but a few cannon-shots
put them to flight. On reaching the river _Chiriaby_ they found the
_Guaranís_ skilfully entrenched, whilst they had taken measures to
obstruct the passage of the stream. But the _Guaranís_, who were in an
excellent position for defence, found their courage fail them at the
last moment, and ran away, abandoning everything.
Two days later the army came in sight of _S. Miguel_, which place
contained seven thousand inhabitants, and which struck them much by the
regularity and neatness of its buildings, and the imposing appearance of
its church. A considerable number of _Guaranís_ appeared in front and on
the flanks; but, as usual, they kept at a respectful distance. In
attempting to overtake them, the general left his baggage behind him;
which the enemy perceiving, they detached a large body of horsemen to
cut it off. A guard, however, had been left, and they were easily beaten
off. The troops then halted for two days, when they learned from a
prisoner that the Jesuits, with the women and children, and many of the
men, had forsaken the town, leaving orders to set it on fire.
On the following day the troops reached the plantations of _S. Miguel_,
and two days later they took possession of the place. With the exception
of the church, however, the place was now a ruin, every man, on sending
away his family, having set fire to his own house. They had also burned
the public stores and buildings, and the Jesuits’ houses.
Notwithstanding the heavy rains which had fallen, the place had been
burning for several days. Had the dilatory Spanish general pushed
forward a few horsemen on learning that it was intended to fire _S.
Miguel_, he might have easily saved that settlement.
Warned by his error, Andoanegui, on the same day, despatched the
governor of _Monte Video_ to take possession of _S. Lorenzo_, distant
two leagues. The inhabitants were surprised, and three Jesuits were
arrested. On the ensuing day a letter was received from the Rector of
_S. Juan_ stating that he had succeeded in persuading his people to
submit. The other “Reductions” followed their example; but the greater
part of the inhabitants took refuge in the woods. As so many of the
people had provided for themselves, there was little difficulty in
organizing the emigration of the remainder, who were admitted into the
“Reductions” on the _Paraná_.
Both the Portuguese and Spanish commanders were strongly prepossessed
against the Jesuits; but when they had become acquainted with the
Fathers personally, and had listened to their statements of facts, the
feeling against them seemed at once to disappear. Gomes Freyre, in
particular, the Portuguese Commissioner, on seeing the state of things,
declined to take possession of the evacuated territory, which could not
be said to have been handed over to him in peace, for the former
inhabitants still thronged the neighbouring woods. He likewise,
meanwhile, deferred the cession of _Colonia_. Nor was the Spanish
general more desirous of completing a transfer of which he disapproved.
Both armies, therefore, remained in the “Reductions,” whilst the Jesuits
endeavoured to reclaim their scattered flocks. Both generals, at this
late hour, endeavoured to procure an alteration of the treaty.
The Spanish Government, alarmed at the failure of the first campaign,
had sent out some reinforcements under _Don_ Pedro Zeballos, who, on
arriving at _Buenos Ayres_, proceeded at once to the missions,
accompanied by Valdelirios. Zeballos was requested by the Superior of
the Jesuits to institute a judicial inquiry into the accusation against
himself and his brethren. The result of this inquiry was to dispel all
charges against these Fathers, which for the rest were utterly
improbable. The Jesuits of _Paraguay_ were, like those of other
provinces, supplied and recruited from Europe. It is not credible that
their general should have encouraged or connived at a scheme on the part
of a portion of his subordinates, the success of which would have
separated them from his control; nor is it any more likely that they
should have engaged in such an undertaking without his sanction.
[Sidenote: 1757.]
Four years had now elapsed since Valdelirios had come upon his mission,
but its business was yet far from having been brought to a conclusion;
and so many difficulties had attended every stage of its progress that
there was now no great disposition shown on either side to obviate minor
obstructions. The presence of Gomes Freyre was required in _Brazil_; and
thus the commission separated without having effected anything but a
very large outlay of money and an immense amount of misery to the
_Guaranís_, which race had been settled for one hundred and twenty-four
years in the “Reductions.”
[Sidenote: 1761.]
Events in Europe produced yet further delays in the settlement of this
question, so important to the portion of South America which was
concerned in its solution. By the death of the Spanish King and Queen,
the friendly feeling which had united the two courts of Spain and
Portugal was at an end, and it was succeeded by one of mistrust. Both
courts, however, and both Governments, were heartily weary of the
question of demarcation; and, in order to put an end to it, at any rate
for the meantime, they agreed to annul the Treaty of Limits--the
treaties which had been superseded by it again coming into force. The
Portuguese were, on the whole, satisfied with this result, because they
believed that _Colonia_, which they now retained, was of greater
importance to them than the proposed increase of territory in the
interior. The Spaniards were likewise pleased, because they imagined
that their neighbours had stolen a march upon them in the Treaty of
Limits, through the influence of their Portuguese Queen.
The actual result of the inglorious and wasteful war of the Seven
Reductions was that the Jesuits, who had been falsely accused of
fomenting the resistance of the _Guaranís_, had now imposed upon them
the task of collecting the scattered remnants of that people, and of
encouraging them to repair their ruined towns and recultivate their
devastated country.