[440] _Moralia in Job_, vi. 18.
[441] _Of the Words of the Lord, Sermon_ ciii., _alias_ xxvi. 2.
[442] S. Luke x. 41.
[443] _Of the Words of the Lord, Sermon_ civ., _alias_ xxvii. 2.
[444] S. Luke x. 42.
[445] _Sermon_ ciii., _alias_ xxvi. 4.
[446] _Topica_, III., ii. 21.
[447] _Ibid._, III., i. 12.
[448] _Of the City of God_, xix. 19.
[449] ii. 1.
[450] Exod. xix. 21.
[451] _Hom._ III., _On Ezechiel_.
[452] _Of Consolation_, v. 2.
[453] _Hom._ III., _On Ezechiel_.
[454] 1 Cor. xii. 31.
[455] _Of the City of God_, xix. 19.
[456] Ps. xlvii. 9, 10, 15.
[457] 2 Cor. v. 15.
[458] Ps. xxvi. 5.
[459] _Moralia in Job_, vi. 18.
[460] _Of the City of God_, xix. 19.
[461] S. Luke x. 40.
[462] _Hom._ III., _On Ezechiel_.
[463] Rom. ix. 3.
[464] _Of Compunction_, i. 7.
[465] 1 Cor. iii. 8.
[466] _Hom._ XIV., _On Ezechiel_.
[467] _Tractat._, 124, _On St. John_, xxi. 22.
[468] _Hom._ XIV., _On Ezechiel_.
[469] _Hom._ XII., _On Ezechiel_.
[470] xxx. 24.
[471] Apoc. xxii. 17.
[472] Wisd. xv. 1-3.
[473] _Moralia in Job_, vi. 17.
[474] _Ibid._
[475] Ps. xlv. 11.
[476] S. Luke x. 41.
[477] _Hom._ XIV., _On Ezechiel_.
[478] S. Matt. xxv. 3, 4.
[479] Heb. x. 20.
[480] S. Luke x. 41, 42.
[481] Ps. cii. 1-15.
[482] _Hom._ III., _On Ezechiel_.
[483] _On the Trinity_, xii. 12.
[484] _Hom._ III., _On Ezechiel_.
[485] _Hom._ XIV., _On Ezechiel_.
[486] ii. 1, 2.
[487] _Moralia in Job_, vi. 17.
[488] _Moralia_, vi. 17.
[489] _Ibid._, vi. 37.
[490] Ps. xvi. 6-9.
QUESTION CLXXXVI
ON THE RELIGIOUS STATE
Are Contemplative Orders superior to Active Orders?
Are Contemplative Orders superior to Active Orders?
The Lord declared that Mary's was _the best part_, and she is the type
of the contemplative life.[491]
Religious Orders differ from one another primarily according to the ends
they have in view, but secondarily according to the works they practise.
And since one thing cannot be said to be superior to another save by
reason of the differences between them, it will follow that the
superiority of one Religious Order to another must depend primarily upon
their respective ends, secondarily upon the works they practise.
And these two grounds of comparison are not of equal value; for the
comparison between them from the point of view of their respective ends
is an absolute one, since an end is sought for its own sake; whereas the
comparison arising from their respective works is a relative one, since
works are not done for their own sake but for the sake of the end to be
gained.
Consequently one Religious Order is superior to another if its end is
absolutely a superior one, either as being in itself a greater good, or
as being of wider scope. On the supposition, however, that the ends of
any two Orders are the same, then the superiority of one to the other
can be gauged, not by the quantity of works they undertake, but by the
proportion these bear to the end in view. Thus it is that we find
introduced into the _Conferences of the Fathers_[492] the opinion of S.
Antony, who preferred that discretion by which a man moderates all
things to fasts and watchings and similar observances.
The works, then, of the active life are twofold. There is one which
springs from the fulness of contemplation: teaching, for example, and
preaching. Whence S. Gregory says[493]: "It is said of perfect men that
on their return from contemplation: _They shall pour forth the memory of
Thy sweetness._" And this is preferable to simple contemplation. For
just as it is a greater thing to shed light than to be full of light, so
is it a greater thing to spread abroad the fruits of our contemplation
than merely to contemplate. And the second work of the active life is
that which wholly consists in external occupation, such as giving alms,
receiving guests, etc. And such works are inferior to the works of
contemplation, except it be in some case of necessity.
Consequently, then, those Religious Orders are in the highest rank which
are devoted to teaching and preaching. And these, too, approach most
nearly to the perfection of the Episcopate; just as in other things,
too, the ends of those in the first place are, as S. Denis says, close
knit to the principles of those in the second place.[494] The second
rank is occupied by those Orders which are devoted to contemplation. And
the third with those devoted to external works.
And in each of these grades there is a certain superiority according as
one Order aims at acts of a higher order than does another, though of
the same class. Thus in the works of the active life it is a greater
thing to redeem captives than to receive guests; in the contemplative
life, too, it is a greater thing to pray than to study. There may also
be a certain superiority in this that one is occupied with more of such
works than another; or again, that the rules of one are better adapted
to the attainment of their end than are those of another.
Some, however, maintain that the contemplative Orders are not superior
to the active Orders, thus:
1. In the Canon Law[495] it is said: "Since the greater good is to be
preferred to the less, so, too, the common gain is to be preferred to
private gain; and in this sense teaching is rightly preferred to
silence, anxious care for others to contemplation, and toil to repose."
But that Religious Order is the better which is directed to the
attainment of the greater good. Hence it seems that Orders which are
devoted to an active life are superior to those which aim solely at
contemplation.
But this Decretal speaks of the active life as concerned with
the salvation of souls.
2. All Religious Orders aim at the perfection of charity. But on those
words in the Epistle to the Hebrews,[496] _Ye have not yet resisted unto
blood_, the Gloss has: "There is no more perfect charity in this life
than that to which the holy Martyrs attained, for they strove against
sin even _unto blood_." But to strive _unto blood_ belongs to the
Military Religious Orders, and they lead an active life. It would seem,
then, that these latter are the highest form of Religious Order.
But these Military Orders are more concerned with shedding the
blood of their enemies than with shedding their own, which is
the feature of the Martyrs. At the same time, there is nothing
to preclude these Religious from at times winning the crown of
martyrdom and thus attaining to a greater height than other
Religious; just as in some cases active works are to be
preferred to contemplation.
3. Lastly, the stricter an Order the more perfect it seems to be. But
there is nothing to preclude active Orders from being stricter in their
observance than some contemplative Orders.
But strictness of observance is not that which is especially commendable
in Religious life, as S. Antony has already told us, and as is also said
in Isaias[497]: _Is this such a fast as I have chosen, for a man to
afflict his soul for a day?_ Strictness of observance is, however, made
use of in Religious Orders for the subjection of the flesh; but if such
strictness is carried out without discretion there is danger lest it
should come to naught, as S. Antony says. Hence one Religious Order is
not superior to another because its observances are stricter, but
because its observances are directed to the end of that Order with
greater discretion. Thus, for example, abstinence from food and drink,
which means hunger and thirst, are more efficacious means for preserving
chastity than wearing less clothing, which means cold and nakedness;
more efficacious, too, than bodily labour.
FOOTNOTES:
[491] S. Luke x. 42.
[492] _Conf._, ii. 2.
[493] _Hom._ V., _On Ezechiel_.
[494] _Of the Divine Names_, vii.
[495] _Extrav. Of Regulars and of those who pass to the Religious
Orders_, cap. _Licet_.
[496] xii. 4.
[497] lviii. 5.
INDEX
Abiding in Christ, 32
Abraham in Limbo, 155
Accidents of the Holy Eucharist, 9
Active Life, the: its meaning, 170, 174, 176, 221, 229;
typified in Jacob's Vision, 231;
typified by Lia, 174, 222, 225, 234, 242, 246;
two features of the Active Life, 221, 241, 247;
in what sense it is distinct from the Contemplative Life, 220;
how less meritorious than the Contemplative Life, 240-244;
not preferable to the Contemplative Life, 233-240;
it involves less sacrifice than the Contemplative Life, 244;
in what sense it precedes the Contemplative Life, 223, 237, 245,
249-252;
how far it is necessary, 186, 221, 239, 245, 250;
contrasted with the Contemplative Life, 172, 173;
how far it is more stable than the Contemplative Life, 232;
its dangers, 136, 147, 186;
it is a burden super-imposed upon the Contemplative Life, 238;
all are not meant for it, 186, 251, 252;
it will not persist after this life, 229-232;
the Active Life of the Angels, 231;
how far the Active Life is inferior to the Contemplative, 233-240;
occasions when it must be embraced, 186, 235, 239;
the part which the Moral Virtues play in it, 191, 220-223;
it is a preparation for the Contemplative Life, 176, 177, 220, 237,
245;
prudence is requisite for it, 186, 223-226;
how far the teaching life pertains to the Active Life, 226-229, 230;
it will pass away, 177, 191, 229-232;
it is the Purgative way, 220;
Prelates and the Active Life, 236
Active Religious Orders, they are inferior to the Contemplative, 253-257
Adjure God, in what sense we are said to do so in our prayers, 148
Adoration of the Cross, 37
_Adoro Te Devote_, the rhythm of St. Thomas in honour of the Holy
Eucharist, 112
Albert of Brescia, O.P., 18
Albert the Great, Blessed, 6
Alypius, St. Augustine's friend, 123
Ambrose, St.: on God as the cause of devotion, 57;
that the beauty of the soul depends on the Moral Virtues, 184
Andronicus on the meaning of sanctity, 49
Angels, the: how they are differentiated from men, 113, 114, 187, 206;
the knowledge of the Angels, 157, 187, 205, 208, 230;
the Beatific Vision of the Angels, 231;
the intelligence of the Angels, 187, 230;
the intercession of the Angels, 165;
their conformity to the will of God, 165, 167;
the Angelic Hierarchies, 201, 230;
the teaching of the Angels 230, 231;
the Active Life of the Angels, 231;
we shall be like to the Angels, how, 230, 231;
Angels gird St. Thomas, 6
Anselm of Laudun, 25
Antony, St.: a patron against Hell-fire, 160;
on discretion, 154, 157
Areopagite. _Cf. s.v._ Denis the Areopagite
Aristotle: on the aptitude for virtue, 35;
on honour, 39;
that the perfection of the moral virtues lies in their mean, 43;
on Justice, 55, 221;
that "reason asks for the best things," 69;
on the need of temporal things, 89;
that "each man's life is that which he would wish to share with his
friend," 170;
that "to live is to be," 170;
on action and contemplation as distinctions in the intellectual life,
171;
that life is primarily in the vegetative soul, 171;
on three kinds of lives, 175;
that knowledge has little to do with the moral virtues, 182, 221;
that every act of the intellect may be termed "consideration," 188;
that the ultimate happiness of man consists in the contemplation of
the highest truth, 193;
of man's dependence on the imagination, 201;
that motion is the act of a perfect thing, 203;
on local motion as the chief of bodily motions, 204;
that delight follows upon a perfect work, 213;
on the nobility of science, 214;
that there is no pleasure contrary to that derived from thought, 217;
on application to the Contemplative Life, 217;
that the Contemplative Life is "beyond man," 218;
that prudence pertains to active happiness, 223;
that he who commits adultery to steal is more a thief than an
adulterer, 223;
that prudence is the right mode of procedure in our actions, 224;
that the ends of the moral virtues are the principles of prudence,
224;
that the proof of the possession of wisdom is the power to teach, 228;
eight proofs that the Contemplative Life is superior to the Active,
234, 235;
on the better lot, 236;
that habits produce perfect acts, 251
Arius, his error regarding the Person of Christ, 161
Athanasius, St., on the chanting of the Psalms, 123
Attention: mental, 225;
in prayer, 125-133;
three kinds of, 128, 129, 133
Attitudes in prayer, 150, 151
Augustine, St.: St. Thomas's kinship with him in doctrine, 17-19;
they are seen in a vision together, 18;
the Breviary Hymn to, 26;
definition of religion, 28, 29, 30;
on _Latvia_, 30;
on _Eusebeia_, 31;
on abiding in Christ, 32;
on the desire of God, 32;
on prayer for wealth, 33;
on sacrifice, 32, 46;
of true worship, 40;
of idolatry, 46;
on the value of external acts in prayer, 46;
of virginity, 50;
on "God alone," 54, 92, 108, 142, 197, 189, 203, 219;
on the will and the understanding, 57;
on true grief, 65;
prayer defined, 69;
why we should pray, 75;
on the prayers of the Church, 76;
when we pray we are God's beggars, 79, 110;
of those who say "He knows already; why then pray?" 80;
of the knowledge the dead have of our affairs, 82;
on shrinking from death, 83;
on avoidance of Hell, 86;
of the Beatific Vision, 87, 229;
a prayer for continence, 87;
and for the knowledge of Holy Scripture, 88;
it is lawful to pray for what it is lawful to desire, 89;
on prayer for "sufficiency of life," 89;
on "seeking first the Kingdom of God," 90;
on prayer "without ceasing," 91;
of the prayer of desire, 92, 134;
his prayer for deliverance from toothache, 92;
why temporal favours are sometimes not granted, 94, 95;
on prayer for others, 96;
that we cannot here distinguish between the predestinate and the
reprobate, 97;
on the imprecations in Holy Scripture, 100, 101;
on prayer for the wicked, 101;
on the Lord's Prayer, that it is the most perfect form of prayer, 102;
on "our Daily Bread," 103, 109;
"hallowed be Thy Name," 104;
"Thy kingdom come," 105;
"Thy will be done," 105;
"forgive us our trespasses," 110, 111;
of the Lord's Prayer and the gifts of the Holy Spirit, 106;
of the two versions of the Lord's Prayer in St. Matthew and St. Luke,
107;
on true righteousness, 111;
on exterior religion, 119;
on the chanting of the Psalter, 123;
on the prayer of the heart, 124;
on distractions, 129-131;
on prayer at definite times, 134;
on the brief prayers of the hermits of old, 134;
on "much speaking" in prayer, 135;
that God urges us to pray, 138, 139;
that prayer is a gift of God, 139;
on unheard prayers, 140, 142;
on prayers heard in anger, 142, 143;
in what sense the prayers of sinners are heard, 143, 144;
on the attitudes to be adopted in and of the time and place for
prayer, 127, 150, 151;
of the knowledge of the Saints in Limbo, 154-156;
why the prayers of the Saints are heard, 167;
the Contemplative contrasted with the Active Life, 172-174, 186;
the three "lives," 175, 185;
the "mixed" life, 226;
of the final possession and vision of God, 176, 177, 191, 203;
on the use of leisure, 186;
the claims of the two lives, the Active and the Contemplative, 186,
248;
of the Active Life, 236;
of the Active Life as opposed to the Contemplative, 238;
that every operation of the intellect may be termed "thought," 188;
of the derivation of the term "speculation," 189;
of our present perfection, 190, 191;
on the pleasures of sense, 185;
that the contemplation of God is the goal of all our acts, 193;
that we must use created things as stepping-stones to the things that
abide for ever, 193;
on Mary's "better part," 196, 197;
on Martha and Mary, 234, 235, 248;
that in contemplation we do not see God Himself, 199;
the greater the danger in the battle, the greater the joy in the
triumph, 212;
on the transitory nature of our present contemplation, 218;
on the beauty of the teaching life, 227;
how the moral virtues remain after death, 230;
of the repose of Contemplation, 230, 241;
of his desire for solitude, yet he feels that he must work for others,
239;
he dare hope for the Contemplative Life, 240;
of the higher reason, 249
Basil, St.: on distractions, 127, 128;
on unheard prayers, 141
Beatific Vision, the, 87, 153, 172, 176, 177, 180, 181, 193, 198-203,
217
Beatitude, in what it consists, 172, 176, 177, 181, 191, 198, 218, 219,
229
Beatitude, a prayer for, 192
Beauty, definition of, 185
Benedict, St., the vision of, 202
Bernard, St.: on the meaning of contemplation, 188, 189;
of the steps in contemplation, 194
Bestial Life, the, 175
Birds, the movements of, 209
Blood of Christ, the, 163
Boethius, on the liberty needful for contemplation, 237
Cajetan, O.P., Cardinal, 19, 20;
on the meaning of Religion, 50;
on the meaning of devotion, 53, 54;
on its causes, 60;
on devotion as opposed to gloom, 64;
of the "devout female sex," 62;
of the need of meditation, 61;
of prayer as the cause of union with God, 71;
of prayer as a real cause, 74;
on three points to be considered in prayer, 78;
on prayer as a sacrifice, 79;
of the divisions of the Lord's Prayer, 107, 108;
how those in Limbo can hear prayers, 118;
on vocal prayer, 121, 123;
on the tone to be employed in saying Mass, 122;
the function of ecclesiastical chant, 122, 124;
on attention in recitation of Divine Office, 128;
on attention to the words of Consecration, 149, 150;
of the need of the moral virtues in the Contemplative Life, 239;
the Parable of the Ten Virgins, 247;
on the real object of prayer, 129
Canticle of Canticles, the, 14
Cassian, the Conferences of: on St. Antony and discretion, 254, 257;
on different kinds of prayer, 148
Cassiodorus on Ps. xxxviii. 13, 68
Cato on respect for parents, 30
Ceremonial, the value of, 35
Chant of the Church, the Public, 122, 123
Charity as the principle of religion, 56.
_Cf. s.v._ Theological virtues
"Christ, pray for us," why we do not say, 160, 161
Christ, the Name of, on the foreheads of Christians, 219
Chrysostom, St.: the _Opus Imperfectum in Matthaeum_ falsely attributed
to him, 24;
on prayer as a conversation with God, 74;
on prayer for others, 95;
in public, 121;
on prayer for sinners, 143;
on prayer through Jesus Christ, 145;
on the zeal of S. Paul, 242
Church customs, 158, 163
Church, the prayers of the, 81
Cicero, on religion, 27;
on prudence and intellectual quickness, 224
Circular movement of the soul, 172, 203-210
Cleanness, 47, 184
_Colere_, 31
Collect for Friday in September Ember Week, 147;
for Trinity Sunday, 147, 148
Compline, St. Thomas's devotion at, 14
Communion of Saints, 158, 164
Conformity to the will of God, 86
Consecration, the Prayer of the, 147, 149, 150
Contemplation and the Contemplative Life: the meaning of
_contemplation_, 188, 189, 196, 201, 202, 211, 230, 234, 235, 237;
it is something beautiful in the soul, 184;
not purely an affair of the intellect, 179-182, 189;
its relation to the affective powers, 211;
the place which reason occupies in contemplation, 195, 210, 211, 225,
226, 249;
the place occupied by the imagination, 195;
in what sense contemplation involves many acts, 187-192;
how far contemplation may be described according to the three species
of motion--circular, direct, and oblique, 172, 203-210;
contemplation is natural to man, 210;
it is pleasurable, 211;
it is primarily concerned with God, 180, 241, 250;
it does not, in this present life, fall on the Divine Essence as such,
199-203;
its ultimate goal, 180, 184, 187, 193, 194, 196, 198, 203, 229;
its ultimate goal in this life, 212, 220;
how it is distinguished from meditation and thought, 188;
and from speculation, 189;
four integral parts of contemplation, 193, 194;
four phases in it, 194;
six steps in it, 195, 196;
the contemplation of this present life, 193, 213, 214;
not on earth as in Heaven, 176, 177, 217, 243;
it is "beyond man," 218;
a busy life does not exclude it, 238;
it is lawful to desire it, 240;
contemplation and ecstasy, 200;
four subjects of contemplation, 194;
the repose of contemplation, in what it consists, 204, 205, 234, 235,
246
_The Contemplative Life_: its meaning, 184, 186, 237, 250;
how it is distinguished from the Active Life, 169, 173, 220, 234, 235;
it is superior to the Active Life, 233-240;
it is more meritorious than it, 240-244;
its great merit, 242;
it is prepared for in the Active Life, 239, 245-249;
the Active Life precedes it, 249-252;
the Contemplative Life directs the Active, 251;
the relation of the Contemplative Life to the Theological virtues,
192;
and to the Moral virtues, 182-186, 221, 222, 239;
it demands temperance, 184, 185;
and chastity, which it in turn fosters, 184, 185;
it calls for the subjection of the passions, 184, 185;
it results in the subjugation of the passions, 213;
it involves a certain liberty of spirit, 234, 237;
it is often distasteful, 215, 216;
it means the sacrifice of our own soul, 244;
its joys, 177, 197, 210-216, 234, 248;
its combats, 212, 213;
it is imperfect here on earth, 243;
it is not incompatible with Prelacy, 236;
its relation to the office of teaching, 236-239;
it is not meant for all, 235, 236, 239, 241, 251, 252;
reading is sometimes necessary for it, 190;
how far it refrains from all external actions, 182;
it is typified by Rachel, 174, 180, 184, 234, 242;
also by Mary of Bethany, 174, 190, 197, 234, 235, 248;
it is foreshown in Jacob's Vision, 231
Contemplative Religious Orders: in what sense they are the best, 253-257
Contemplatives, 32
Continence, a prayer for, 87
Conversation, sins of, 110
Correction, fraternal, 97
Created things must serve as stepping-stones, 193
Cross, Adoration of the, 37
_Cultus_, 31
Cyprian, St., on _Our_ Father, not _My_ Father, 96
Damascene, St. John: on Wonderment, 189;
definitions of prayer, 69, 71, 85, 142, 148
Dead, Prayers for the, 167, 168
Death, fear of, 83
Decii, the, 52
Defects, the thought of our, causes devotion, 63, 64
Delights, earthly, as opposed to heavenly, 215, 216
Denis the Areopagite, 24;
on sanctity, 49;
on ecstasy, 55;
on beginning all with prayer, 70;
on being co-workers with God, 154;
of the knowledge of the Angels, 157;
of the harmony in Divine things, 158;
that life implies motion, 171;
on the three movements of the soul, 172, 203-210;
of the difference between the Angelic and the human intellect, 186;
that the goal of contemplation is to attain to the uniformity of the
Divine contemplation, 218;
that in contemplation here on earth we do not see the Divine Essence,
200;
on the illumination of the Angels, 230;
of the Divine harmony, 255
Desires, their function and necessity, 77, 91, 105
Devotion: defined, 51, 53, 55, 57, 64;
is a special act, 51;
is due to an act of the will, 53, 57;
is an act of the virtue of Religion, 57;
is the principal act of the virtue of Religion, 54;
involves sacrifice of the heart, 64;
it gives a certain measure to human acts, 52;
it means promptitude, 53, 55, 56, 57;
two causes of it, 57, 62, 63;
caused by meditation, 57;
especially by meditation on the Sacred Passion, 59, 63;
on the goodness of God, 58, 60;
on our own defects, 58, 60;
obstacles to it, 62;
how far it may be hindered by learning, 60;
it is productive of sorrow, 62-64;
but is not therefore to be confounded with gloominess, 64, 65;
it produces joy, 62, 63;
devotion to the Saints, 57;
the devotion of women, 59, 62;
the "devout female sex," 62
Direct movement of the soul, the, 172, 210-213
Discretion, St. Antony on, 254, 257
Distractions, 127. _Cf. s.v._ Prayer, distractions in
Divine Office, attention in the recitation of, 128
_Dulia_, 39
Ecstasy, 4;
Denis the Areopagite on, 55;
that of St. Paul, 199, 200
Ejaculatory prayers, 134, 135
Enemies, prayer for, 99;
love of our, 99
Eternity: the "repose" of, 86, 87, 92;
the "silence" of, 87
Etymologies, those of St. Thomas and St. Isidore, 24
Eucharist, the Holy: the Accidents of, 9;
St. Thomas's reception of It as Viaticum, 15;
the "Chief" of the Sacraments, 103;
our "Daily Bread," 103, 109;
the rhythm, _Adoro Te Devote_, 112
_Eusebeia_, 31
Example, the force of, 222
Exterior religion, 45
External actions, 182, 183
Extraordinary ways of God, the, 3
Faber, Father, 2
Faith, 191, 192
Faith and Vision, 87
Fasting, 63
Fear, 189;
the gift of fear, 34;
fear of death, 23;
of Hell, 36
Female sex, the "devout," 62
"Forgive us our trespasses," 110, 111
Fossa Nuova, 14
Frederic, the Emperor, 8
Friendship, 56
Gifts of God, 92;
of the Holy Spirit, 105, 106
Gloom, not a characteristic of the Saints, 64, 65
Gloss, the, on Holy Scripture, 24, 25