they mark it by an accented step; when this becomes easy, the
corresponding arm movements are added, and the strong beat, at this
stage always the first, is marked by full contraction of the arm
muscles. Practice is given until at _hopp_ the pupil can stop suddenly,
discontinue accenting with one or both arms or with one or both feet,
substitute an arm-movement for a foot movement, insert an extra accent
either with arm or foot, or do any similar thing previously agreed on.
By repeated practice of such exercises complete automatic control of the
limbs is obtained and the ground prepared for more advanced work. It is
at this stage that the simple movements to indicate times and notes are
learnt; they may be likened to the alphabet of the method, the
elementary exercises as a whole being its accidence, the more advanced
stages, including plastic expression, its syntax.
[Sidenote: =TRAINING IN METRE=]
This group of exercises is a natural extension of those preceding.
The pupil learns a series of movements which together form a rhythm,
first practising them singly, then in groups, the signal for the change
being always the word _hopp_. By means of such exercises the component
movements required in the physical expression of a rhythm can be learnt,
first individually, then in series, until the complete rhythm can be
expressed and the use of _hopp_ be dropped, each change of movement
becoming itself the signal for the next.
Again, the pupil learns to realize[1] a rhythm played on the piano or
indicated by the movements of another person. This is something quite
apart from mere imitation; trained by previous exercises, the pupil
first forms clear mental images of the movements corresponding to the
rhythm in question and then gives physical expression to those images.
In other words, he does not reproduce until he has understood; in fact,
without understanding, correct reproduction of a lengthy series of such
movements is impossible. In the same way, an individual cannot easily
remember and repeat a succession of words which he does not understand,
but can repeat without difficulty a long series of words of which he
understands the sense. Indeed, the importance of many of these exercises
becomes clearer when the way in which children are taught to read and
write is remembered.
[1] _Realize_ is used in rhythmic gymnastics in the
sense _express by movements of the body_.
Oral and visual images of letters and words are impressed on the child
by reading aloud, and in this way the young brain easily masters the
difficult work of reading and writing. The Jaques-Dalcroze method
proceeds in exactly the same manner as regards the elements of music.
When we have once realized this point, we are bound to wonder why music
teaching has not always been based on this elementary and unfailing
form. What would be said to teachers who tried to teach children to read
and write without letting them spell and read aloud? But this is what
has often been done in the teaching of music, and if children generally
show but little pleasure and interest in their first music lessons, the
fault does not lie with them but with our wrong method of making the
elements clear to them.
As a matter of fact we generally do not make the latter clear to them,
and fail in the most important duty of the educator and teacher, namely,
that of making the child really experience what he is to learn.
[Sidenote: =DEVELOPMENT OF MENTAL RESPONSE=]
A rhythm in music consists of a regularly recurring series of accented
sounds, unaccented sounds, and rests, expressed in rhythmic gymnastics
by movements and inhibitions of movements. Individuals who are
rhythmically uncertain generally have a muscular system which is
irregularly responsive to mental stimuli; the response may be too rapid
or too slow; in either case impulse or inhibition falls at the wrong
moment, the change of movement is not made to time, and the physical
expression of the rhythm is blurred.
Although feeling for rhythm is more or less latent in us all and can be
developed, few have it naturally perfect. The method has many exercises
which are of use in this connexion. By means of these the pupil is
taught how to arrest movement suddenly or slowly, to move alternately
forwards or backwards, to spring at a given signal, to lie down or stand
up in the exact time of a bar of music--in each case with a minimum of
muscular effort and without for a moment losing the feeling for each
time-unit of the music.
[Sidenote: =MENTAL HEARING. CONCENTRATION=]
Physical movements repeatedly performed create corresponding images in
the brain; the stronger the feeling for the movement, i.e., the more the
pupil concentrates while making that movement, the clearer will be the
corresponding mental image, and the more fully will the sense for metre
and rhythm be developed.
We might say that these movement images store up the innervations which
bring about the actual movement. They are for the body and its movements
what formulæ are for the mathematician.
Developed out of many movements they become a complete symbol for the
rhythm expressed by the series of movements in question. Thus the pupil
who knows how to march in time to a given rhythm has only to close his
eyes and recall a clear image of the corresponding movements to
experience the rhythm as clearly as if he were expressing it by
marching. He simply continues to perform the movements mentally. If,
however, his movements when actually realizing the rhythm are weak or
confused, the corresponding mental images will be vague or incorrect,
whilst movements which are dynamically clear guarantee the accuracy of
the corresponding mental images and nerve-impulses.
In practice the exercise consists in first mastering a rhythm played,
marching and beating time in the usual manner, then at _hopp_
discontinuing all movement, either for a number of bars previously
agreed upon or until the signal to resume is given by a second _hopp_.
In this exercise the teacher ceases to play at the first _hopp_.
[Sidenote: =ANALYSIS AND DIVISION OF TIME VALUES=]
The exercises of this group are designed to teach how to subdivide units
of time into parts of varying number. At _hopp_ the crotchet must be
divided into quavers, triplets, semiquavers, etc., as may have been
previously arranged, or instead of _hopp_ the teacher may call _three_,
_four_, etc., to indicate the subdivision which is to be expressed by
the corresponding number of steps. Apart from their direct object, the
exercises of this group are of value for the training which they give in
poise; they might be classed equally well with the group under
_Development of Mental Response_.
Here, too, belong exercises in the realization of syncopation in which,
as the note is represented by the usual step, it comes off the beat, the
latter being indicated by a knee-bend which, in quick time, becomes a
mere suggestion of movement or is omitted, e.g., {Music}
These exercises in syncopation are perhaps some of the most difficult in
the method, as they demand an extraordinary control of inhibition.
Individuals of musical ability often find them difficult at first, and
their easy performance may be taken as evidence of a developed feeling
for rhythm. As a rule children find these exercises easier than do
adults.
[Illustration: Beating 5/4 in canon without
expression.]
[Illustration: Beating 5/4 in canon with expression.]
[Sidenote: =REALIZATION OF TIME AND RHYTHM=]
The object here is to express by rhythmic movements and without
hesitation rhythms perceived by the ear. The exactness of such
expression will be in proportion to the number of movements of which the
pupil has acquired automatic control. There is not time to analyse the
music heard; the body must _realize_ before the mind has a clear
impression of the movement image, just as in reading, words are
understood and pronounced without a clear mental image of them being
formed.
When the realization of a rhythm heard has become relatively easy, the
pupil is taught to concentrate, by listening to, and forming a mental
image of, a fresh rhythm while still performing the old one. In this
manner he obtains facility in rendering automatic, groups of movements
rhythmically arranged, and in keeping the mind free to take a fresh
impression which in its turn can be rendered automatic.
Here again the process is analagous to that of reading, in which, while
we are grasping the meaning of a sentence, the eye is already dealing
with the next, preparing it in turn for comprehension.
[Sidenote: =DEVELOPMENT OF INDEPENDENT CONTROL OF THE LIMBS=]
Characteristic exercises of this group are: beating the same time with
both arms but in canon, beating two different tempi with the arms while
the feet march to one or other or perhaps march to yet a third time,
e.g., the arms 3/4 and 4/4, the feet 5/4. There are, also,
exercises in the analysis of a given time unit into various fractions
simultaneously, e.g., in a 6/8 bar one arm may beat three to the bar,
the other arm two, while the feet march six.
[Sidenote: =DOUBLE OR TRIPLE DEVELOPMENT OF RHYTHMS=]
These exercises are a physical preparation for what is known in music as
the development of a theme. While the composers of fugues always use a
double or quadruple development, the method introduces an entirely fresh
element--the triple development, exercises in which are difficult but
extremely valuable.
[Sidenote: =PLASTIC COUNTERPOINT AND COMPOUND RHYTHMS=]
In plastic counterpoint the arms realize the theme, i.e., make as many
movements as there are notes, whilst the feet mark the counterpoint in
crotchets, quavers, triplets or semiquavers.
A compound rhythm may be realized by the arms taking one rhythm, the
feet another; or the rhythms of a three part canon may be expressed by
simultaneous singing, beating with the arms and marching.
These exercises correspond in the sphere of physical expression to the
technical exercises of instrumental work, for they teach the pupil to
express simultaneously impressions of the most varying nature.
[Sidenote: =GRADATION OF MUSCULAR EFFORT. PATHETIC
ACCENT. PLASTIC EXPRESSION=]
The exercises already dealt with have all the general purpose of
developing feeling for rhythm by giving training in the physical
expression of rhythms. Those in this last group aim at facility in
making crescendos and decrescendos of innervation, in passing from one
shade of expression to another, in co-ordinating movements, not only to
the rhythm of the music played, but also to its feeling; they allow free
play to individuality, to temperament, and give opportunity for that
free self-expression for which the preceding exercises have provided
facility.
PERCY B. INGHAM.
LESSONS AT HELLERAU
Monsieur Jaques-Dalcroze's lessons are full of vitality and
entertainment, combined with the serious work in hand. No slacking is
possible. He will perhaps open a rhythmic gymnastic lesson by playing a
vigorous theme of one or two bars in a rhythm such as the following:--
{Music}
which, as soon as it is grasped by the pupils, they begin to
_realize_,[1] that is, to mark the tempo with the arms, and to move the
feet according to the notes. A note which contains more than one
beat--for instance, the minim in the first bar--is shown by taking
one step forward for the first beat and by a slight bend of the knee for
the second beat. The next two crochets are represented by one step for
each. A step is also taken for each quaver, but twice as quickly; for
the dotted crochet, a step and a slight spring before the last
quaver--all this while the arms are beating a steady four. After a short
practice of these two bars, the master will glide into yet another
rhythm, the pupils still realizing the first one, but at the same time
listening and mentally registering the one being played, so as to be
ready on the instant at the word of command, which is _hopp_, to change
to the new rhythm. We will suppose it to be as follows {Music}. This, it
will be noticed, is in 3/4 time. The pupils become accustomed to
dropping frequently into various times with the greatest ease. The three
bars would then be realized consecutively, and this process will
continue until perhaps there are six bars in all. These must all be so
clear in the minds of the pupils, that at the word of command, one bar,
or two bars, can be omitted on the instant, or be realized twice as
quickly, or twice as slowly; or what is still more complicated, the arms
can beat the time twice as slowly and the feet mark the notes twice as
quickly. It seems incredibly difficult to do at first, but the same
training of _thinking to time_ occurs in every lesson, in improvisation
and solfège, as well as in the rhythmic gymnastic lessons, and so the
invaluable habits of concentrated thinking, of quick and definite
action, and of control of mind over body, become established.
[1] See note, page 41
[Illustration: The Air Bath.]
[Illustration: The College: Entrance Hall.]
Each lesson is varied to a remarkable degree; in fact, Monsieur
Jaques-Dalcroze seldom repeats himself. Every day he has new ideas,
consisting of new movements, or of new uses for old ones, so that there
is never a dull moment. It must be understood, however, that the
alphabet and grammar of the movements remain the same, it is the
combinations of them that are limitless. The music is, of course, always
improvised.
A word should be said on the subject of feeling two different rhythms at
the same time. Every teacher knows the difficulty children have in
playing three notes against four on the piano. The Hellerau children can
with ease beat four with one arm and three with the other, or beat three
with the arms and two or four with the feet, or _vice versa_. And this
is not learnt in any mechanical way; the power for _feeling_ two rhythms
simultaneously is developed. Advanced pupils can realize three rhythms
at the same time. They will perhaps mark one with the arms, another with
the feet, and sing yet a third.
Another part of the work is to teach the pupils to express the type of
music that is being played; this is technically known as "Plastic
expression." The alphabet of this consists of twenty gestures with the
arms, which can be done in many various combinations and in various
positions, and by means of these any kind of emotion can be expressed.
Perhaps the music will begin by being solemn and grand, becoming even
tragic, and gradually the tones and melody will rise to cheerfulness,
the rhythm will become more animated and the tone swell out again until
a perfect ecstasy of joy is reached--and all the while the figures of
the pupils are harmonising absolutely with the music, trained as they
are to listen accurately to every note, every accent, every change of
key and, above all, every rhythm. To the watcher such an exercise is
effective and striking in the highest degree.
Realizing syncopated passages is a fine exercise for developing
independence of movement in the arms and feet, as the feet move in
between the beats of the arms. Let any one try to realize a simple
measure in syncopation. For instance, take a bar of 4/4 time {Music}.
The first beat of the arms and the first step will come together, the
second beat of the arms will come half-way between the second and third
steps, the third beat half-way between the third and fourth steps, and
the fourth beat half-way between the fourth and fifth steps, and this
should be done with no contraction of muscle or appearance of effort.
Other exercises consist of beating various times in canon, that is, one
arm beginning one beat later than the other; of beating different times
with each arm, perhaps seven with one arm and three with the other; of
marching to one rhythm and beating time to another; of simple marching
and at the word of command taking one step backward, and then forward
again; of marching the counterpoint of a rhythm. For instance, if the
rhythm played be {Music} the counterpoint in crochets would be {Music},
or if it is to be in quavers it would be {Music}. The counterpoint can
be filled in with triplets, semiquavers, or with notes of any other
value.
Another good exercise is to take a simple rhythm and at the word of
command realize it twice or three times as quickly or as slowly, the
arms still beating in the first tempo. A simple example will make this
clear. {Music} twice as quickly would become {Music}.
The pupils are often asked to listen to what is played and then to
realize it. It may be a series of four bars, each one in a different
tempo, and all times are employed, including 5/4, 7/4, 9/3 and
others which are somewhat exceptional. And so on _ad infinitum_.
From these suggestions something of the endless variety of exercises
that may be devised can probably now be imagined.
As soon as movements become automatic they are used as units for
building up more elaborate movements, and no time is wasted in doing
merely mechanical exercises. In every detail of the method the brain is
called into constant activity, and, lest any one should think that it
would be easy for one pupil to copy another in doing the exercises, it
should be stated that, if such a thing were attempted, it would end in
the pupil becoming hopelessly confused, for if the mind once loses hold
of the work in process it is very difficult to pick it up again.
The solfège lessons are chiefly for ear-training and practical harmony.
In the elementary classes it is shown how scales and chords are formed,
and where the tones and semitones occur. The pupils soon become able
to tell, when three consecutive notes from any scale are played, what
degrees of the scale they are, or may be. Scales are sung always
beginning on C for every key and always to a rhythm. Here, again, the
pupils have to think to time, for in the second scale, which would be
that of F, if the flat scales were being sung, they have to remember
that they are starting on the fifth note of the scale, and that the
interval between the third and fourth notes of the scale is a semitone;
that the third and fourth degrees in the key of F are A and B, and
therefore the B has to be flattened in this scale, the other notes
remaining the same. The whole cycle of scales is sung in this manner,
each one commencing on C, or on C flat when necessary. The pupils are
also practised in listening to a scale played and then saying in which
key it is, judging it by the fall of the semitones.
[Illustration: Class Rooms.]
[Illustration: The College: Interiors.]
Chords are sung analytically and in chorus, with their resolutions when
needed, and this is followed by practice in hearing and naming chords.
Sight singing and transposition are by no means neglected, and there is
practice in singing intervals, in singing a piece once or twice through
and then from memory, or in another key, which is not so easy to do when
the fixed _Do_ is used. And always, whatever is being done, the pupils
have to be prepared for the word _hopp_, to make any change which has
been previously agreed on, e.g., to sing on the instant in a key a
semitone lower, or to sing in thought only until the next _hopp_, when
they sing aloud again. In these exercises, as in those of the rhythmic
gymnastics, there is no end of the variety of combination possible.
There is also opportunity for practice in conducting, and very
interesting it is, in a children's class, to note with what assurance a
small girl of perhaps seven or eight will beat time for the others to
sing one of their songs, and also to note the various renderings each
conductor will obtain of the same piece.
The improvisation on the piano is perhaps the most difficult part of the
system to master. It may not be realized by all people that _every one
can be taught to play original music_. There are cases in which the
pupil is not naturally musical, and has had no previous knowledge of
piano playing, but has learnt to improvise sufficiently well to give a
good lesson in rhythmic gymnastics, which means no small degree of
ability. This training is begun by making use of the simplest, i.e., the
common, chords, and when these are known in every key, including those
on the dominant, the pupil is expected to improvise a short piece of
eight bars, the chief feature to be attended to being the rhythm, which
has to be definite and played without hesitation. When perfect
familiarity is obtained with the common chord of each key and with that
of its dominant, another chord is learnt, that on the sub-dominant. With
these three chords alone quite charming little pieces can be played, and
gradually in this manner the pupil has at his command passing notes,
appoggiaturas, cadences, and an unlimited number of chords and
sequences. Then come the rules for modulating from one key to
another, and equal facility in all keys is insisted on. Monsieur
Jaques-Dalcroze's pupils learn to improvise with definite thought and
meaning, nothing unrhythmical is ever allowed, nor any aimless
meandering over the keyboard. For these lessons the pupils are divided
into small groups of not more than six in each, and twice a week these
groups are taken altogether by Monsieur Jaques-Dalcroze.
All branches of the work demand perfect concentration of thought and
attention, and such invaluable mental training cannot be too highly
prized, for it is fundamental to success in work of any kind, whatever
it may be.
ETHEL INGHAM.
[Illustration: The Hostel: Interiors.]
LIFE AT HELLERAU
Surely never before has the world held better opportunities for studying
and loving the beautiful and true. One need be but a few days in
Hellerau in order to see some of the many advantages which a stay there
has to offer. For young men and women searching for a profession in
life; for those fresh from school while waiting to discover their
natural bent; for adults who seek a change from their ordinary
surroundings and who wish to improve in culture and in health; for
musicians and students in art, for teachers of dancing, and for children
of all ages, a course of study at the College in Hellerau contains
advantages and opportunities which seem to exist in no other educational
institution.
For the convenience of young girls there is a hall of residence, which
will accommodate about forty-six students, the head of which is a
cultured English lady of wide experience. There are also many small
houses on adjoining land, in which the male students and those who are
older can live. These may, and as a rule do, come to the Hostel for
meals.
The home life in the Hostel is a cheerful one. The bedrooms are bright,
containing just the necessary furniture, which of course includes a
piano. There is a large and charmingly furnished room opening from the
hall, known as the Diele, which serves as a general sitting-room for the
students. The dining-room is equally delightful, and can be quickly
converted into a ball-room for impromptu dances, or adapted for other
entertainments. There is also a library; and throughout the whole house
the same good taste is displayed. Leading from the dining-room is a
large terrace, with steps down into an attractive garden.
The day commences with the sounding of a gong at seven o'clock; the
house is immediately alive, and some are off to the College for a
Swedish gymnastic lesson before breakfast, others breakfast at half-past
seven and have their lesson later. There is always a half hour of
ordinary gymnastics to begin with. Then there will be a lesson in
Solfège, one in Rhythmic Gymnastics, and one in Improvisation, each
lasting for fifty minutes, with an interval of ten minutes between each
lesson.