they are convenient and useful when not used to excess. Buy well-known
brands. The government inspection of canned meats is of great importance,
for the individual cannot protect himself. Canned soups are convenient for
those who cook by gas and who live in small quarters. Buy good brands even
if they are somewhat more expensive. The best firms manufacturing canned
soup are scrupulously clean in their methods and pride themselves on using
good material.
=Other parts of meat and poultry.=——Some of the internal organs of the
animals and fowl are used for food. Most of them are comparatively cheap,
and may be made palatable.
The _liver and kidneys_ are organs having to do with the waste products of
the body and objection is raised to their use on that account. If used,
they should be soaked in cold salted water, put into fresh cold water, and
allowed to heat very slowly. This water should be poured off, and then a
brown stew can be made. What flavors are pleasant with liver and kidneys?
Make your own recipe for liver or kidney stew.
The _heart_ does not contain waste products. Why is it tough? What process
would you select to make it tender? Even when softened, it would not be
attractive or very palatable without further treatment. It is hollow,
somewhat as the chicken is before roasting. Look over the recipes and
flavors suitable to meat and see if you cannot make your own for Baked
Heart.
_Sweetbreads_, the pancreas, are highly prized on account of their
delicacy, and are costly. They may be broiled, or served in sauce in
pastry cases or in patties.
_Calf’s head and brain._——The brain is sometimes used as substitute for
sweetbreads. From the meat and bones of the head soup and stew may be
made.
EXERCISES
1. From what animals are meats derived?
2. What are the chief values of meat?
3. Why should its use be limited?
4. What actual dangers may arise from its use?
5. What precautions must be exercised by the government, inspector and the
housekeeper?
6. We are told that chicken pie should have the crust pricked or lifted
when it comes from the oven. Is this reasonable?
7. How may you judge good meats in the market?
8. Why is the neck of beef tough? For what would you use it?
9. Why is porterhouse steak tender? Why is it not used in a stew? (It
would make a delicious stew.)
10. What cuts would you select for stewing and braising?
11. Make a list of the cuts of beef and mutton and lamb, pork, etc., in
your notebook, with the best methods of cookery for each.
12. Add to this list the current prices of each in your locality.
13. What is the size and cost of a 100-Calorie portion of beef round?
14. With this in mind, calculate how much round steak you would buy for
dinner for five people. How much porterhouse?
15. Explain the structure of the muscle.
16. What takes place when meat is seared? When is this process used?
17. Explain the principle of soup making. Devise an experiment to show the
effect of salt upon the pieces of meat. What is the nutritive value of
soup meat?
18. Explain the principle of stewing meats.
19. What is the difference between broiling and pan broiling?
20. What are some of the best ways of utilizing left over meat and
poultry?
21. Which is more economical, croquettes or an escalloped dish? Explain
fully.
22. How may you distinguish poultry in good condition from that too long
in cold storage?
23. Why is good poultry not a cheap food?
24. Discuss making soup _versus_ buying canned soup.
25. What are the advantages of canned meat? The possible disadvantages?
CHAPTER XIV
FISH, SHELLFISH, AND OTHER MEAT SUBSTITUTES
Fish and shellfish are valuable assets as food, so much so that the
government has a Bureau of Fisheries, and has established stations at
intervals on the coast and on inland lakes for the study and production of
those foods that come from salt and fresh water. We have used these
products of the waters as if the supply were limitless, forgetting that
fish and shellfish are living creatures with habits that we cannot ignore
without working havoc to the species. Young salmon and shad are hatched in
the upper reaches of the rivers, and if we insist on trapping the mature
fish at the river mouth on their northern migrations, the number of young
decreases, and salmon and shad become high-priced foods. To ignore fishery
and game laws is an ignorant and dishonest proceeding, with far-reaching
economic results.
=Varieties of fish.=——In Bulletin No. 28 of the Office of Experiment
Stations, United States Department of Agriculture, forty-four different
fish are listed, all used as food. A visit to the fish stall in the market
of a seaboard city will acquaint you with many interesting species. Fresh
and salt water fish differ in flavor, and there is a difference to be
detected between fish from running, or from lake water, brook trout, for
instance, having a superior flavor. The food supply also influences the
flavor, and both fresh and salt water fish have a better flavor when taken
from sandy and rocky bottoms rather than muddy. The habit of the fish also
has an effect on the quality and taste. The chequit, for instance, is so
sluggish and easy to catch that it is sometimes called “lazy” or
“weakfish,” and it is watery and poor flavored compared with the shad, a
fish of more vigorous habits. The amount of fat also causes a difference
in flavor, such high flavored fish as salmon and shad containing much fat.
The distinctive flavors of mackerel and herring are apparently not due to
fat, since their fat content is not particularly high. Among the most
common and best liked fish are bass, blackfish, bluefish, cod, flounder,
haddock, halibut, herring, mackerel, porgy (sometimes called scup or
scuppaug), salmon, shad, smelt, weakfish, whitefish. Brook trout and
salmon trout are luxuries.
[Illustration: FIG. 65.——Composition of fish.]
=Composition and nutritive value.=——Figure 65 shows the composition of
several kinds. Compare their composition with that of meat. The nutritive
content is high, yet fish seems a lighter and less satisfying food than
meat, although on the seaboard of some countries it is the chief animal
food. The digestibility of fish and meat are about equal, but some
varieties of fish are less digestible than others, this being true of the
oily and strong-flavored fish,——herring, mackerel, salmon, and shad.
There are popular prejudices for and against fish that are not warranted.
The idea that fish is a “brain food” because it contains phosphorus was
exploded long since, for fish contains no more phosphorus than some other
foods, and phosphorus is no more valuable to the brain than to the other
tissues.
Fish, however, is valuable in the dietary for supplying protein and giving
variety, and in season, it is one of the cheaper foods.
=Quality of fish.=——Fish deteriorates and decomposes much more rapidly
than meat, and is at its best when cleaned and cooked just after being
caught. Ice will preserve fish for a short time only. If ever on a camping
trip you have eaten bluefish caught in the surf, or trout from the brook,
cooked immediately, you know what flavor a fish may have. Fish should be
killed immediately, and put on ice if they are not to be cooked at once.
If there is no ice, clean the fish, sprinkle the flesh with pepper and
salt, wrap in a wet cloth, and set in a breeze or draught.
When fish are transported over long distances they should be packed in ice
in refrigerator cars, and you will notice that the fishman in the shop
keeps the fish on ice until he sells them.
In selecting fish, see that the flesh feels firm and that the eyes are
still bright. If you have a keen sense of smell, this will also guide you,
although to the novice the odor of fish may be disagreeable even if
untainted.
Fish in season and caught plentifully near by, are of good quality and
should be cheap. Shad and salmon have their season in the spring, bluefish
come north in the summer, sometimes as late as August, porgies are a
summer and autumn fish, and smelt are abundant in the winter. Deep-sea
fish like cod and halibut have a long season, and may be bought at any
time.
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
The _scaling_ and _cleaning_ of fish are important first steps. In the
city this may be done for you at the market, but sometimes on fishing
expeditions when you are not a successful fisher you may make yourself
useful by cleaning the fish. Clean the fish on a large piece of paper. Use
a sharp strong knife, and rub off the scales from the tail to the head. To
skin a fish well, you should first watch an expert. Cut through the skin
of the back and abdomen, loosen it at the tail and pull it off. Remove
the head, open the abdomen, and take out the entrails. Burn the paper on
which the fish has been cleaned. Fish is boned by slitting the flesh down
the back, and patiently separating the flesh from the side bones, and
finally pulling out the spine and attached bones. The strong odor of fish
clings to everything the fish touches. Wash the fish, the knife, and your
own hands in cold water and salt. Always pour the water in which fish is
washed or cooked down the sink at once, pour in some salt, and flush the
trap with cold water. The utensils, and dishes in which fish is served,
need very careful washing in several waters.
The _connective tissue_ of fish softens and dissolves more readily than
does that of meat. Fish varies in the dryness of the flesh, but there is
no such thing as tough fish, and the texture of the muscles is about the
same in all parts of the fish, although there is a difference in flavor in
the dark and white flesh when these both occur. On account of this
characteristic of the connective tissue the fish “falls apart” and our aim
must be to prevent this.
=Principles of cooking.=
1. The protein is affected as in all other foods where it occurs.
2. The fat is melted.
3. Connective tissue quickly softened.
To avoid the breaking of the fish it may be wrapped in cloth for boiling,
and the water should simmer only. The coating of small fish or slices of
large fish with beaten egg and crumbs tends to hold it together. In all
cases avoid overcooking. Fish is done when a fork easily pierces it and
separates the flakes of flesh from the bone.
=1. Boiled fish.=
Use thick pieces of large fish for boiling, or if small fish are
used they may be boiled whole. Add salt and vinegar to water in
proportion of 1 tablespoonful of salt and two of vinegar to three
quarts of water. Use enough water to cover the fish. Wrap the
fish in cheesecloth to prevent breaking apart, and plunge into
boiling water. Do not let the water boil after fish is in. The
fish is done when the flesh leaves the bone or when the flesh
flakes apart easily. The usual time for a thick piece is 30-40
minutes.
_Mock Hollandaise sauce._
Butter 3 tablespoonfuls
Flour 3 tablespoonfuls
Eggs 2
Milk 2 cups
Salt 1 teaspoonful
Lemon 1/2 to 1.
Make as for white sauce, adding the beaten eggs just before
taking from fire and stirring until well thickened. Add lemon
juice just before serving. This sauce is suitable for boiled fish
and vegetables.
=2. Left over fish.=
Fish may be picked apart, mixed with cream sauce, and served as
creamed fish or served as an escallop.
_Escalloped fish._
2 cups left over fish, picked over and freed of bones.
1 cup thin white sauce, dried bread crumbs buttered.
Butter a baking dish and line with crumbs. Add a layer of fish,
using half, and cover with half the sauce. Cover with a layer of
crumbs. Add another layer of fish, sauce, and crumbs, making this
last layer of crumbs quite thick. Place in a hot oven and leave
until crumbs are brown and fish is heated through.
_To butter crumbs._
Melt a little butter in a saucepan and turn the crumbs in,
stirring them over and over with a spoon until all the crumbs are
coated.
=3. Baked fish.=
Almost any medium sized fish is suitable for baking. The
favorites are bluefish, shad, haddock, and halibut, sliced.
Clean the fish, seeing that all scales are removed. Stuff and sew.
Shape with skewers to form a letter S and place upright on a
baking pan or lay fish on side. If the fish is not a fat kind, put
strips of salt pork over it and in pan or cut gashes in fish and
lay strips of pork in them. Dredge with flour. Bake one hour for a
three-pound fish, in a hot oven, basting frequently with the
tried-out fat. Serve with drawn butter or Hollandaise sauce.
_Fish stuffing._
Dried crumbs 1 cup
Melted butter 1/2 cup
Salt 1/4 teaspoonful
Pepper 1/8 teaspoonful
Onion juice A few drops
Parsley} 1 teaspoonful
Capers } each, finely
Pickles } chopped
Mix ingredients in order given.
=4. Creamed codfish.=
Soak the fish in cold water, and pull it apart with knife and
fork. Put it in a saucepan of cold water, allow the water to heat
slowly, and stop the heating just before the water reaches the
boiling point. Pour off the water, shake the saucepan over the
fire, add a thin white sauce, No. 2, and reheat. Serve on toast
if desired.
=5. Codfish balls or cakes.=
_Ingredients._
Codfish, picked 1 cup
Potatoes, cut in cubes 2 cups
Egg 1
Salt, if needed to taste
Flour for dredging
_Method._
Put the fish and potatoes in a stewpan, cover with cold water,
bring the water to the boiling point, and cook until the potato is
tender. The whole process will take about 20 minutes. Drain off
the water very thoroughly and shake the stewpan over the fire to
dry the contents. It is very necessary to have the mixture free
from water. Mash and heat the mixture in the stewpan, and add the
egg. Taste to see if more salt is needed, as is sometimes the
case. Finish as follows:
(_a_) Shape into round flat cakes about an inch thick, dredge with
flour and sauté.
(_b_) The same, browning the cakes on a greased pan in the oven,
or under the gas flame, turning if necessary.
(_c_) Shape in balls, place these in a wire frying basket, lower
the basket into hot fat until the balls brown, lift the basket,
drain, and drain the balls on paper. Keep hot until it is time to
serve.
_Laboratory management._——For individual work or work in groups of two,
small fish, as perch, may be procured and these may be stuffed and baked
in the period.
SHELLFISH
The shellfish are of two classes; the mollusks including clams, mussels
(seldom used in this country), oysters, and scallops, and the
crustaceans,——lobsters and crabs. None of the mollusks have high nutritive
value, but they are a protein food, and add to the variety of the diet.
The composition of the oyster is shown in Fig. 65, and it will be noted
that the fat percentage is small and the calorie value low.
=The oyster= is raised in beds in the ocean, or bays often near the river
mouth, and it is the neighborhood to the river that makes it possible for
the oyster to carry germs of contagion, particularly of typhoid fever,
when city sewage poured into the river passes over the oyster bed. Here,
too, government protection is essential, and this is a matter that has
created so much excitement that conditions are already improved. There is
an association of oyster growers who make a point of advertising clean
oyster beds, and cleanly methods of handling and transporting.
Oysters vary in size and flavor, the flavor seeming to depend upon the
locality. The smaller are sought for serving raw, and the medium and
larger for cooking. They are sold by the measure or number when taken from
the shell, the latter giving the surer quantity; and the price is usually
one cent apiece. They are in season from September to May. The whole flesh
of the oyster is soft and edible, even the muscle by which it opens and
shuts its shell being tender.
=Clams= are of two kinds, distinguished differently in different places.
They are known as hard and soft, or round and long, and in Rhode Island
the hard round clam still bears the Indian name Quahaug, the soft shell
clam being the only “clam.”
The long clam lies buried in the soft mud of creeks and muddy shores left
exposed at low tide, when they are dug by hoes from the mud. The round
clam lies on the bottom of shallow warm waters, and is raked with an
implement made for the purpose. The round clam is used when very young and
small in place of raw oysters; but both kinds when matured have a tough
portion that is not softened in cooking, and that is more or less
indigestible. The long “neck” which protrudes from the shell has to be
discarded.
Both kinds may be roasted in the shell, and are very palatable served hot
with melted butter, salt, and pepper. They are most commonly used in soups
and in chowder. They are purchased by the quantity or number, are cheaper
than oysters, and are always in season.
=Scallops=, as purchased, are only a part of the animal in the shell,
consisting solely of the round white muscle which operates the shell. The
escallop, or scallop, is migratory, moving by a shooting motion, the
mature scallops reaching the creeks and shores in the autumn, and though
found in so-called beds they are not fixtures like the oysters. The flavor
is sweet, and they have a quality that makes them more or less
indigestible, especially when fried. They are very palatable and more
digestible served in a stew made like an oyster stew. They are sold by the
measure and are cheap in season.
=The lobster= is now a luxury, for methods of catching in the past have
made them scarce in their old haunts. The lobster is a much more highly
developed animal than the mollusk, having strong muscles inside its coat
of mail, and the flesh has a protein content that compares very favorably
with meat. When fresh, and not served with rich sauces or eaten at
irregular hours, it is not especially indigestible, and may be the main
dish at luncheon or supper, served simply with salt, pepper, and melted
butter and not taken with meat foods. Its own delicious flavor needs no
addition in the way of sauces and high seasoning.
=The crab= is essentially like the lobster, being smaller, and having a
sweeter flavor. The soft shell crab is caught just as the old shell is
shed, and is highly esteemed as a delicacy. Both lobsters and crabs are
cooked in the shell, and if allowed to die naturally before cooking they
are uneatable. They may be purchased alive or cooked, and one is surer of
their condition when they are bought alive. Twenty-five cents a pound is
now an average price for lobsters in shell. Crabs are somewhat less
expensive at times, but soft shells are always high-priced.
The following table shows the food value of a few of this group in terms
of the weight of the 100-Calorie portion.
100-CALORIE PORTIONS OF FISH AND SHELLFISH FRESH FISH
=================================================
| WEIGHT OF 100-CALORIE PORTION |
KIND |-----------------------------------|
| AS PURCHASED | |
|(Entrails Removed)| EDIBLE MATERIAL|
-------------|------------------|----------------|
| Ounces | Ounces |
Blue fish | 7.8 | 4.0 |
Cod. | 7.6 | 5.5 |
Flounder | 12.5 | 6.2 |
Haddock | 10.0 | 4.9 |
Halibut steak| 3.5 | 2.9 |
Mackerel | 4.5 | 2.5 |
Salmon | 2.8 | 1.8 |
-------------------------------------------------
SALT OR SMOKED FISH
------------------|------------------|----------------
Cod, Salt | 4.4 | 3.4 |
Herring, Smoked | 2.2 | 1.2 |
Halibut, Smoked | 1.7 | 1.6 |
Mackerel, Salt | 1.4 | 1.2 |
------------------------------------------------------
SHELLFISH
------------------------------------------------------
Clams | 6.9 |
Crabs | 4.3 |
Lobster | 4.2 |
Oysters | 7.0 |
Scallops | 4.8 |
------------------------------------------------------
=Preserved fish and shellfish.=——_Smoking and salting_ are two old-time
methods that are still in use, and smoked salmon, herring, and finnan
haddie furnish us well-flavored foods at a reasonable price. Small smoked
herring are eaten uncooked, and the other two kinds are excellent broiled,
or parboiled and finished in the oven. Salt cod should not be despised,
for it is convenient and may be made palatable. Like the meats, the fish
preserved by these methods are slightly less available for digestion.
_Preserving in oil_ is made familiar to us by the sardine of Italy in
olive oil and the small herring of America in cottonseed oil, which also
bears the name of sardine. The latter is less delicate in flavor than the
European sardine, but is of course cheaper, and is palatable and of equal
food value.
_Canned fish and shellfish_ are used in localities where fresh fish are
not easily available, and should not be unwholesome if the process is
properly inspected. Canned salmon is the most common, and makes an
excellent luncheon dish when well prepared (see chapter on salads).
=Principles of cooking.=——The protein in all of these is the chief
consideration. The oyster is more delicate when cooked just below the
boiling point of water for a brief period only. This is also true of the
clam, except the tough membranes which must be chopped. The flesh of both
lobster and clam is toughened by cooking, and the process should be short.
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
=General directions.=——All fish and shellfish should be thoroughly
cleansed in cold water before using, and under running water when
possible. Wash oysters, clams, and scallops in a colander or strainer
under the faucet. If the oyster or clam liquor is used, put it through a
fine strainer.
=1. To serve oysters and small clams raw.=
Arrange on finely chopped ice on a plate, with a piece of lemon
in the center. Cut a section of lemon, not a slice. Horse-radish
is sometimes served with the raw oyster. Garnish with parsley if
you wish.
=2. Creamed oysters.=
Clean oysters of all pieces of shell. Cook them below the boiling
point for a few minutes until plump and edges begin to curl.
Drain and add to white sauce seasoned with celery salt. Serve on
toast, in bread cases, or patty shells.
=3. Sautéd oysters.=
Clean one pint of oysters, sprinkle on both sides with salt and
pepper. Lift by the tough muscle with a fork and dip on both
sides in cracker crumbs and sauté in butter until well browned on
both sides.
=4. Clam chowder.=
Proportions.
Clams 1 quart
Potatoes 4 cups, cut in 3/4 inch dice
Onion One, chopped
Salt 1 tablespoonful
Pepper 1/8 teaspoonful
Butter 4 tablespoonfuls
Milk 6 cups, scalded
Soda Crackers
Clean and pick over clams, separate the hard and soft part of
clams and chop the former. Strain clam liquor through
cheesecloth. Try out the pork and fry the onion in it until brown
and turn into a large kettle. Boil potatoes until tender, drain,
and pour potatoes into kettle. Add clams, milk, butter, and
crackers broken into small pieces. Let cook three minutes. Just
before serving add clam liquor previously heated. Serve in bowls.
=5. To prepare lobster and crabs for serving.=
Make ready a large kettle of rapidly boiling water. Wrap a piece
of paper around the lobster or crab, and plunge it head downward
into the boiling water. Let the water boil gently for 20
minutes——longer if the lobsters are very large.
To open, a strong pair of scissors is the best utensil and
sometimes a hammer is necessary for the heavy claws. Pull out the
flesh, keeping it as whole as possible. The stomach of the lobster
and crab should be taken out and can be recognized near the head.
The long intestine should also be removed and is easy to find in
the hinderpart by splitting open this part and removing a long
white string. The soft green portion is the liver and is eatable.
_To serve._——(_a_) Pick apart and serve on lettuce with a French
dressing, or (_b_) Serve hot with melted butter.
MEAT SUBSTITUTES
Among these, beans, peas, lentils, eggs, milk, and cheese have already
been mentioned. Fish is classed also as a meat substitute.
=Nuts.=——These are a valuable meat substitute, some of them having a good
protein content, and a high fat content as well. (See Fig. 66.) They maybe
served raw for dessert, with some fruit either fresh or dried, raisins and
nuts being a pleasing combination. They should be thoroughly masticated.
They are also palatable and possibly more digestible when cooked. The
reason that many people consider nuts indigestible is because they eat
them between meals, and do not give them a proper place in a meal, eating
them when enough food of other kinds has been taken. One who is
open-minded in the matter of menus will find that nuts, raw or cooked, can
literally take the place of meat in a meal.
[Illustration: FIG. 66.——Composition of nuts.]
_Almonds_ are always available in the markets and are so rich in protein
and fat that a pound of shelled almonds is equivalent in food value to
about three pounds of steak. At usual prices a good grade of almonds is
more economical than the ordinary cuts of meat.
_Chestnuts_ are a staple food in parts of Italy, and have a delicious
flavor in soups, stuffings, and sauces. Our own native chestnuts, boiled
and served whole or roasted, make an excellent simple dessert.
_Hickory nuts_, _English walnuts_, _pecan nuts_, and _filberts_ are not
only palatable in muffins, cake, and yeast bread, but add to the food
value in a rational way.
_Peanuts_ are rich in oil and protein. They are nearly equal to almonds in
food value and are even more economical. Peanuts are too concentrated a
food for eating between meals or to be taken after a meal already
sufficient, but they may take the place of meat in the meal and peanut
butter may be used on bread and in sandwiches without butter. They, too,
may be used with cake and cookies.
_Chopped nuts_ may be served with a variety of desserts. Remember always
that they are to be considered food.
100-CALORIE PORTIONS OF SHELLED NUTS
KIND WEIGHT OF 100-CALORIE PORTION
Ounces
Brazil nuts 0.5
Chestnuts 1.5
Filberts 0.5
Hickory nuts 0.5
Peanuts 0.6
Pecans 0.5
Walnuts (English) 0.5
TEACHER’S NOTE.——When time permits and circumstances make desirable the
development of the economic phase of the food work, students may be
directed to look up the composition, or the food value per ounce or per
pound, of a variety of the foods of whatever group is under study and work
out the return in food value for a given expenditure of money. The tables
in Rose’s “Laboratory Handbook for Dietetics” will be found especially
useful in such work.
EXERCISES
1. What is the chief food value of fish?
2. Compare the composition of fish and meat.
3. What are the causes influencing the flavor and quality of fish?
4. What precautions may be taken to prevent the spoiling of fish?
5. How may the oyster beds be safeguarded?
6. In what way does the cookery of fish and shellfish resemble that of
meat?
7. In what important way does the cookery of fish differ from that of
meat?
8. Why is fish cheapest in season?
9. Estimate the cost of 100-Calorie portion of one or two given varieties.
10. What precaution is necessary in opening a lobster?
11. What must a food contain to make a meat substitute?
12. What are the important meat substitutes?
13. In what way should nuts be used in the diet?
14. What are some of the practical ways of using nuts?
15. Price several kinds of nuts and several cuts of meat in the market,
then look up the composition of each, remembering that the whole kernel of
the nut is eaten, but often only the lean part of the meat. With this in
mind calculate the food value actually obtained for a given expenditure in
each case.
CHAPTER XV
SALADS AND DESSERTS
Salads and desserts are sometimes looked upon as luxuries, and something
to be omitted where people must exercise strict economy, and as more or
less indigestible forms of food to be avoided. As a matter of fact both of
these types of dishes are extremely valuable in giving variety to the
diet. They may be very inexpensive, and when they have the right relation
to the rest of the meal, are not more indigestible than many other forms
of food. A heavy salad or rich dessert eaten after a sufficient amount of
other food will naturally cause digestive disturbance.
To disprove the theory of great cost of desserts, two friends once had an
amusing contest to see which could serve the largest number of palatable
desserts at the lowest price. It was interesting to see how many could be
made for a cost of from six to ten cents for a family of five.
=Materials used for salad.=——The word “salad” is said to be derived from
the Latin “salis” (salt) which implies that the salad has been looked upon
more or less as a relish. We all associate with a salad appetizing
crispness and freshness. The materials used in the modern salad are so
varied that a complete list would include nearly all our fruits and
vegetables and meat foods.
_Green vegetables._——Celery, chicory or endive, corn salad, cress,
cucumber, dandelion, lettuce, onions, peppers, romaine or cos lettuce,
radishes, and tomatoes.
_Cooked vegetables._——Beans, string and whole, beets, cauliflower,
carrots, potatoes, and spinach.
_Fruits uncooked._——Any fresh fruit, possibly with the exception of some
of the berries.
_Meat and poultry._——The white meats like veal, chicken, and turkey are
more attractive in salad, but any kind of cold meat may be used.
_Fish and shellfish._——Lobsters, crabs, scallops, and cold fish.
_Nuts._——Several kinds may be used in combination with fruit.
_Jellies._——Tomato jelly, meat, chicken, and fish molded in jelly, may be
served as a salad.
_Eggs._——Hard-boiled eggs are used as a garnish.
_Cream cheese._——May be served with lettuce.
=Salad dressings.=——Plain lettuce or celery served with salt is in a sense
a salad, but it is our custom to dress the lettuce with a mixture which
contains an acid and usually an oil. A very simple, old-fashioned form of
dressing used in this country is vinegar and sugar. Substitute lemon juice
or fresh lime juice for the vinegar and you will have a very refreshing
and simple salad for a summer day.
The ordinary dressing consists of vinegar or lemon juice, and oil; another
form is mayonnaise, where the yolk and sometimes the white of egg are used
to hold the oil and vinegar together.
Another form is a cooked dressing which may be bottled and kept for a
longer time than the French dressing or the mayonnaise.
_Olive oil._——This is the most delicious oil for salad dressing when the
flavor is liked and when it can be afforded.
_Cottonseed and corn oil._——There are now in the market clarified
cottonseed oil and corn oil that may be used in mayonnaise dressing, and
the flavor is not unacceptable, and certainly superior to the poorer
grades of olive oil which quite likely contain one of these oils as an
adulterant. Cottonseed oil makes a better substitute for olive oil then
does corn oil as it is at present refined.
_Butter._——Butter may be used in boiled salad dressing for those who
dislike the flavor of the oils.
_The acids in dressing._——These may be either vinegar or lemon juice, and
many people with whom the vinegar disagrees can eat a salad made with
lemon juice. The acid should not be used in excess in any case; the best
dressings do not give a distinctively acid taste.
_Adjuncts._——Salt, mustard, cayenne pepper, paprika.
[Illustration: FIG. 67.——A cucumber salad. _Courtesy of Dept. of Foods and
Cookery, Teachers College._]
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
=General directions.=——The two important points in the preparation of the
material for salad are, first, that _everything_ should be thoroughly dry,
and, second, thoroughly chilled. The importance of these two points cannot
be overemphasized, and they are of equal value in salad making. Many a
salad is unpalatable because it is watery and wilted. For the preparation
of green vegetables see Chapter VII. Vegetables should be cut in cubes or
sometimes in slices. Meat, poultry, and shellfish should be cut in small
pieces or chopped. The prepared meat should be mixed with some of the oil
and acid and allowed to stand in an ice box for some time before it is
dressed and arranged for serving. This process is called marinating in the
cookbooks, and gives a flavor to the salad that it cannot have if a
dressing is poured over the meat just before serving.
=Combinations in salad.=——Several well-known combinations will at once
occur to you. Meat salads usually have a mixture of celery. Several
vegetables may be used together, as beans and carrots, or carrots, peas,
and string beans with lettuce. Apples, nuts, and celery make a pleasing
combination. Indeed there would seem to be no end to the possibilities
here.
[Illustration: FIG. 68.——A salad with salmon molded in gelatin. _Courtesy
of Dept. of Foods and Cookery, Teachers College._]
=Serving and garnishing.=——The principle here is to make the dish
attractive with as little labor as possible. Everything served as a
garnish should be eatable. A bed of crisp dry lettuce leaves is the most
attractive setting for any salad. When this is not procurable, cress makes
an attractive border to a salad. Figure 68 shows you a salmon jelly molded
in a ring and attractively served in lettuce. Figure 67 shows a cucumber
placed on lettuce leaves, dressed with a French dressing and sprinkled
with chopped peppers. The cucumber is sliced ready to serve; the slices
being cut not entirely through the cucumber. This is rapidly prepared and
is most attractive. When the salad is arranged in its dish, it should be
put in the ice box and allowed to remain until it is time to take it to
the table. The salad is sometimes served on individual plates.
=1. French dressing.=
_Ingredients._
Salt 1/2 teaspoonful
Pepper 1/4 teaspoonful
Vinegar 2 tablespoonfuls
Olive oil 4 tablespoonfuls
_Method._
Mix the salt, pepper, and vinegar and stir in the olive oil
slowly. A few drops of onion juice may be added.
=2. Mayonnaise dressing.=
_Ingredients._
Mustard 1 teaspoonful
Salt 1 teaspoonful
Powdered sugar 1 teaspoonful
A few grains of cayenne
Eggs Yolks of 2
Lemon juice 2 tablespoonfuls
Vinegar 2 tablespoonfuls
Olive oil 1-1/2 cups
_Method._
Stir together the eggs, mustard, salt, pepper, and sugar. Add the
oil, a drop at a time, stirring and beating constantly. The back
of a silver fork is a good thing for mixing mayonnaise, though
some people prefer a Dover beater. As the dressing becomes very
thick it should be thinned occasionally with vinegar and lemon,
alternately, but never let it lose its consistency. After the
first, the oil may be added more rapidly. All ingredients and
utensils must be cold. If the weather is warm, the bowl should be
surrounded with ice water. If the dressing should separate, begin
with another yolk of egg and stir the separated mixture into it
slowly, as before. Set the bowl in a cold place and it should keep
for many days.
=3. Boiled dressing.=
_Ingredients._
Eggs 2
Mustard 1/2 teaspoonful
Salt 1/2 tablespoonful
Sugar 1/2 tablespoonful
Vinegar 3 tablespoonfuls
Hot water 1/2 cup
Butter 1 tablespoonful
A few grains of cayenne
_Method._
Mix the dry ingredients and beat with the eggs until light. Add
the vinegar and water and cook in a double boiler, stirring
constantly until thick and smooth. Remove from the fire, stir in
the butter and set away to cool. A little cream added after the
dressing cools is a great addition. Sour cream may be used instead
of the water, in which case less vinegar and butter should be
used.
=4. Potato salad.=
_Ingredients._
Potatoes, cold-boiled or baked
Parsley or onion juice
Egg, hard-boiled, olives, pickled beets, etc.
French dressing
_Method._
Cut the cold-boiled or baked potatoes into 1/2-inch cubes.
Marinate (_i.e._ mix and let stand) with French dressing. Chopped
parsley or onion juice may be mixed with potatoes. Arrange in a
mound and garnish with slices of hard-boiled egg, olives, pickled
beets, etc.
=5. Chicken salad.=
_Ingredients._
Cold-boiled or roast fowl
Celery, 1/2 as much as fowl
French dressing
Mayonnaise or boiled dressing
Olives
_Method._
Cut cold-boiled or roast fowl in 1/2-inch cubes. Add to this 1/2
as much celery which has been washed, scraped, and cut into cubes.
Marinate with French dressing. Just before serving moisten with
mayonnaise or boiled salad dressing. Garnish with celery tips and
olives.
=6. Waldorf salad.=
_Ingredients._
Apples, tart and juicy
Celery, 1/2 as much as apples
Mayonnaise dressing
Lettuce leaves
_Method._
Select tart, juicy apples. Cut in quarters, pare and core and cut
in 1/2-inch cubes. Add half as much celery, washed, scraped, and
cut into cubes. Mix with boiled or mayonnaise dressing and serve
cold on lettuce leaves. If handsome red apples can be had, they
may be washed and polished and a slice cut from the stem end and
the apple used as a cup after scooping out the inside to use for a
filling with the celery. Serve on a lettuce leaf. Chopped nuts may
be mixed with the apple and celery if desired.
=7. Stuffed tomato salad.=
_Ingredients._
Tomatoes, medium sized
Boiling water
Salt
Cucumbers (or celery)
Mayonnaise dressing
Lettuce leaves
_Method._
Cover medium sized tomatoes with boiling water for a minute and
remove the skin. Cut a thin slice from the top and take out part
of the seeds and pulp. Sprinkle inside of the tomato with salt,
invert, and let stand one half hour. Fill tomatoes with cucumbers
(or celery) cut in small cubes and moistened with mayonnaise
dressing. Arrange on lettuce leaves and garnish top with
mayonnaise dressing.
_Laboratory management._——1/2 egg yolk (1 teaspoonful) and 1/4 cup of
olive oil is as small a quantity as is practicable to use in making the
mayonnaise. This quantity made by groups of two works out well as the
process of adding the oil drop by drop is difficult for a beginner working
alone. The boiled dressing works in well as a variation of the boiled
custard.
DESSERTS
The dessert in this country includes the sweet dish, or the fruit at the
end of the meal. In simple meals the dessert is usually one of the two,
although in more elaborate meals fruit is served after the sweet dish, and
sometimes crackers and cheese are served at the last. From the point of
view of nutrition and digestibility this is more than is necessary, and
you will notice that when both are served, the fruit is often declined.
Like the salad, the dessert may be made from a large variety of materials
and bears different names. There are hot puddings and cold puddings, pies
and tarts, jellies and ices and ice creams. It is very interesting to read
over the many dishes of this class in a cookbook and to attempt to
classify them. If you are fortunate enough to have access to a cookbook of
the eighteenth century, you will find that much labor was given to the
preparation of elaborate structures which served as table ornaments; even
now you will find French cooks who spend much time in making elaborate
displays of their skill. For everyday life the dessert should be
attractive to the eye and yet simple.
=Materials used in desserts.=
_Eggs, milk, and cream_; these are important and are used in
custards, in dishes stiffened with gelatin or thickened with
cornstarch, or in ice cream.
_Breadstuffs._——Cake and sponge cake, bread crumbs and sliced
bread, are valuable in desserts. Bread pudding may be made a very
delicious dish. Bread may be combined with fruit in the shape of
an escalloped dish. Baking-powder biscuits, crust, and shortcake
are also used.
_Other starchy substances._——These are cornstarch, arrowroot,
sago, tapioca and manioca.
_Fruits._——Raw and cooked fruits of every possible kind. A few
fruits like the lemon, orange, grapefruit, and melon are not
cooked. For preparing fruit served alone, see Chapter VI.
_Gelatin._——This material has been mentioned in the chapter on
meat. It is prepared for use in desserts in a number of forms, the
granular being the most convenient. Gelatin has the property,
first, of absorbing water, then of dissolving at the boiling
temperature of water and becoming stiff again when cool. After
dissolving, as it is cooling and just as it begins to thicken
slightly, it can be beaten like white of egg. If beating is
attempted while the liquid is warm, or again if it becomes too
stiff, the result is not successful. This property makes it useful
in the sponges and other fancy desserts where the light spongy
texture is desirable.
[Illustration: FIG. 69.——A gelatin mold. _Courtesy of Dept. of Foods and
Cookery, Teachers College._]
=Making desserts attractive.=——This is done by serving hot desserts in a
dish around which a napkin may be folded; and cold desserts, especially
those made with gelatin, may be molded in some attractive form and
garnished. Figure 69 shows a very simple gelatin dessert garnished with
candied cherries and a little angelica, the stem of a plant which has been
sugared, and the whole surrounded with whipped cream. Whipping the cream
and putting it around the base takes only a few minutes. As in salad, the
garnish should be eatable and easily prepared.
=1. Boiled custard.=
_Ingredients._
Milk 1 pt.
Sugar 2 tablespoonfuls
Eggs 3
Vanilla 1/2 teaspoonful
Salt 1/8 teaspoonful
_Method._
Put the milk, sugar, and salt in a double boiler to scald.
Separate the eggs and set the whites in a cold place until wanted.
Beat the yolks until lemon-colored. Pour a little of the scalded
milk on the yolks of the eggs, stirring until well mixed. Set the
double boiler back on the stove and pour the egg and milk mixture
slowly into the rest of the scalded milk, stirring constantly
until thickened enough to coat the spoon. Remove from the fire,
add the flavoring, and turn into a dish to cool. Just before
serving beat the whites to a very stiff froth and pile by
spoonfuls on the custard. The whites may be sweetened with
powdered sugar after beating if desired. Corn starch may be used,
and fewer eggs.
=2. Baked custard.=
_Ingredients._
Milk 1 pt.
Sugar 2 tablespoonfuls
Salt 1/8 teaspoonful
Eggs 2
Lemon _or_
Vanilla 1/2 teaspoonful
_Method._
Scald the milk, sugar, and salt together. Beat the eggs in a
baking dish and pour the scalded milk over them. Add the flavoring
and stir well. Set the baking dish in a pan of boiling water and
bake in a moderate oven until a knife thrust into the custard will
come out clean. Serve cold either plain, or with chocolate sauce.
Nutmeg may be grated on top of the custard before baking, or
caramel flavoring may be added in place of the vanilla.
=3. Chocolate sauce.=
_Ingredients._
Chocolate 1 square
Sugar 1/4 cup
Boiling water 1/2 cup
Cream 1/2 cup
_Method._
Mix the chocolate, boiling water, and sugar together and stir over
the fire until smooth and thick. Add the cream and serve hot.
=4. Caramel flavoring.=
_Ingredients._
Sugar 2 cups
Boiling water 1 cup
_Method._
Pour the sugar into a saucepan and stir over the fire until it
becomes a thick brown sirup. Pour the boiling water on this and
leave on the fire, stirring occasionally until the sugar is all
dissolved. This may be bottled and kept for some time.
=5. Shortcake.=
_Ingredients._
Flour 1 cup
Baking powder 1 teaspoonful
Salt 1/4 teaspoonful
Butter 4 tablespoonfuls
_or_
One half butter and one half lard.
Milk 1/2 cup
_Method._
Mix dry ingredients and cut butter into this mixture with two
knives. Stir in the milk and spread the mixture out on a buttered
layer cake tin. Bake in a hot oven until brown. Wash and hull a
box of strawberries, sprinkle with 1/2 cup of sugar, and crush
with a spoon. When the shortcake is done remove from the pan, cut
around the edge with a sharp knife and right through the center of
the cake, making two layers of it. Spread the lower layer with
butter and then with the crushed strawberry. Replace the top layer
and serve hot. Fresh peaches, preserves, or a mixture of orange
and banana may be used for this shortcake.
Another kind of strawberry cake is made of sponge cake, and served
cold with whipped cream.
=6. Steamed pudding.=
_Ingredients._
Suet chopped 1 cup
Raisins, currants, and citron sliced 1 cup
Egg 1
Sweet milk 1 cup
Molasses 1/2 cup
Soda 1 teaspoonful
Salt 1/4 teaspoonful
Flour 3-1/2 cups
_Method._
Skin, wash, and chop the suet, and dredge with flour. Wash, pick
over and seed the dried fruit, slice the citron if it is used, and
dredge all with flour. Stir together the milk and molasses, sift
the dry ingredients with the flour, and stir the liquid into the
flour slowly. Add the suet, beating the mass thoroughly, and last
the fruit, sprinkling in both the suet and the fruit as you stir.
Fill a greased mold 2/3 full, close tightly, and cook in a kettle
of boiling water for three hours. Serve with a hard or foamy
sauce.
_Laboratory management._——This can be made in class if each pupil will
bring an empty baking powder or cocoa tin to school. A strip of greased
cloth should be fastened around the edge of the cover. The recipe can be
made in 1/4 cup proportions, and this amount can be cooked if the class
period is two hours in length, but it is better to have the cooking
finished at home. This is a seasonable exercise at Thanksgiving or
Christmas.
=7. Brown Betty or apple scallop.=
_Ingredients._
Buttered crumbs
Tart cooking apples
Sugar
Cinnamon
A little water
TEACHER’S NOTE.——Individual shortcakes may be made by using a stiffer
dough and rolling and cutting them like biscuits.
_Method._
Put a layer of buttered crumbs in a baking dish. Pare and slice
tart cooking apples and put a layer into the dish. Sprinkle with
sugar, cinnamon, and a little water. Add a layer of bread crumbs
and repeat with apples, flavoring and cover the top with crumbs.
Bake in a moderate oven until apples are cooked and crumbs brown.
Any fruit such as peaches or blueberries may be used instead of
apples. Serve hot with hard or foamy sauce or cold with cream and
sugar, or the bread may be used in slices, buttered.
=8. Hard sauce.=
_Ingredients._
Butter 1/3 cup
Powdered sugar 1 cup
Lemon extract 1/3 teaspoonful
_or_
Vanilla 2/3 teaspoonful
Nutmeg
_Method._
Cream the butter; add sugar gradually, and flavoring. Grate nutmeg
over the top. Chill before serving.
=9. Foamy sauce.=
_Ingredients._
Butter 1/2 cup
Powdered sugar 1 cup
Egg 1
Vanilla 1 teaspoonful
_Method._
Cream the butter, add gradually the sugar, the egg well beaten,
and vanilla. Beat while heating over hot water.
=10. Tapioca cream.=
_Ingredients._
Pearl tapioca 1/2 cup
_or_
Minute tapioca 1-1/2 tablespoonfuls
Scalded milk 2 cups
Eggs 2, _or_ 1
Sugar 1/3 cup
Salt 1/4 teaspoonful
Vanilla 1/2 teaspoonful
_Method._
Minute tapioca needs no soaking. If pearl tapioca is used, it must
be soaked one hour in cold water to cover. Pick over and wash the
tapioca, drain off the water and add tapioca to the milk and salt
scalded in the double boiler, and cook until the tapioca is
transparent, or about 1/2 hour. Beat eggs and add the sugar to
them. Combine mixtures by pouring a little of the hot mixture in
the egg and then stirring this into the mixture remaining in the
double boiler. Stir over fire until it becomes thick. Add the
flavoring and pour into a dish to cool.
=11. Apple tapioca.=
_Ingredients._
Minute tapioca 3/4 cup
Lemon peel
Boiling water 2-1/2 cups
Salt 1/2 teaspoonful
Tart apples 6
Sugar 1/2 cup
_Method._
Cook the tapioca in salt water until it becomes transparent. Core
and pare the apples and place in the bottom of the baking dish.
Fill the cavities with sugar and add a little lemon peel. Pour the
tapioca over the apples and bake in a moderate oven until the
apples are soft. Serve cold with sugar and cream.
=12. Lemon jelly.=
_Ingredients._
Shredded gelatin 1/2 box
_or_
Granulated gelatin 2 tablespoonfuls
Lemon juice 1/2 cup
Cold water 1/2 cup
Boiling water 2-1/2 cups
Sugar 1 cup
_Method._
Soak the gelatin in cold water for 20 minutes. Add the boiling
water and sugar and stir until it dissolves. Add the lemon juice
and strain into a mold and set away to harden. When it is stiff
loosen from the sides of the mold (a cloth wrung out of hot water
may be needed). Turn on to a plate and serve with whipped cream or
soft custard.
=13. Snow pudding.=
_Ingredients._
Granulated gelatin 1 tablespoonful
Cold water 1/2 cup
Boiling water 1 cup
Sugar 1 cup
Lemon juice 1/4 cup
Eggs Whites of 3
_Method._
Mix as for lemon jelly. Set aside in a cool place, and as soon as
it becomes sirupy stir occasionally until quite thick. Then beat
with wire spoon or whisk until frothy. Fold in the beaten whites,
and continue to beat lightly until quite stiff. Pile by spoonfuls
on a plate and serve with boiled custard, or mold as in Fig. 69.
=Frozen mixtures.=——There are some interesting principles to note here.
The freezing is accomplished by using a mixture of chopped ice and rock
salt. Can you explain how this reduces the temperature?
Another interesting point is this: Have you ever seen a milk bottle on a
cold winter morning with the paper cover or even the metal cap pushed up,
the frozen milk standing high above the top of the bottle? What does this
suggest to you in connection with the filling of the ice cream freezer?
It must be noted, too, that a larger amount of flavoring material is
needed in a frozen dessert than in one that is not. The frozen custard,
for instance, needs more vanilla than one prepared in the ordinary manner.
Can you account for this?
=Method of freezing.=
There are many patterns of ice cream freezers that are well
constructed and inexpensive. They are sold by the size, a 2 quart
freezer giving you 2 quarts of the frozen cream. See that the
crank is oiled and the whole apparatus clean. Have ready pounded
ice and rock salt, usually in the proportion of 1 part salt to 3
of ice. Machines come for cutting the ice, but it is easy to
pound it in a strong bag. Set the freezer can in place, put
around it the ice and salt alternately, shaking down and packing
firmly. Have the ice cream mixture cool, pour it in, having the
can not more than 2/3 full. Put on the lid, cover with ice and
salt, and begin to turn the crank. Open and stir down once or
twice, being careful to keep out the salt. Take out the crank
before the cream is too stiff. Pack the cream firmly down in the
can. See that the melted water is removed from the pail, put in
more ice and salt, and leave until the ice cream is firm.
_To mold ice cream or mousse._ Directions for packing in a mold
are given under _strawberry mousse_.
=14. American ice cream.=
(_a_) _Ingredients._
Cream 1 quart
Sugar 3/4 cup
Vanilla 1 tablespoonful
_Method._
Mix ingredients and freeze.
(_b_) _Ingredients._
Milk 1 pint
Flour 1 tablespoonful
Egg 1
Sugar 1 cup
Salt 1/4 teaspoonful
Cream 1 quart
Vanilla 1 tablespoonful
_Method._ As in French ice cream.
=15. French ice cream.=
_Ingredients._
Cream 1 quart
Milk 1 quart
Eggs 4 or 6 to 8 yolks
Sugar 1-1/2 cups
Vanilla 2 tablespoonfuls
_Method._
Make a custard of milk, eggs, sugar, and vanilla. Add cream, chill
and freeze.
16. =Milk sherbet.=
_Ingredients._
Milk 4 cups
Sugar 1-1/2 cups
Lemons Juice of 3
_Method._
Mix juice and sugar, stirring constantly while slowly adding milk.
If the mixture should curdle, this will disappear when frozen.
17. =Raspberry ice.=
_Ingredients._
Water 4 cups
Sugar 1-2/3 cups
Raspberry juice 2 cups
Lemon juice 2 tablespoonfuls
_Method._
Make a sirup by boiling water and sugar twenty minutes, add
raspberry juice, strain and freeze. Any fruit juice may be used
for this sherbet.
18. =Strawberry mousse.=
_Ingredients._
Cream 1 quart
Strawberries 1 box
Sugar 1 cup
Granulated gelatin 1-1/4 tablespoonfuls
Cold water 2 tablespoonfuls
Hot water 3 tablespoonfuls
_Method._
Wash and hull berries, sprinkle with sugar, and let stand one
hour; mash and rub through a fine sieve, add the gelatin soaked in
cold water and dissolved in hot water. Set in a pan of ice water
and stir until it begins to thicken; then fold in the whipped
cream, put into a mold, cover, pack in two parts ice to one of
salt, and let stand four hours. Use a mold with a tight cover and
seal the crack with a strip of cloth dipped in melted butter and
bound around the mold while still wet.
EXERCISES
1. Explain the value of salads and desserts in the dietary.
2. What are the important points in a good salad?
3. Give a number of agreeable combinations of material in a salad.
4. What are the substitutes for olive oil?
5. Why should mayonnaise dressing be kept cold in the mixing?
6. Make a classification of the different types of dessert.
7. What is gelatin, and why is it useful in desserts?
8. What are the underlying principles of custard making?
9. Why is it important that the can in a freezer should not be filled to
the top?
10. Why does chopped ice and salt freeze the mixture?
11. Estimate the cost of the following dishes for five people: Potato
salad with boiled dressing; a baked custard; a Brown Betty; French ice
cream; raspberry or lemon ice.
12. Explain what is meant by garnishing.
CHAPTER XVI
PREPARATION OF MEALS AND TABLE SERVICE
The preparation of a number of dishes assembled for a meal requires a
skill quite different from that necessary for the making of a single dish.
A menu being decided upon, it needs an accurate sense of time,
forethought, and promptness, to have a number of dishes ready at the same
time, or in proper sequence if several courses are served. Such questions
as the following must be answered:
_Technique of preparation._
1. What steps in preparation can be taken ahead of time, as washing,
paring, cutting, etc.?
2. What dishes take the longest to cook?
3. Which must be served the moment they are done?
4. Which can be kept hot for some time without injury?
5. Which can be finished and cooled perhaps several hours before?
6. Do the dishes selected require the same utensils at the same time? (If
so, the menus must be changed.)
7. What is the order of serving?
To understand the bearing of these questions you will need to select some
menu and make a plan for preparing it. (See exercises at the end of this
chapter.)
The fact is obvious that in preparing a meal you cannot finish the dishes
one at a time, but that steps individual to each dish must be interwoven
with each other, and the cook must have them all “on her mind,” and is
often doing half a dozen things at once. As a high school girl, preparing
a part of her first meal, remarked, “This is as good training as
mathematics.”
The woman at home will devise many ways of easing and shortening the labor
just before the meal is served, avoiding haste and anxiety in this way.
With the fireless cooker and other slow-cooking apparatus, the heavy work
may sometimes be done far ahead of mealtime. A dessert can be prepared and
be cooking as breakfast dishes are washed, and at the time left overs are
put away they can be arranged ready for serving, as in the case of poultry
or meat to be served cold. While the preparation of the midday meal is in
progress, something can sometimes be done for the last meal, too. This,
indeed, is a field for generalship, and it is a successful campaign when
the meals are all on time and well prepared, and the cook and family
cheerful.
=Important points in serving each dish.=——Each dish should be perfectly
done, neither over nor under cooked. All hot dishes should be hot, and
cold dishes cold. Lukewarm food is not agreeable. Bread and cake and some
kinds of pastry are the only foods that may have the temperature of the
room. Sliced meat and salads should be _cold_. Chill chocolate éclairs
before serving and see how much they are improved; indeed, experiment with
a number of foods that are usually served at room temperature.
=To keep food hot.=——A hot closet above a coal or gas range is made for
this purpose, and steam heaters sometimes have hot-closets. A double
boiler is a help, and one utensil may be set into a larger, filled with
boiling water. Some dishes can be set back on the stove, or over a
simmering gas burner with an asbestos mat underneath. The oven may be used
sometimes, with the door set ajar. The food may be kept covered unless it
will steam, in which case cover it with a towel. Serve food in hot dishes.
=To keep food cool.=——Leave the dish in the ice box until the last
possible moment. Sometimes serve with ice (butter in warm weather). If
ice is lacking, use other cooling devices. Serve in chilled dishes.
=Garnishing the dish.=——All food must be neatly placed in the dish, and
arranged or piled with some sort of symmetry, and this is the most that
some people have time to do. Many foods may be served in the utensil or
dish in which they are cooked, and in the case of a baking dish, if its
appearance is not neat, a napkin can be folded about it. The simplest form
of garnish is browning on the top, which makes many dishes attractive
(mashed potato).
_Make the garnishing simple_, and have it eatable when possible. Slices of
hard-boiled eggs on spinach, chopped parsley and butter on boiled or
mashed potato, parsley and slices of lemon, with meat and fish.
_Vegetable borders_ are attractive and save labor in dish washing. Arrange
the meat in the center of the platter, and pile mashed potato, or boiled
rice or peas or beans, or a mixture of hot vegetables around the edge.
This saves time in table service, too.
The garnishing of salads, desserts, and cakes is treated in previous
chapters.
=Table equipment and service.=——This is a place where beauty is a large
element, and most people understand the charm of a daintily laid table, as
the family gathers for a meal. But many factors must be taken into
account, for it is an easy matter to pass from the simple and beautiful to
an extravagant display, to spend more on the dining-room equipment than
the income warrants, and to waste much energy in unnecessary work. Our
great need here is to learn to see beauty in simplicity. We must remember,
too, that many people in our country live in crowded quarters, and have no
time for anything but the simplest kind of table service.[16]
The _table_ should be firm, large enough to accommodate the family
comfortably, and it should permit of extension when occasion demands a
larger board. The top should have an oil finish that will not easily mar
and that can be washed off. Have a thick cloth or pad to protect it——the
“silence cloth.”
_Table covers_ may be the small doilies with centerpiece, strips of fine
linen crash, or blue or brown and white Japanese toweling laid across both
ways, a cloth that just covers the table, or a large cloth that hangs well
below the table edge. The doilies and strips are used conventionally for
breakfast and luncheon, but save much labor when used for all meals. The
color may be white, or tinted, but the dark-colored cloth should be
banished.
The material may be linen or mercerized cotton. Many people think white
table oilcloth is impossible, but a table covered with it may be made very
pretty; it can be kept clean by washing at the end of each meal, and the
saving in labor is incalculable.
The pattern and quality and cost of table linens are mentioned in Chapter
XXI.
_Napkins_ may match the tablecloths. A small size economizes labor. Avoid
fringes, selecting a scalloped edge or hemstitch. Japanese paper napkins
are useful in summer, and for box luncheons.
_The dishes._——Only a few practical suggestions can be given here. This is
a topic for the art class.
Buy from “open stock.” This means, not a single set, but a pattern that
the manufacturer and retailer have always on hand, so that the purchaser
can buy one plate or cup and saucer, to replace breakage.
An elaborate or highly colored design becomes wearisome, is not practical
for those who have a limited supply of dishes, and is in questionable
taste. A positive color demands always the same general scheme for other
decorations. A band of color, or a narrow design at the edge, of a color
harmonizing easily with other colors, is in good taste. Gold and green are
safe colors. See Fig. 72. White dishes with a raised border are dainty,
and any color scheme may be used with them. See Fig. 71.
The number of dishes depends upon the simplicity or elaborateness of the
method of living and the size of the family. It is much better to begin
with a few, and increase the number when necessary, than to have the
shelves filled with unused ware. (See exercises.)
_Glassware_ is pressed or cut, the latter being beautiful, but an
expensive luxury. Glasses for water, and dishes for berries, are made with
simple and attractive designs in the pressed ware, and serve all ordinary
purposes. A pretty shape for the glass for water is shown in Fig. 71.
_Silver and plated silver_ for knives, forks, and spoons, coffee and tea
sets, all add to the charm of the table. A large collection is not
necessary for everyday use, and it adds greatly to the labor of the
housewife. Figure 70 shows some good designs in spoons, and spoons and
forks of different sizes come in the same design. A simple design is easy
to clean. Three sizes of spoons, tablespoons, teaspoons, and coffee
spoons, and two sizes of forks are all sufficient, with a few larger
spoons for service and desserts.
Triple-plated ware lasts for years, if well cared for, and comes in good
designs.
Pewter, familiar in olden days, is being used again in Colonial designs,
and makes an attractive tea or coffee set, is less costly than solid
silver, and has a better tone and color than plated ware.
_Cutlery._——Plated knives are easy to care for, but steel knives are more
effective for some purposes. Purchase good quality steel knives,
especially in the carving set.
[Illustration: FIG. 70.——Good designs for table silver. _Courtesy of
Gorham Co._]
=Setting the table.=——The first principles here are to have everything
clean and shining, and to lay everything straight. Have as little on the
table as possible. It is not comfortable to have a large array of articles
at one’s place. Figure 71 shows you a dainty and well-laid table, arranged
for a Sunday night supper, and this arrangement is a good one for any
meal, with substitutes for the chafing dish.
Be sure that the _cloth_ is straight, the center fold in the middle of the
table, and that the cloth hangs evenly on all sides. See that centerpiece
and doilies are laid at even distance.
_Laying each place._——In Fig. 71 the knife, edge out, is at the right,
with one spoon, and the glass is at the right, in line with the end of the
knife. Two forks are at the left, and a plate for bread and butter, with
bread knife are at the left, opposite the glass. The napkin is at the
left. This plan, somewhat elaborated, may be safely followed for formal
service. Two knives may be placed at the right, with the soup spoon, and
three forks at the left. If more than these are needed, they may be
supplied later, laid on the plate placed for a certain course, in the
middle of the plate, handle toward the guest.
[Illustration: FIG. 71.——A table set for Sunday night supper. _Courtesy of
Dept. of Foods and Cookery, Teachers College._]
The other articles on the table may vary widely. For everyday use, where
there is no maid, or only one, set in places convenient to pass, the salt
and pepper, vinegar and sugar, bread plate and butter plate, and any small
dish of condiment or pickle, with pretty mats for the hot dishes to be set
on later, and enough spoons for serving. See that the arrangement is
symmetrical and convenient. A table laid in this way has room for little
more in the way of “decoration” than a slender vase holding a few flowers
in the center. The dishes for dessert can be ready on a side table.
For formal service nothing is placed on the table in addition to the
equipment at each place, but some centerpiece containing ferns or flowers,
with pretty dishes of silver or glass holding relishes, candies, or dried
fruits, a graceful arrangement being to alternate four of these with four
candlesticks for meals served late in the day.
_Table decorations._——Here fancy may run riot with color schemes, and
pretty devices for special occasions. A painted place card, a small bonbon
box, a single flower with a pin for fastening it on,——all these have their
place at times. Satin ribbon is not an appropriate table decoration laid
across the table in a broad band, even when it displays a class color.
Find some other way to make the color effective. A color scheme in the
food can be carried out to a degree for some occasion, but do not let the
color interfere with a really satisfactory menu.
Relishes have already been suggested as decoration——radishes cut in rose
shape, olives, candies, and fruit.
_The tray for invalid and convalescent._——Figures 72 and 73 suggest the
daintiness possible in setting a tray. It is well worth while to spend
time in the careful arrangement of the tray, for pretty dishes in orderly
array may tempt the appetite of the invalid.
[Illustration: FIG. 72.——A convalescent’s tray. _Courtesy of the Dept. of
Foods and Cookery, Teachers College._]
[Illustration: FIG. 73.——A convalescent’s tray with rack for holding
cover. _Courtesy of the Dept. of Foods and Cookery, Teachers College._]
=Waiting on the table.=——When we wait on ourselves, this should be done
with cheerfulness, and all should take a share. After the food is on the
table, one person can “help” one thing and one another. It is a good plan
for the young people of the family to take turns as waiter in removing the
soiled dishes and food and putting on the dessert. A quick method is to
place a tray on a small stand near the table, taking the dishes from one
place at a time, and sorting them on the tray as you go. The tray can then
be carried into the kitchen, with the dishes partly arranged for washing.
One mother uses a plan for having everybody help at breakfast time,
modeled after the tray system of a cafeteria. The breakfast is cooked
ready to serve, and on the kitchen table is a small tray for each one of
the family of four. All necessary articles are at hand, and even the boy
of seven sets his own tray and helps himself to food, and takes his place
at the table; and then when the meal is ended each one carries out his
dishes and puts them in neat array for washing.
The waitress at a formal meal has to be alert, rapid yet gentle in all her
motions, with a desire to make other people comfortable, and a faculty for
remembering their likes and dislikes. A good waitress does not pass a
second time a dish once declined.
The waitress must know the menu, and have everything ready for each course
at hand on the sideboard, with dishes kept hot in the hot closet.
The table is laid in time, she herself is immaculate, and the room is well
aired and the temperature agreeable. A piece of bread is folded in each
napkin. If the first course is cold,——perhaps a grapefruit,——she arranges
these at each place. If it is to be a hot bouillon, the cook tells her
that all is ready, and then she informs the hostess that dinner or
luncheon is served.
The details of this type of waiting vary with the place and the taste of
the hostess, but the following method is simple and rapid.
=Serving.=——Serve everything from the side table. Hold the dish to be
served firmly in two hands with a napkin underneath, a tablespoon and fork
being placed on the dish. Pass to the left of the guest, and hold the dish
at a convenient height and near the plate. After all the dishes in a
course are passed in this way, watch to see if second helps are needed.
Remove the soiled plates at the left, and place the clean at the left,
removing with the left hand and placing with the right.
Fill glasses at the right, and remove silver at the right before dessert
when there are pieces left unused.
Brush crumbs with a soft, folded napkin upon a plate, at the left, just
before dessert when everything is taken from the table but the center
decoration, the candies, and the glass of water. With this plan the guest
helps himself each time, even the after-dinner coffee being passed on a
tray with cream and sugar, and he can take as little as he pleases, or
decline. Some hostesses have some of the courses arranged on individual
plates and placed, and these may be placed either from the left or right.
But the other method is simple and satisfactory.
The finger bowls may be set on plates of dessert size with a doily
underneath. If a spoon or fork is needed with the dessert, one or both may
be placed on the plate also, one on each side, if both are used. The bowls
should be less than half full of water and the water should be a
comfortable temperature, neither cold nor noticeably warm. Set the plates
arranged in this way before each guest. The guest himself will remove the
bowl and doily and silver before the dessert is passed. In large banquets
the food must be placed on the individual plate.
The question is sometimes asked, “Who shall be served first?” It is a good
plan to change this from course to course, beginning the first time with
the guest of honor. It is not a matter of great importance, provided no
one has to wait long. Two waitresses make the service quicker.
The guests of honor sit at the right of the host and hostess.
_The number of courses._——Two or three courses are enough for everyday
comfort and health. In formal serving, it is good taste not to have too
many. A first course of grapefruit or perhaps oyster cocktail, a soup, a
fish course, or some light substitute for it,——the main course with meat,
a salad, dessert, coffee——make a quite sufficient meal. The “entrée” is a
light dish, say sweetbreads in cases, after the fish course, but it is
quite unnecessary. Many people are becoming very weary of the
long-drawn-out dinners and banquets, which are certainly far from
hygienic.
=Carving.=——This is an art that used to be taught as an accomplishment to
girls, and it is not an easy matter to master.
If not done at the table, it must nevertheless be well done. Watch a good
carver, and practice when you have a chance. A few simple directions can
be given, but a demonstration is really necessary. First and foremost,
have a sharp, strong knife, and a strong fork. The next essential is a
platter large enough to hold the meat, without having it slip off. The
fork must be firmly placed in the meat, and the meat held down. Notice the
shape of the cut of meat. Meat must be cut across the grain. Loosen from
the bone, notice the grain, and cut evenly and firmly. With fowl, discover
the joints, pierce with the end of the knife, disjoint, and lay at the
side, and then slice the breast across the grain. If carving at the table,
learn the preference of those served, whether they wish light or dark
meat, meat well done or underdone. Have a spoon for dish gravy and
stuffing.
EXERCISES
1. Plan the order of work for the following menus: (_a_) Cooked cereal and
cream, stewed prunes, poached egg on toast, popovers, coffee. (_b_) Tomato
bisque, lamb chops with peas and mashed potatoes, plain lettuce with
French dressing, Brown Betty with foamy sauce, black coffee.
2. What are the important points in serving each dish? Give some simple
garnishes.
3. Obtain price lists and estimate the cost of table furnishings.
4. What do you consider good taste in china and silver?
5. What are the important points in table setting?
6. Make a list of dishes to be used for the menus given above, or other
menus.
7. What are the fundamentals in waiting on the table?
8. How may the home service be made comfortable?
9. Discuss different methods in formal service.
10. How may the guest be made most comfortable?
CHAPTER XVII
THE COST AND PURCHASING OF FOOD
This is at all times an important matter, but the notable increase in food
prices, during the last decade, has made it a matter of interest to all.
The cost of food is one item only in the whole cost of living, and this is
affected by many conditions in manufacture and commerce and the business
of the nations. Economists and others interested in social questions are
studying the problem, but as yet they do not agree upon the cause, or
causes, of the increased cost of living. We cannot hope, therefore, to
understand the situation fully; but we must be determined to spend money
as wisely as we can, and to learn what we may about food prices in
relation to food values. There are a few causes of the difference in price
between one food and another that are more or less unchanging. The cost of
food may be considered from several points of view. The question of the
cost for each individual a day and relation of cost and nutritive value
are studied in Chapter XVIII. The proportion of the income to be spent for
food is taken up in Chapter XIX.
=Labor and prices.=——The amount of labor involved in producing a food
material affects its price. Meats cost more than staple vegetable foods,
like corn, wheat, or beans, because we must raise the corn first to feed
the animals. Meat is as cheap as vegetable foods only when the animal can
find its own food, as in the pioneer days of any country, when only a
small part of the land is under cultivation. To the Pilgrim Fathers, meat
was cheaper than corn, in terms of labor, with deer at hand in the forest
and corn raised with difficulty in small clearings. Meat production is now
an industry, and the product an expensive one, especially as the wide
cattle ranges of our West, where the animals have formerly found natural
food, are now used more and more for other purposes.
=Transportation.=——Carrying food from place to place increases its cost.
In one sense this is another form of labor. Each person who handles the
food material from producer to consumer adds something to what the
consumer pays. We have heard much discussion of late of the “middleman,”
and the effort to bring the producer and consumer closer together. This
simply means doing away with some person who handles the product after it
leaves the producer and before it reaches the consumer and who must have
something for his labor. In transportation there is another element
involved, the original cost of the means of conveyance; and the natural
wear and tear on the product are items that increase the final cost. The
modern farmer who carries his produce to market in an auto truck must have
a return for the original cost of the truck and the keeping of it in
repair. The long-distance railway furnishes cold-storage cars, and the
cost of these and their maintenance affect freight rates. A peach from
South Africa costs from fifty to sixty cents in the Boston market. It is
probably true, in this case, that a fancy price is asked because African
fruit is a novelty here; but the difficulty and expense of long-distance
transportation naturally make it costly.
=Demand and supply.=——The relation of demand to supply affects the price
of food in a way not difficult to understand. Where the supply is
permanently small and the demand widespread, the price of the particular
food material will be high, and _vice versa_. Olive oil is a good example
of the permanently high-priced food. California olive oil brings a high
price not only because it is pure and well flavored, but because many
people want it, and the industry is a small one. Many years are needed to
establish an olive grove, and olive raising is not a popular way of making
money, because it is slow. One enterprising American firm has bought an
olive grove in Spain, and is using new methods there, but the product,
though delicious, is no cheaper. Although the manufacture of olive oil
will doubtless remain a rather small industry, the use of olive oil is
increasing, in this country, at least. It does not seem likely, therefore,
to become a cheap form of fat.
We find nearly the opposite of this in cottonseed oil, a large supply and
a relatively smaller demand making a low price. The seed (a by-product of
the cotton industry) contains a large quantity of oil, and it is not all
used as food. Therefore, it is permanently a low-priced fat, as contrasted
with the permanently high-priced fat, olive oil.
=Agricultural conditions.=——There are two things of which the farmer can
never feel sure, the kind of weather to expect and the general character
of the season. Of course, the season affects the quality and the amount of
any crop, and this, again, influences the price.
Another aspect of the effect of season on food is this: that a food is in
its own locality cheaper when it is in season than at other times of year,
when it has to be brought from a distance.
Insect pests and plant diseases not infrequently spoil a crop, and the
market price goes up with the smaller supply. This is what happened not
long since to the potato crop and potato prices, when potatoes were
affected by the potato blight. Moreover, if the farmer succeeds in keeping
his crop free from a particular pest, it means a more or less permanent
increase in his expenses, for in fighting insects and fungi there is an
outlay for machinery and chemicals, and much labor is expended.
Unfortunately, injurious insects and plant diseases are on the increase,
and this may mean a permanent rise in the cost of certain foods. Another
fact has to be reckoned with in comparing the prices of different foods.
Some vegetables are more difficult to raise than others, even when the
season is favorable, and the insects at least partly conquered. Some
plants have more vitality than others, and grow under almost any condition
of soil and moisture.
Animal diseases must also affect the price of food. If a large number of
cattle are found to have tuberculosis, and are condemned as food, healthy
cattle bring a higher price, because, again, the supply is small in
relation to the demand.
=Quality of food.=——Poor food always costs less money than good food, but
it may not be economy to buy it. There may be more usable material in one
good apple at five cents than in three wormy ones for five.
=Form and place in which food is sold.=——Food in the package costs more
than in bulk, and each fancy label adds a fraction to the cost.
Plate-glass windows and ribbon decorations in a shop and the large expense
of rent on a fashionable street are all paid for by the consumer.
=Relative cost of home and shop products.=——When prepared food of any kind
is purchased, one pays for raw material plus the cost of fuel and the
labor involved in the cooking and the cleaning of apparatus and kitchen.
For example, canned soup sold by one of the best manufacturers brings a
good price because so much time and labor are used in a careful inspection
of all material, and in keeping up a high standard of cleanliness.
Remember, too, that whenever cooked food appears on the table, these two
items, fuel and labor, are in reality added to the cost of the raw
material. We may not pay cash always for the labor, but it must be
accounted for in time and energy. The woman who says, “My time doesn’t
count,” has a poor opinion of herself. Whether or not it is better to buy
cooked food or to prepare food at home is discussed on page 292.
=Other elements in food prices.=——So far we have considered those causes
of food prices that are what may be called “natural,” always to be taken
into account, and only partly under our control. There are others that
have to do with big business methods and interests and that have great
influence at some one period in a nation’s life, and less at others. They
are more or less under our control if we have the wisdom and courage to
act. A discussion of these causes is part of the study of economics
proper, and we can only stop by the way to think of them for a moment.
Transportation must always increase cost, as we have learned, but bad
methods, involving the handling of food by many people, increase it
unnecessarily. Our present methods of marketing food are clumsy, and not
economical, especially in large cities. The subject is being seriously
studied with a view to improvement, possibly by the establishment of
public markets.
At present we have a bewildering state of things, but the housekeeper who
sincerely desires, can learn to buy and prepare the less costly foods in
an appetizing way, and leave nothing for the garbage pail but the parts
that are actually not eatable.
=Comparative costs.=——It would be useless to print here a list of actual
prices, since they vary in different localities, and are constantly
changing. This list can be made by yourselves in your notebooks for your
own home town, and for the current year. The table on page 318 is a guide,
however, for in spite of fluctuations in prices there are certain foods
that are permanently more economical than others; for example, grain
products than meats, for reasons already explained. As a rule, the rising
cost of food has been so general as not to change greatly the relative
economy of the different types of food as compared with each other.
=Cost and nutritive value.=——The discussion of cost has dealt so far with
the cost of _food materials_ as they are found in the market. What we are
really seeking to learn is the amount of _nutritive_ material to be
obtained for a given sum of money, and in order to do this, we must think
of our purchases in terms of the _foodstuffs_ and their values. The
accompanying table from a government bulletin[17] gives an estimate of
cost from this point of view in terms of protein and fuel value. Notice
that wheat bread is a cheap food, standing first in the amount of building
material and energy.
AMOUNTS OF PROTEIN AND ENERGY OBTAINED FOR 10 CENTS
EXPENDED FOR BREAD AND OTHER FOODS AT CERTAIN ASSUMED
PRICES PER POUND
__________________________________________________________________
| | | 10 CENTS’ WORTH
| | | WILL CONTAIN
| | 10 CENTS |___________________
FOOD MATERIALS | PRICE | WILL BUY | PRO- | A FUEL
| | | TEIN | VALUE OF
________________|___________________|__________|_________|_________
| | Ounces | Ounces | Calories
Wheat bread | 5 cents per lb. | 32.0 | 2.9 | 2400
Cheese | 22 cents per lb. | 7.3 | 1.9 | 886
Beef, average | 20 cents per lb. | 8.0 | 1.2 | 467
Porterhouse steak 25 cents per lb | 6.4 | 1.3 | 444
Dried beef | 25 cents per lb. | 6.4 | .1 | 315
Eggs | 24 cents per lb. | 10.0 | 1.3 | 198
Milk | 9 cents per qt. | 38.3 | 1.2 | 736
Potatoes | 60 cents per bu. | 160.0 | —— | 2950
Apples 1-1/2 cents per lb. | 106.7 | —— | 1270
________________|___________________|__________|_________|_________
The price quoted for eggs is low, and even less could be obtained for ten
cents at prevailing prices in 1913-1914. This kind of estimate is a help
in making menus and dietaries. (See Chapter XVIII.) Another method of
estimating economy for this purpose is by calculating the cost of
100-Calorie portions of various food materials. A table giving such a
comparison will be found in the next chapter.
PURCHASING FOOD
In addition to the general principles of buying discussed in Chapter XXI
there are some details to be studied in purchasing food.
=Personal attention in buying food.=——It is absolutely necessary to visit
the market and the grocery where food is purchased. The purchaser would
not fail to visit a shop before deciding to patronize it regularly, but
frequent calls are necessary if buying is to be economical. Select the
grocery, market, and bakery with a view to their cleanliness. Notice if
the doors and windows are screened, and if proper effort is made to catch
flies that may have entered. Refuse to buy food that is exposed upon the
sidewalk, and if it is within doors, see that it is protected from dust
and flies. The best markets now have tiled walls and floors, which help to
insure cleanliness. The difference in odor is marked between a market that
is properly cleaned daily, and one where the proprietor uses uncleanly
methods. Meat and vegetables, in particular, should be personally selected
whenever this is possible. The butcher must understand that the purchaser
is familiar with the different cuts of meat and that honest service is
demanded in regard to the quality, trimming, and weight of the meat. One
does not want to be too suspicious, but it is well for the butcher to know
that the purchaser has a set of standard scales at home by which to prove
the accuracy of his weighing. It is also important to inspect fruit and
vegetables for quality and cost.
=Quantities in which to purchase food.=——The amount that one purchases of
a certain food depends on its keeping qualities, and upon the storage
space available at home. A general rule may be stated: Buy perishable
foods in small quantities; non-perishable foods in large. The reason for
buying in larger quantity is that the cost is somewhat less, although
sometimes it seems but little less. Some one has remarked that no one is a
good buyer who does not consider a quarter of a cent. In a modern house or
apartment where there is not room for a barrel of flour or sugar, then the
quantity must be gauged by the space. The same is true of canned goods as
of flour and sugar. Buying by the dozen saves a little on each can if you
have shelf room for piling the cans.
Foods may be classed in this connection as perishable, semi-perishable,
and non-perishable. This depends somewhat for any one housekeeper upon the
size of her refrigerator, and upon an available place where food may be
cool, even if not so cold as in the refrigerator. Those foods classed here
as perishable are those which readily “spoil,” that is, those that are
affected by mold and bacteria on account of the moisture that they
contain, and also those that lose flavor and freshness quickly. Those most
easily affected should be kept the coldest; those in the semi-perishable
group do not deteriorate so rapidly, although a low temperature is
desirable with all of these. Under the non-perishable foods are classed
those that are not subject to bacteria or mold in ordinary circumstances.
These should be kept dry, however, and never in a heated place. In a
sense, no food material is non-perishable. Insects sometimes develop in
the cereal products, for instance, and the material is thus rendered
unfit for food. The food adjuncts do not spoil except as they lose flavor
if kept too long.
_Perishable._——Milk, cream, uncooked meat, uncooked fish, shellfish,
berries, fruits with delicate skins, lettuce, and vegetables that wilt
easily.
_Semi-perishable._——Butter, eggs, cooked meat and fish, root vegetables,
cooked vegetables, left overs in general, skin fruits like apples,
bananas, oranges, and lemons, dried fruits, scalded milk and cream, smoked
and salted fish and meats, open molasses and sirup.
_Non-perishable._——Flour, meals and cereals, sugar, salt, and other
condiments and flavorings, jellies, preserves and canned goods, coffee,
tea, cocoa, and chocolate.
=Suggestions for buying.=——Milk and cream must be delivered daily. The
average amount used by the family is the regular order. Fresh meat should
be delivered on the day wanted unless the refrigerator is large with a
space for hanging meat. Even then, it should not be kept more than
twenty-four hours. Meat should not be placed directly on the ice. Fresh
berries and delicate vegetables should be delivered on the day wanted.
Butter and eggs may be purchased once a week; other semi-perishables in
quantities depending on storage space. It is economical to buy a box of
lemons, and the root vegetables in large quantities. Flour and sugar are
purchased by the bag or barrel; lump sugar, in boxes. Breakfast cereals
are best bought in packages, and it is wise not to buy a large number at
one time. It is better to purchase oftener and have fresher material.
Coffee may be bought in pound cans, but it is economy to purchase it in
five or ten pound quantities, unground. Tea comes in closely sealed
packages, in 1/4, 1/2, and 1 lb. and larger. Cocoa is bought in 1/2 lb.
cans, but it is economy to buy in large cans if it is frequently used.
Macaroni is bought by the package, and the number at one time must depend
on how much it is used in the menu. Rice, tapioca, and sago may be bought
in bulk and kept in tin or glass jars. Salt by the bag or box. Spices,
ground, in tight boxes; whole in bulk, to be kept in tightly closed cans.
Molasses comes by the gallon or in cans. If in bulk, it is usually acid;
in the can it is not. Vinegar comes by the gallon, or in bottles. Canned
and preserved goods, singly, by the dozen, or case. Bakery products, when
bought at all, should be purchased daily, or every other day. Do not buy
so much that stale bread accumulates.
=Weights, measures, and packages.=——The buyer is at a disadvantage here in
regard to quantities, for the baskets in which fruits and vegetables are
sold do not always conform to the standard dry measures, and dishonest
dealers evade the law in regard to the use of standard scales. Even if
they have the standard, they resort to tricks that give the customer short
weights. Here the Bureau of Weights and Measures, with its Commissioner
and corps of inspectors, comes to the aid of the purchaser. Effective work
has been done in our cities in enforcing the laws, and this work
continues.
Selling fruit, vegetables, and even eggs by weight would simplify matters
in many ways, and this is the custom in some parts of the United States
with vegetables and fruit, although it is not yet a common practice; with
eggs it seems more convenient to sell by the dozen, but grading according
to size is a step toward standardization.
The alluring packages in which so many articles are offered are quite
uneven as to the quantities they contain. They certainly do away with some
handling of food, and they keep out dust. Unfortunately, an attractive
package does not guarantee a clean factory or clean handling in the
packing. Dried figs, for example, in pretty baskets are sometimes packed
in uncleanly places. Moreover, small packages are poor economy, since the
box adds to the cost of the food material, and sometimes there seems even
more package than food. If the family consumes many biscuits or
“crackers,” it costs considerably more to buy them in packages. Yet, these
are convenient, and should be cleanly, and are justified for these
reasons, provided the housekeeper does not buy many small packages.
The quantities in canned goods are variable and sometimes below measure
when purchased from a second-rate dealer. In September, 1914, the net
weight amendment to the National Food Law will go into effect, after
which, in general, foods sold in packages must be labeled to show net
weight or measure or numerical count.
As already suggested, you should own standard scales for testing the
purchases made by weight, even baker’s bread. Buy fruit and vegetables by
the quart, peck, and bushel, rather than by the basket of uncertain
measure. Examine baskets containing small fruits to see if they have false
bottoms. If you discover small measure, report at once to the dealer, and
to whatever authority has charge of such matters in your town.
=Quality.=——Modern methods of manufacture, transportation, and storage
make it difficult to determine the history and quality of food we purchase
in the markets. Yet the consumer has a natural right to know if the food
offered for sale is the best of its kind; fresh eggs, clean milk, meat
from healthy animals, untainted and free from harmful preservatives, sound
vegetables and fruit, manufactured and preserved foodstuffs unspoiled by
the manufacturing processes, free from harmful preservatives, and of good
flavor. Many people must be in danger of forgetting the flavor of a
fresh-laid egg. The familiar signs in many small shops, “Fresh eggs,”
“Strictly fresh eggs,” “Fancy eggs,” are amusing, but they bespeak an
unnatural state of things.
As our business methods have created conditions beyond the control of the
individual consumer it follows that we must take concerted action, and
make and enforce whatever laws are necessary. This is done partly through
the Federal government, and partly through state laws and municipal
ordinances. Thus, while we may not know the actual conditions in which
food is produced, we may through legislation seek to insure that the food
we buy shall be
(1) what it purports to be in kind and amount,
(2) free from deterioration or unwholesome conditions,
(3) possessed of full nutritive value.
The Federal Food and Drugs Act of June 30, 1906, commonly known as “The
Pure Food Law,” and on which subsequent legislation by most of the states
has been largely based, defines the main types of adulteration and
misbranding, but, except in the case of confectionery and of habit-forming
drugs, does not name the specific substances which are to be prohibited or
restricted in use, nor does the law itself contain standards of
composition for foods.
According to this law _a food is deemed adulterated_:
(1) If any substance has been mixed or packed with it so as to reduce or
lower or injuriously affect its quality or strength.
(2) If any substance has been substituted, wholly or in part.
(3) If any valuable constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted.
(4) If it be mixed, colored, coated, powdered, or stained in a manner
whereby damage or inferiority is concealed.
(5) If it contain any added poisonous or other added deleterious
ingredient which may render such article injurious to health.
(6) If it consists in whole or in part of a filthy, decomposed, or putrid
animal or vegetable substance, or any portion of an animal unfit for food,
or if it be the product of a diseased animal, or one that has died
otherwise than by slaughter.
_And a food is deemed to be misbranded:_
(1) If it be an imitation of or offered for sale under the distinctive
name of another article.
(2) If it be labeled or branded so as to deceive or mislead the purchaser,
or purport to be a foreign product when not so, or if the contents shall
have been substituted in whole or in part, or if it fail to bear a
statement on the label of the quantity or proportion of any narcotic or
habit-forming drug which it contains.
(3) If it bear an incorrect statement of weight or measure.
(4) If the package containing it or its label shall bear any statement,
design, or device which is false or misleading in any particular.
For a fuller discussion of the basis of pure food legislation and the
essential features of the United States laws see Sherman’s “Food
Products,” from which a part of the summary here given is drawn.
The modern cold storage plant is of immense service in keeping food from
the season of abundance to that of scarcity, but it may prove worse than
useless if improperly managed. State and federal laws must control the
management, and government inspection must be thorough. Cold storage would
be a benefit to all under proper conditions of management, and the prices
of many foods would be evenly adjusted by the maintenance of a steady
supply. Many states now have laws regulating cold storage plants and there
is every reason to hope that the abuses which have sometimes existed will
be eliminated and the usefulness of cold storage extended.
We may feel that the progress of the pure food movement has been most
satisfactory, even though much more remains to be done. The states
generally have either enacted new food laws, or revised their laws
following the national law. Under the national law over 2000 prosecutions
have already (1913) been decided in favor of the government.
Congress has passed an even more stringent law for meat inspection
supplementary to the Pure Food Law with ample appropriation for its
enforcement. Moreover, in 1913, the Secretary of Agriculture appointed
outside experts to inspect meat-packing establishments throughout the
country. This inspection is to check up the regular work being done by the
Bureau of Animal Industry.
The enforcing of federal and state laws has already largely stopped the
misbranding of package foods as to weight or measure, cheap substitutions,
the removal of valuable ingredients, and the sale of decomposed or tainted
food derived from diseased animals. Remember that abuses can be kept down
to any extent that we are willing to pay for. Taxpayers must appropriate
money to pay for inspection, for laws, no matter how good, will not insure
pure food unless carried out faithfully by an adequate number of specially
trained inspectors.
In the face of all these difficulties we must not be frightened into that
state of mind where danger seems to lurk in every mouthful. We must use
caution and common sense in our buying, and earnestly support every good
movement for bettering conditions.
There is a certain difference in quality even at a first class dealer’s
that one must learn to distinguish. One can of peaches will cost more than
another, because the peaches are larger. If it is only this, and there is
only a slight difference in flavor in favor of the more costly, buy the
cheaper by all means. A fancy brand of imported preserves brings a fancy
price which it is not worth while to pay. We have to learn to distinguish
between poor and good quality, on the one hand, and between good and what
may be called “fancy,” on the other. We should demand the good, but most
of us cannot afford the “fancy.”
=Ready-cooked foods.=——More and more cooked food, canned or otherwise, is
taking its place in the market. When canned goods were first manufactured
on a large scale they comprised fruits, vegetables, meats, and fish, but
we are now accustomed to a miscellaneous variety, including soups, baked
beans, puddings, and pudding sauces, spaghetti, hashed meat, and
shellfish. Bakery products have a larger sale than ever, and are found in
small towns, and even in country districts carried there by bakers’
wagons. In our large cities we find the “delicatessen shop” very common,
where small portions of cooked meats and fowl may be purchased after the
custom of Europe, and these stores are open even on Sunday.
How shall we decide what is best for us in our buying? We must not condemn
entirely the buying of cooked food without a careful study of the
situation. The custom has grown with changes in our mode of living,
especially in cities, where the small apartment is common, and where gas
is the fuel. Under these conditions it is difficult to prepare foods that
need long and slow cooking, and these processes are more expensive when
gas is used. The long slow cooking of soup and beans, the even baking of
bread, are difficult to accomplish. The odors from these processes fill
the small apartment, and scent it for some time, and this is unpleasant at
all seasons.
Take another example, the canning and preserving of fruits. The first cost
of the fruit is usually high in the city, and this plus the sugar and the
gas, and the labor and the lack of storage space make it seem
impracticable in these conditions, and many people decide in favor of
buying goods already canned. Such housekeeping is simplified by buying
cooked products to some extent. The fireless cooker helps here, but not
for all processes. Counting in fuel, the cost is not so much greater as we
might suppose; and comfort and convenience are increased. Under other
conditions, even in the city, a different conclusion is reached. If coal
is the fuel, and a steady fire is kept, perhaps in winter for heating
purposes, then it is economy to cook most food materials at home.
In the country and small village different conditions prevail. Here the
abundance of certain fruits in season makes it economical to can and dry,
even counting fuel and labor. In some sections many people can their own
vegetables also. However, even in the country in the summer, it is a
decided relief to the farmer’s wife, probably short of “help,” to win a
little leisure by buying staple bakery products. Here if strict economy is
not necessary, is it not better to save strength rather than money? Each
housekeeper must work out these problems for herself.
EXERCISES
1. What are the more permanent factors in the cost of food material?
2. Why is vegetable food usually cheaper than animal food?
3. Explain the effect of season upon the cost.
4. Why does transportation affect the cost of food?
5. Why is clean milk more costly than unclean?
6. How do business conditions affect the cost?
7. Why is wheat bread a truly cheap food?
8. How can we estimate the cost of the actual nutrients in food?
9. Describe the working of the pure food law.
10. Why are such laws necessary?
11. How may we all aid in the passage and enforcement of pure food laws?
CHAPTER XVIII
MENUS AND DIETARIES[18]
When we have learned to choose and cook wholesome and appetizing food we
have not solved the whole problem of successful feeding. It is possible to
make people sick with good food, if it is badly selected and fed at wrong
times or in unsuitable amounts. Whether children grow to their full size
and strength depends more upon the choice of their food than upon any
other one thing. The effect of food is strikingly shown in the case of the
white rats in Fig. 74. The two upper ones are the same age. Both had the
same mother, lived in the same kind of clean cages, and had plenty of
food, but the diet of the upper was good for growth, while that for the
middle one was not. It remained perfectly well, but became stunted because
of the character of its food. You can see that it resembles the lowest one
in the illustration, which is only one fourth as old. In this chapter we
shall consider how and when and in what amounts to serve food so that
every one may get from it the fullest benefit in both health and
happiness.
[Illustration: FIG. 74.——The effect of food on growth. Reprinted from
publication of the Carnegie Institution. _Courtesy Professor Lafayette B.
Mendel._]
In Chapter I we learned that the body is a working machine whose first
requirement is fuel. Hence the first consideration in the diet is to have
the proper amount of fuel for each day, to provide energy for the constant
internal work that keeps the body alive, and for the variable external
work which may be so light as to consist of the few movements that one
makes lying in bed, or sitting quietly; or so hard as to exercise many
muscles, as playing tennis, bicycling, or swimming.
[Illustration: FIG. 75.——Respiration calorimeter, open. From the “Journal
of Biological Chemistry.” _Courtesy of Professor Graham Lusk._]
=Energy requirements of adults.=——We have also learned something about the
foods which supply this energy; we must now find out how much fuel (in the
form of food) it takes to do different amounts of work, just as the owner
of an automobile wants to know how much gasoline per mile or per hour is
required to run his machine under different conditions. Very careful
experiments have been made on many men in different ways to measure their
energy output, the most accurate and interesting being those made in a
respiration calorimeter, a device so delicate as to be able to measure the
extra heat given off when one changes from lying perfectly quiet to
sitting up equally still, thus adding the work of holding the upper part
of the body upright. A respiration calorimeter large enough to hold a
child is shown in Figs. 75 and 76. You can see that it consists of a
chamber with thick walls to prevent loss of heat. In Fig. 75 the door is
open. When an experiment is going on the door is closed, as in Fig. 76,
air being furnished through special tubes. The walls are fitted with
delicate thermometers and every device which will help to get the exact
amount of heat given off from the body is employed.
[Illustration: FIG. 76.——Respiration calorimeter, closed. From the
“Journal of Biological Chemistry.” _Courtesy of Professor Graham Lusk._]
Just as it takes more fuel to run a big machine than a little one, so it
takes more energy for a large person than a small one; therefore we must
know the weight of the one whose food requirements we wish to calculate,
as well as the amount of energy required to do different kinds and amounts
of work. The following table will help in calculating the approximate fuel
requirements of any grown person. The food needs of children and young
people under twenty-five will be discussed later.
APPROXIMATE ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF AVERAGE-SIZED MAN
Occupation Calories per pound
per hour
Sleeping 0.4
Sitting quietly 0.6
At light muscular exercise 1.0
At active muscular exercise 2.0
At severe muscular exercise 3.0
Light exercise may be understood to include work equivalent to standing
and working with the hands, as at a desk in chemistry or cookery; or work
involving the feet like walking or running a sewing machine. Many persons,
as students, stenographers, seamstresses, bookkeepers, teachers, and
tailors do little or no work heavier than this.
Active exercise involves more muscles, as in bicycling compared with
walking, or exercise with dumb-bells as compared with typewriting.
Carpenters, general houseworkers, and mail carriers do about this grade of
work while on duty.
Severe exercise not only involves a good many muscles, but causes enough
strain to harden and enlarge them. Bicycling up grade, swimming, and other
active sports would be included in this kind of exercise. Lumbermen,
excavators, and a few others do even heavier work than this.
Knowing the weight of a grown man or woman, and something of the daily
occupation, as in the case of a professional man, we can estimate the
probable energy requirement somewhat as follows:
Sleeping, 8 hours; 8 × 0.4 Calories = 3.2 Calories per pound.
Sitting quietly (at meals, reading, etc.), 8 hours; 8 × 0.6
Calories = 4.8 per pound.
At light muscular exercise (dressing, standing, walking, etc.), 6
× 1.0 Calories = 6.0 Calories per pound.
At active muscular exercise 2 hours, 2 × 2.0 Calories = 4 Calories
per pound.
Total Calories per pound for 24 hours, 18; 18 × 154 pounds (the weight of
the average man) = 2772, or approximately 2680, Calories per day required.
Calculate in this way the energy requirement for various grown persons
whom you know.
=Energy requirements during growth.=——In estimating food requirements of
those who are under twenty-five years old, we must bear in mind that the
same materials which serve for fuel serve in part for building material.
Protein is used for muscle building as well as for supplying energy, and
the larger one grows, the greater the reserves of carbohydrate and fat
which he can carry. Furthermore, internal activity is greater in the young
than the middle aged or very old, and external activity is apt also to be
greater. Think, for instance, how much running children do compared with
their parents. For all these reasons, we cannot use the table for adults
in calculating the energy requirement of young people. In the following
table an attempt has been made to take account of their greater needs, but
the estimates include only moderate exercise; with hard work more will be
required. Notice that the highest allowance per pound of body weight is
for the youngest children.
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS DURING GROWTH
Age in Years Calories per pound
per day
Under 1 45
1-2 45-40
2-5 40-36
6-9 36-30
10-13 30-27
14-17 27-20
17-25 not less than 18
With these two tables for calculating energy requirement we can determine
about how much will be needed by each member of the family. A group
consisting of a professional man, his wife, and three children under 16
will require about 10,000 Calories per day; a workingman’s family with the
same number of children from 12,000 to 14,000, because of the harder work
which both parents and possibly the children will do.
=Protein requirement.=——Since few of our foods consist of a single
foodstuff, and we are not likely to make even a single meal on pure fat,
or pure protein, or pure carbohydrate alone, we are sure to get some
building material in any diet, but we must see to it that we are getting
amounts which furnish the best possible conditions for growth and repair.
As we have already seen, nitrogen in the form of protein is necessary to
the life of every cell in the body. From protein, too, muscle is built,
though we cannot build good muscle merely by feeding protein; a diet
moderate in its amount of protein, but with plenty of fuel for healthy
exercise is best for muscle building. Under all ordinary conditions, if
ten to fifteen Calories in every hundred (10 to 15 per cent of the total
Calories) are from protein, the need for this kind of building material
will be met. Thus a family requiring 10,000 Calories per day should have
from 1000 to 1500 of these as protein Calories. The following table gives
the protein Calories in the 100-Calorie portions of some common food
materials.
TABLE SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF CALORIES IN 100-CALORIE
PORTIONS OF COMMON FOOD MATERIALS