Cocoa made with milk does not agree with some people, in which case it may
be made with water only, and served with cream, milk, or evaporated milk.
_Proportions._——One teaspoonful of cocoa to 1/2 measuring cup. More or
less as preferred. One teaspoonful of sugar, ditto.
_Method._
Heat the liquid. Stir a portion of the liquid cold, with the cocoa, add
this to the hot liquid, add the sugar, and beat vigorously for a minute
before removing from the fire.
=4. Chocolate.=
_Principle._——To mix the chocolate smoothly with the liquid that the fat
may not float on the top. This is accomplished by having all the
ingredients either hot or cold. If after the chocolate is dissolved in a
hot liquid, cold liquid is added, the oil separates and floats.
_Utensils._——A grater, or sharp knife, a saucepan, mixing spoon, and
beater.
A French chocolate maker claims that any metal utensil affects the flavor
of the chocolate, and always uses an earthen pot and wooden spoon and
heater. An earthenware chocolate pot for this purpose is on the market.
_Ingredients._——Chocolate, sugar, milk, or milk and water.
_Proportions._——The amount of chocolate may be varied, depending upon the
richness desired. Three or 4 ounce squares to 1 quart liquid, 4
teaspoonfuls sugar to 1 quart. The liquid is better half milk and half
water, rather than milk only.
_Method 1._[10]
The cold method.
Put the liquid and sugar into the saucepan. Break or cut the chocolate
into small pieces, add to the liquid, and heat the liquid slowly, stirring
occasionally but not constantly. When the liquid is hot, just before it
reaches the boiling point, beat vigorously with a wooden spoon, or beater.
The Dover beater is convenient. This beating makes a velvety smooth and a
foamy mixture.
_Method 2._
The hot method.
Heat the liquid with the sugar. Grate the chocolate or shave it with a
knife. Protect the chocolate from the warmth of the fingers by a piece of
paper. The process is less “sticky” if the chocolate and grater are
chilled in the refrigerator. Just as the liquid is reaching the boiling
point, pour in the grated chocolate, and beat vigorously.
Beaten chocolate does not need any additional cream when served. Beaten
whipped cream is attractive on the top of each cup. But remember that
chocolate is already rich in fat, and that additional fat may be
indigestible. Such a cup of chocolate taken for luncheon with a roll is
sufficient for the meal, and is certainly too rich in fat for serving at
an afternoon tea.
=5. Coffee.=
_Principle._——To extract the flavoring oils at the boiling point of water,
and to avoid the extraction of the tannin. The tannin is extracted by
prolonged boiling, and when the liquid coffee stands upon the grounds.
_Utensils._——Coffee grinder, measuring cup, pot. The kind of pot depends
upon the method used. One house furnishing firm displays some seventy
different coffee pots, but they may be divided into three classes, the
_pot for boiling_, the _drip coffee pot_, and the _percolator_ (see Figs.
23 and 24). The coffee boiler should have a lip, and not a spout. A word
of warning is needed in regard to the care of the pot. Coffee grounds
should be removed from any pot immediately, and the pot washed at once in
scalding hot soapsuds, rinsed, dried, and aired. Let the pot stand with
cover off. If this is not done, a coat is soon formed on the inside of the
pot, which spoils the flavor of the coffee. Where the pot has been
neglected, boiling it out with a solution of caustic soda is sometimes a
remedy.
[Illustration: FIG. 23.——A pot for boiling coffee and a pot for drip
coffee. _Courtesy of the Brambhall Dean Co._]
[Illustration: FIG. 24.——A coffee percolator. _Courtesy of Landers, Frary
and Clark._]
_Ingredients._——Ground coffee, water, cold or boiling, white of egg or egg
shell for boiled coffee. The coffee should be ground to medium fineness
for boiled coffee, to a finer powder for the percolated and drip coffee.
_Proportions._——One part of coffee to 5 or 6 of water, depending upon the
strength desired. One egg shell, or half the white of an egg to 1 cup of
ground coffee.
_Method 1._
=Boiling.=——Measure the coffee and water. Stir the white or the shell of
an egg with the coffee, adding a little of the water, put this into the
pot, add the remaining water _cold_, stir thoroughly, allow the water to
rise slowly to the boiling point, and to boil one minute, remove the pot
from the fire, pour in a small amount of cold water, and let the coffee
stand for five minutes or until the grounds settle. During the cooking
close the lip with clean soft paper if it has no lid. The actual boiling
is continued for a brief period only, and coffee made by this method is
considered by some people to have a flavor lacking in drip or percolator
coffee. The egg is added to clarify the coffee. Pour off the liquid coffee
from the grounds, and keep hot until it is time to serve it.
A second method differs from this in that the water is poured on at the
boiling temperature, allowed to reach the boiling point in two or three
minutes, and boiled for five minutes. The first gives uniformly better
results. It is true, however, that different kinds of coffee need
different treatment, and there is room here for much experimenting.
_Method 2._
=Drip coffee.=——In this method the coffee is put in a receptacle above,
the water passes slowly through, collecting in the pot below, from which
it is served. Stand the lower part of the pot in a pan of hot water, or
where it will keep hot. Measure the water, and bring it to the boiling
point. Heat the ground coffee slightly, put it in the upper section of the
pot, and pour on the water very slowly. Of course, the water is not
actually boiling when it touches the coffee. If the liquid coffee is not
strong enough, pour it from the lower part and pass it through the grounds
again. This is the French method, and is an excellent way to prepare
after-dinner coffee.
_Method 3._
=Percolator coffee.=——In the percolator the water boils within the pot,
and passes through the coffee at the boiling temperature. The exact method
depends upon the pattern of the pot, and directions always accompany a
given pot. For those who can use electricity, the electric percolator
certainly gives an excellent coffee.
Coffee is served “black,” or with cream, milk, or evaporated milk and
sugar. If milk is used for breakfast coffee, serve it hot.
=6. Tea.=
_Principle._——To extract flavor by allowing the leaves to remain for a few
minutes, in water which has been poured on at the boiling temperature, and
to avoid the extraction of tannin by making the period of steeping short.
Tea must _never_ be boiled.
_Utensils._——An earthen pot, measuring cup, teaspoon, strainer. Sometimes
a tea ball or piece of cheesecloth.
_Proportion._——One teaspoonful of tea to about 1 cup of water, the amount
depending upon the kind of tea.
_Method._——Measure the water and bring it to the boiling point. Heat the
tea slightly in the pot, pour on the water rapidly, allow to stand three
to five minutes, strain into a heated pot for serving. The length of the
steeping depends also upon the kind of tea. If there is an astringent
flavor, the tea has stood too long.
The following method was recommended by an expert in India teas. Bring the
water to a boil in a saucepan, throw in the tea leaves, lift the saucepan
instantly to stop the boiling, steep for 3 or 4 minutes, strain off and
keep hot. This expert claimed that by actually having the tea leaves at
the boiling temperature for an instant the flavor is improved. Serve with
cream or milk, or sliced lemon and sugar.
Where tea is to be served in very large quantities, this last method is
very convenient. The water can be brought to the boil in a large kettle,
and the tea thrown in, but care must be exercised to see that the steeping
does not last too long. The tea, once decanted, can be kept hot for
several hours, without losing flavor. Or again, a small amount of extra
strong tea may be prepared, to be diluted with boiling water as it is
served. The tea ball, or the plan of tying the tea in small pieces of
cheesecloth, is convenient for serving at an afternoon tea.
=7. Iced cocoa, coffee, and tea.=
=Cocoa and coffee= are agreeable in hot weather served in a glass with
ice, and cream and powdered sugar. Make both slightly stronger than for
hot drinks, as the ice in melting dilutes the liquid.
=Iced tea.=——Prepare a small amount of strong tea, using 4 teaspoonfuls to
1 cup boiling water, strain off and cool. Dilute with iced water to the
proper strength, sweeten with powdered sugar, and serve in glasses with
one or two slices of lemon to each glass. For those who do not like the
lemon, iced tea may be served with cream.
EXERCISES
1. What are the functions of water in the body?
2. What cautions should be exercised when drinking water?
3. Explain the likenesses and differences of cocoa and chocolate, coffee
and tea.
4. Why is it better to serve whipped cream with cocoa, rather than with
chocolate?
5. Explain the principles in making each beverage.
* * * * *
TEACHER’S NOTE.——The beverages are treated in one chapter for convenience,
but need not of necessity come at the beginning of the course. A fruit
beverage, or cocoa, may make a convenient first lesson, when the pupils
are becoming acquainted with the school kitchen. Coffee and tea may be
made during the baking lessons.
CHAPTER VI
FRUIT AND ITS PRESERVATION
The United States is fortunate in the native fruit supply, including as it
does so many degrees of latitude and longitude with the differences in
altitude, climate, and soil needed by different varieties. Now that we
count Porto Rico among our possessions, a list of our fruits would include
most of the varieties known in the temperate and semi-tropical zones. The
United States Department of Agriculture experiments with new varieties
from foreign lands that may make themselves at home in our soil, and work
like that of Luther Burbank produces new species. Scientific methods of
fruit growing are becoming more common, and the quality of fruit will
doubtless improve in spite of fungous diseases and injurious insects. Our
wild fruits are not yet entirely rooted out. The Maine blueberry, for
example, is found on hundreds of acres and needs no cultivation beyond
burning over every third year.
Fruit is necessary in our diet, and is not an extravagance unless we buy
fancy varieties brought from a distance, or native fruits out of season.
=Composition and nutritive value.=——The chief foodstuffs in fruits are
carbohydrates and mineral matter. Fresh fruit contains from 75 to 95 per
cent of water, and its presence is apparent in such juicy fruits as the
melon and the orange. Figure 25 shows that seemingly dry fruits like the
banana and the apple also contain much water. Even fruits which have been
artificially dried, like prunes and raisins, contain some water. (Fig.
26.) Although the carbohydrates of fruits are largely in the form of
sugars easily digested and valuable as fuel, this kind of food is
especially valuable for its rich supply of ash, including the compounds of
calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, and iron. The iron is of great
importance, being in a form much more useful to the normal processes of
the body than that prescribed medicinally. The bulk given by cellulose,
and the laxative property of fruit acids also are safeguards against
constipation, especially in a meat diet. Fruit is the best possible
dessert after a hearty meat dinner.
[Illustration: FIG. 25.——Composition of fruit.]
[Illustration: FIG. 26.——Composition of fruit.]
[Illustration: FIG. 27.——100-Calorie portions of fresh and dried fruit.
_A. Fowler, Photographer._]
KIND WEIGHT OF PORTION
OUNCES
Apple 7.5
Banana 5.5
Grapes 4.9
Orange 9.5
Peaches 10.5
Pears 6.3
Apricots 1.3
Dates 1.1
Prunes 1.4
Raisins 1.1
The digestibility of fruit is increased for some people by cooking. This
is probably due to the softening of the fiber, to the destruction of any
bacteria present, and in the case of the banana, to the cooking of the
starch. Fruit juice can be taken by little children and invalids who
might find the fiber troublesome. Some people cannot eat berries on
account of irritation caused by the seeds. In this case, juice may be
squeezed from cooked berries and used for beverages and jelly.
=How to buy.=——Since we should eat fruit daily, and not merely as a
“treat,” it is important to practice economy in buying it. Fresh fruits in
season, and dried fruits are the cheapest. Canned fruit is economical when
it is a product of one’s own garden, or put up when some fruit has a low
market price. Prices are so variable, even with one variety, that no
definite sum can be given as a fixed price. Apples vary from fifty cents a
bushel near the orchard and in season, to ten cents apiece for a fancy
table variety in the winter. When you buy fresh fruit, inquire the prices
of the many kinds offered, note which is cheapest, and then observe
whether the cheaper kind is such because it is abundant, or because it is
of inferior quality. If you chance to want apples for cooking, and the
only cheap apples are spotted and bruised, then buy dried apples, or even
canned. It is best to decide upon the fruit after you have studied market
conditions rather than before.
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
Fresh Fruits
=Principles of preparation.=
Thorough cleansing in clear water.
Cleanliness, in avoiding use of the fingers.
Making convenient for eating, sometimes by paring or cutting or
expressing the juices.
=Adjuncts.=——Sugar.
The juice of an acid fruit with an insipid fruit.
=Tools.=——A sharp steel knife for paring and peeling.
A silver-plated knife for cutting.
A glass lemon squeezer.
=Methods.=
_Berries._——Pick over.
Wash in colander with a gentle stream of water, and shake
carefully to avoid bruising and breaking.
Chill in the refrigerator.
Sprinkle with sugar when served.
_Oranges._——Scrub the peel with a brush.
(1) Cut in two crosswise and serve.
(2) Peel with a sharp knife and remove the pith.
Cut crosswise, remove seeds, and break up the slices.
Sprinkle with sugar.
Chill in the refrigerator.
_Grapefruit._——The same method as with the orange, but in method
(2) the pulp only should be served.
_Bananas._——Wash thoroughly.
(1) Cut in two lengthwise, and serve, _or_
Pour a teaspoonful of lemon juice on each half, and
sprinkle with sugar.
Chill in the refrigerator.
(2) Pull off the skin, lengthwise.
Cut in slices crosswise.
Chill, and serve with sugar and cream, _or_
Pour on lemon or orange juice, add sugar, and chill.
_Peaches._——Wash gently.
Hold the peach on a fork at one end.
Peel with a plated knife, and slice.
Chill in the refrigerator for a short time only before
serving, as peaches discolor quickly.
Sprinkle with sugar when served.
_Pears and apples._——When very mellow, these are delicious sliced
and served with sugar and cream.
_Fruit juice._——Cut the fruit in two, and press on the glass
squeezer over a cup.
Cooked Fruits
=Principles of cooking.=
The fiber, and skin when retained, are softened.
Flavors are developed at a low temperature long continued. A high
temperature at the end of process, browns, and adds flavor.
Flavors retained by prevention of evaporation through covering
tightly.
Bacteria and molds are destroyed.
=Adjuncts.=——Sugar. Sometimes a bit of butter.
Acid fruit juices, _or_
An acid jelly.
Seeded raisins, with acid fruit, as sour apples.
Nutmeg or cinnamon with some fruits.
=Cooking processes.=——Stewing and baking.
=Utensils.=——Knife and corer.
Stew pan, enamel ware, close cover.
Round or square baking pans, enamel ware, covered.
Earthenware pot, covered.
=Methods.=——If you can cook one fruit, you can cook all. Two common
fruits are selected for your experiments, the apple and the prune;
both are delicious, and both contain iron, the prune more than the
apple.
_The apple._——A tart variety is best for cooking. The Greening
and the Baldwin are excellent.
Apples are cooked whole, or as a sauce.
_Whole_, cooked with or without the skin, either stewed or baked.
For cooking whole, select those of uniform size.
For cooking whole, with the skin, select those with fair skins.
For cooking whole without skin, select firm texture, not mellow.
_An apple sauce_ may consist of slices, or may be mashed or
strained, and may be either stewed or baked. Less perfect apples
may be used than for baking.
_First step for all._——Wash, and examine carefully for blemishes,
bruises, and insects in the interior.
=1. Whole apple baked, with skin.=
(1) Remove core.
(2) Place in pan, with enough water to barely cover the bottom of
the pan.
(3) Pour sugar into the holes.
(4) A bit of butter may be put on the top of the sugar.
(5) Nutmeg or cinnamon may be mixed with the sugar if the apples
are flat in taste.
(6) Cover the pan, and bake in a moderate oven, until the apples
are tender. The length of time depends upon the quality of the
apple. (See class experiment.)
=Half apples.=——This is a modification of (1).
Cut the apples in two crosswise, and proceed as with the whole
apple.
=2. Whole apples baked, without skin.=——A good method when skins are
tough.
(1) Remove core and pare.
(2) Place in _earthen_ baking dish. The remainder of the process
is the same.
(3) Serve in the dish in which they are baked.
(4) Currant jelly, or seeded raisins may be placed in the core
holes instead of sugar.
_Class experiment._——Bake side by side two apples of uniform size, one
with, one without, the skin. Note carefully the length of time for baking
each. What difference? Why is this? It may be necessary in the school
kitchen to bake in a quick oven, on account of the shortness of the class
period. It does not spoil the apple to do this; but the longer process
that you can use at home gives a richer color and flavor.
For this experiment, one pupil may bake the apple without the skin, and
the next pupil one with the skin in case there is but one apple apiece; or
it may be made a class experiment with two apples.
=3. Whole, stewed.= (Compote.)——This is a more difficult method than
method 2, and really no better.
(1) Core and pare five or six apples.
(2) Dissolve 1/2 cup sugar in 1/2 pint water in a saucepan.
(3) Place apples in the sirup. They should be barely covered.
(4) Cover closely and keep just below the boiling point, until the
apples are tender.
(5) Cool slightly, remove the apples with care and place in the
serving dish. Put a spoonful of jelly in each apple.
(6) Boil down the sirup and pour it over the apples.
(7) Chill, before serving with plain or whipped cream.
=4. Apple sauces.=——In the cooking of the whole apple you have all
the principles and processes of apple cooking. You can now make apple
sauce of your own invention, and need no printed directions. Answer
these questions before you begin work. After you have made the sauce,
record the work exactly in your notebook.
If you want the slices of apple to remain whole, will the method be like
1, 2, or 3?
If you wish a smooth sauce, what utensil will you need?
How will you determine the amount of sugar required? If you are very fond
of sugar, your taste may not be the safest guide.
_Practical home work._——If you can secure a very slow oven, say a coal
oven at night, or a gas oven with a low flame, make an apple sauce in an
earthenware pot, as heavy as a bean pot, closely covered, leaving the pot
in the oven from six to eight hours. This process is satisfactory in a
fireless cooker where a hot stone or iron is used. Remember that water
keeps down temperature, and also that it evaporates steadily even in a
slow oven. How much water will you put over the apples when the process
begins?
If you have never cooked apples in this way you will be surprised at the
color and flavor.
* * * * *
_Some other fruits._——_Pears_ and _quinces_ develop pleasing flavors when
baked.
Cook the quinces sliced, as suggested for the apples, in the bean pot,
using a little molasses for sweetening and you will have the delicious
old-time “molasses quince.”
_Prunes._——We are dealing now with a dried fruit. If you compare the
raisins with the grapes in Fig. 26, you will see how much water is lost in
the drying process. The same difference would be evident if you had
pictures of a fresh plum and a prune, side by side. This water must be
supplied in the process of preparation. The best way to accomplish this is
by soaking the prunes many hours, say over night. Prunes have a most
undeserved reputation, because they are not well cooked, and at some
tables are served too often.
With this one new step introduced you may plan the cooking of the prunes,
from what you know of apple sauce. The slower and longer the process, the
better. The cheaper kinds of prunes will be very satisfactory, with the
soaking and slow cooking. What is the sensible thing to do in regard to
sugar?
If on some occasion you would like prunes to be unusually nice, remove the
stones carefully, and in their places slip in seeded raisins which have
also been soaked and gently stewed.
_Other dried fruits_ may be treated in the same way.
Apricots and peaches yield delightful flavors when carefully prepared; and
dried apples are also excellent.
PRESERVATION OF FRUIT AND OTHER FOODS
The preservation of fruit and other foods has been a household industry
for generations, and it is now an important commercial industry. The
old-time farm had its smokehouse where hams and beef were “cured,” the
barrel of brine stood in the cellar for pork and corned beef, apples and
corn were dried for winter use, and rows of preserve jars stood upon the
shelves. Food was preserved by simple processes long before the reason for
the decay and spoiling of food was fully understood, but with larger
knowledge and better appliances, we now preserve food more effectively and
in quantities larger than were possible in former days.
Fruit is the food material now most commonly preserved in the home
kitchen. Vegetables need to be subjected to heat for a much longer time
than fruit, and many people prefer to buy canned vegetables rather than to
go to the trouble and expense of canning them at home. Where there is an
oversupply of vegetables in the home garden, it is sometimes economy to
can them, and this may be done if care is exercised. The cost of fuel and
labor must be counted in, when studying the question of home preserving
versus buying the canned product.
Whatever the food material, and the process, the principles of
preservation are the same for all.
=Why does food spoil?=——The decay and moldiness of fresh fruit are matters
of common observation; and the housekeeper knows that mold is liable to
cover the top of a jelly glass, and that a can of fruit will ferment at
times, even to the point of bursting the can.
We recognize another kind of deterioration in meat and fish that have
become tainted, even when no mold is visible, and there is no opportunity
for ordinary fermentation. The microscope has given us eyes to see, and as
a result of the patient work of the scientist with this instrument we now
know that the difficulties in keeping food are caused by the presence of
minute vegetable organisms known as molds, yeasts, and bacteria. It is
impossible in some cases to draw a sharp line between these different
forms of lower life, yet we are able to distinguish them sufficiently for
practical purposes.
[Illustration: FIG. 28.——Three species of mold. _Buchanan’s Household
Bacteriology._]
Masses of _mold_ that can be seen with the naked eye are distinguished by
a feathery appearance and bright color. Figure 28 shows three species of
the green mold that affects jam and jellies. Other species are found in
Roquefort and Camembert cheese, and give the flavors characteristic in
these cheeses.
The presence of _yeast_ can be detected by its action, but it cannot
itself be seen without the microscope. When canned fruit or homemade fruit
juice “works,” yeasts cells are present in great number. Figure 29 shows
one form of yeast, highly magnified, and Fig. 30 shows a single yeast
cell. The yeast cake is a mixture of thousands of such cells with some
flour or flour and meal, and the cells lie dormant in the cake, until we
are ready to use them in bread. (See Chapter XII.) The actual yeast,
however, is what Fig. 30 shows it to be, a tiny, one-celled plant,
increasing in number by the division of the single cell, or by the budding
out of one cell from another. When conditions are favorable the yeast
cells increase in number with great rapidity, and some of the sugar that
is present is broken down into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. It is this
gas that causes the familiar bubbling when fermentation is taking place.
We put yeast cells into bread and cultivate it for this gas. But how does
it occur in canned fruits, when its presence is not desired? _Wild yeast_
floats in the air, and lies upon the surface of fruit. All cultivated
yeast has been derived from wild yeast. In old-fashioned ways of
bread-making no yeast was introduced, a soft dough being left in a warm
place to ferment naturally, the yeast cells probably being present in the
flour. The yeast that spoils the canned fruit is present in the fruit, in
the utensils, or can, and has not been killed as it should be in the
canning process.
[Illustration: FIG. 29.——One form of yeast. _Buchanan’s Household
Bacteriology_]
[Illustration: FIG. 30.——A yeast cell. _a_, cell wall. _b_, vacuole. _c_,
granules. _d_, nucleus. _e_ and _e_, buds. _Buchanan’s Household
Bacteriology._]
[Illustration: FIG. 31.——The four types of bacterial cells. _A_, cocci.
_B_, bacilli. _C_, spirilía. _D_, branched filamentous organism.
_Buchanan’s Household Bacteriology._]
The _bacteria_ are also one-celled microörganisms, smaller than the yeast.
Figure 31 shows the four types of bacterial cells. Their size is measured
by the unit used in the microscope, called the micron, which is about
1/25000 of one inch. Bacteria may measure from one to three or four of
these microns in length. Some bacteria are reproduced by means of spores
which form within the cell. Bacteria, as they develop in some material,
produce substances from the material that may or may not be injurious to
us. One important truth about the bacteria is this: that many of them are
harmless, and may even be made useful, as in the manufacture of fruit
vinegar. The pleasant acid of buttermilk and of sour milk is due also to
bacteria which are not harmful to us. However, there may be disease
producing bacteria present in milk that is not clean, and their presence
must not be tolerated. Other bacteria, developing in meat and fish,
produce substances known as _ptomaines_, which are dangerous poisons; or,
more often, the kinds of bacteria which thrive in meats and fish may
themselves be directly injurious to man.
It is evident, therefore, that the problem before us is the control of
these lower organisms, that we may increase or destroy them as we will.
=The control of microörganisms.=——With warmth, water, and food all living
things flourish and grow; most organisms require air, but some of the
microörganisms do not. Where these conditions are best met, the organism
is most active and multiplies most rapidly. To retard growth or to destroy
life, the conditions must be the reverse of favorable. While warmth, say a
temperature from 70° to 90° F., promotes the life of most microörganisms,
intense heat destroys it. The boiling temperature, 212° F., will kill
these lower organisms, although this heat has to be continued for some
length of time, particularly in the case of spores. The spores of certain
bacteria are quite resistant. A temperature of 32° F. and lower retards
growth, but it requires extreme cold to destroy bacteria. Since moisture
is necessary to all the lower organisms, they do not develop in a dry
material or dry place.
We cannot destroy these lower forms of life by removing food from them,
since they are ever present, but we can make the food unavailable to them
through the introduction in the material of certain substances called
preservatives which prevent their growth. The preservatives long familiar
are salt, sugar, wood-smoke, spices, vinegar, and alcohol. While a small
amount of sugar is necessary in the fermentation process, a large amount
acts as a preservative, as in candied fruit. It is an interesting fact
that alcohol and vinegar, products of fermentation processes, tend (when
sufficiently concentrated) to stop the growth of the fermentation
organisms.
To the reader who desires a fuller account of the bacteria, yeast, and
molds, especially as related to household affairs, Buchanan’s “Household
Bacteriology” is recommended as the most recent and satisfactory book in
this field.
=A word about buying canned goods.=——When canned goods are put up in large
quantities at the factory, abuses are likely to exist. Poor, even decayed,
fruit may be used, the whole process may be unclean from beginning to end,
and undesirable preservatives or an excess of sugar or spice may be
introduced to cover the use of poor materials or methods. The condition of
the worker in the cannery is one of the important industrial problems at
the present time. Unhappily, poor conditions do often exist in canneries
that turn out a cheap product. On the other hand, there are firms that may
well take pride in their system from beginning to end.
=Serving canned food.=——All canned food should be exposed to the air for a
short time before serving, and stirred that the material may be aerated.
This partially removes a certain flatness of taste. Canned fruit is
improved by reheating, even.
When possible, vegetables bought in a tin can should be washed in the
colander before they are heated. This greatly improves the flavor.
=Principles of preservation.=
Sterilization of food and all apparatus by the boiling
temperature, 212° F.
The removal of moisture by some drying process.
The addition of a preservative.
Sealing, to prevent the entrance of air.
=Practical methods.=
_Canning._——Fruit or vegetables sterilized at 212° F. and tightly
sealed in jars or cans.
_Preserving._——Whole fruit, sterilized, large amount of sugar
added, and sealed or covered in jars.
_Jam making._——Fruit broken up, sterilized, sugar added, and
covered.
_Jelly making._——Fruit juices, sterilized, sugar added, covered.
_Pickling._——Fruit and vegetables sterilized, vinegar, spices, and
sugar the preservatives used.
_Drying._——Fruits and vegetables protected from dust and insects,
and slowly dried by the sun’s heat or artificial heat.
[Illustration: FIG. 32.——Preserving kettles in a large factory. _Courtesy
of H. J. Heinz Co._]
=Apparatus.=——Scales. Quart measure. A preserving kettle of good enamel
ware. Plated knives. Large spoon of enamel or wood. Tablespoon and table
fork. Pint and quart cans with glass tops fastened by springs. New rubber
rings. Jelly glasses with covers. Cloth jelly bag. Stick on which to hang
the bag. Large bowl. Boiler, in which to stand the cans. A funnel. A
dipper. Old towels, or cheap cloths. Saucer and spoon for testing.
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
=General directions.=——Thoroughly wash all the utensils, just before
using. Sterilize the cans and glasses by placing them in a large kettle or
boiler on the stove, covering them with cold water, and allowing the water
to reach the boiling point and to boil for half an hour. Covers and rubber
rings should be treated in the same way.
[Illustration: FIG. 33.——Picking over strawberries. _Courtesy of H. J.
Heinz Co._]
Prepare the fruit by careful washing, picking over, paring and cutting.
The skins may be loosened on peaches and tomatoes by pouring hot water
over them.
Weigh both fruit and sugar, or measure if no scales are available.
See that the cooking apparatus is in good order, that the proper heat may
be continued.
Avoid rapid boiling of the fruit.
Place the cans when they are to be filled with hot fruit upon a towel wet
in very hot water, or in a pan holding an inch or so of hot water. Never
hold the can or glass in the hand.
Use a dipper for putting cooked fruit into the can. A funnel is useful
placed in the mouth of the jar.
Put whole fruit and halves compactly in the jar, using tablespoon and
fork, or two tablespoons. It requires practice to do this well.
See that all air bubbles are removed, and fill the cans to overflowing,
before putting on the glass tops and fastening on the spring. Wipe off the
jars, carefully, and stand them on their tops for a day in order to test
the tightness of the rubbers and the fastening.
After filling jelly glasses, set them at one side, and cover them all with
a piece of cheesecloth, until the jelly becomes firm. Then pour melted
paraffin upon the jelly in each glass, and when the paraffin is cooled,
put the covers on firmly.
Label the jars with the name of the fruit and the date of the preserving
before putting them away.
=Canning.=
_Method 1._——Material cooked before it is put into the can. This
is a good method for berries, and for fruit that will be served
as a sauce. Proceed in the preparation and finishing according to
the general directions. Cook the fruit gently for half an hour.
Use as little water as possible. No sugar is _required_ in the
canning process, but the flavor is better if a small amount is
used in the beginning, a half cup of sugar to a pound of fruit.
_Method 2._——Material cooked in the can. This is the better method
for whole fruit and halves. Select firm, well-shaped fruit for
this method, rejecting the mellow and soft fruit. Pack the cans
tightly with the fruit, and pour in hot water with sugar dissolved
in it, a half cup to the quart can. More sugar can be used, if so
desired. Set the jars in a boiler on a rack, and surround them
with warm water, to a height that will not allow the water to boil
into the cans.
Set the cover on each jar, but do not fasten them. Cover the
boiler closely, bring the water to a boil, and allow it to boil
for an hour. At the end of this time, test the fruit for
tenderness with a fork, pour in more sirup if it is necessary.
Remove the jars when the water has cooled sufficiently, and adjust
the covers. Cold water is sometimes used at the beginning, but
this makes the process longer.
This is a good method also for the canning of whole vegetables
like peas and asparagus. The cooking of vegetables should continue
for at least two hours, and three hours are better for peas and
string beans.
Apparatus is constructed for this method of canning, but the
ordinary boiler answers the purpose.
=Preserving.=
A good method for peaches, apricots, and quinces. Select firm and
handsome fruit and prepare it carefully. Allow a pound of sugar
to a pound of fruit. (What is the measure of a pound of sugar?)
Place enough water in the kettle to cover the fruit, dissolve the
sugar in the water, put the fruit into the kettle, and cook very
gently until the fruit becomes a clear color. Rapid boiling
spoils the shape of the fruit. Do not stir at all, but skim off
any scum that rises to the top. When the fruit is done, put it
with great care into the jars. If the sirup is thin, boil it down
for a short time, and then fill the jar. Close the jar as in
canning.
This is a difficult process for beginners.
=Jam making, and fruit butter.=
This is the most economical of the preserving processes and the
easiest for the novice. It is nothing more than a fruit sauce,
with a larger amount of sugar than usual to assist in its
preservation.
Soft and somewhat imperfect fruit may be used. If in the basket of
fruit bought for canning or preserving there are some fully ripe
or poorly shaped specimens, these may be used for jam. For jam
proper allow a pint of sugar to a pound of fruit. Cook the fruit
with enough water to prevent its sticking to the kettle, using as
little as possible.
Mash the fruit by stirring it occasionally as it cooks. When the
fruit is soft, add the sugar, stir thoroughly, and cook gently for
about five minutes. Test by cooling a spoonful on a saucer. The
jam should thicken slightly. When ready, pour it into jelly
glasses, or somewhat larger earthen jars——“jam pots.” Seal, as
directed for jelly.
The _fruit butter_ is even more like fruit sauce than is the jam,
for it is softer than jam, and contains less sugar. A cup or only
a half cup of sugar to the pound of fruit is enough. Proceed
exactly as in jam-making.
_Apple butter_ may be flavored with spices, with ginger root and
lemon juice, and with other fruits. One or two quinces or a slice
of pineapple cooked with the apples gives a pleasing variety.
Exercise the inventive faculty here.
=Jelly making.=
There is another principle involved in jelly making in addition
to the principle of preservation. Fruit contains a substance
known as pectose, one of the carbohydrates, that partially
solidifies the fruit juice when the water in the juice is
partially evaporated. The addition of sugar helps in this
process, but no amount of sugar will set the jelly if the pectose
is not present. Some fruits have more than others, and also more
when not over-ripe. Currants and firm apples are good jelly
makers, and serve as a basis for other fruits that do not jelly
well. Mellow summer apples do not set well. Crab apples are
excellent for this purpose.
There is another step in this process, the straining out of the
juice from the pulp. For this, prepare a jelly bag from firm
cotton cloth which has been boiled and washed. This bag must be
hung in such a way that the juice drops from the point of the bag
into a bowl below. It may be hung upon a stick between two chairs,
or upon the rod of a strong towel rack over a table.
1. =Apple jelly.=
Select tart, red-skinned apples, cut them in small pieces with
the skins on, retain the cores, and put them in a kettle with
cold water to barely cover. When thoroughly cooked and mashed,
put this pulp into the jelly bag, and allow the juice to drip as
long as it will. Do not squeeze the bag, nor stir the pulp if you
wish clear jelly. This dripping process is a matter of hours, and
in the home kitchen may continue all night. Allow a pint of sugar
to a pint of juice. Return the juice to the kettle, and allow it
to simmer for twenty-five minutes or half an hour, skimming when
necessary. In the meantime, heat the sugar, being careful not to
melt or burn it. Stir the sugar gently into the juice, and boil
five minutes. Test a little upon a saucer. It should show signs
of jellying as it cools. Boil longer, if necessary. Finish as
directed. Jelly often does not set until twenty-four hours have
elapsed.
=2. Currant jelly.=
The method is the same as with apple jelly. It is not necessary
to remove the currants from the stem. Heat just long enough
before the straining to make the juices flow well.
Very agreeable flavors are secured by the combining of two or more
fruits in a jelly; quince and pineapple with apple;——a leaf of
rose geranium or lemon verbena in a glass of apple jelly;
raspberry with currant. White apple jelly may be flavored with
mint leaves, and used in place of mint sauce with meat.
=Pickling.=
Pickles are not desirable in the diet. If acid is craved, it is
much wiser to secure it by fresh fruits, and by the use of lemon
juice.
=Drying.=
This process should not be discarded if there is a supply of
fruit in the orchard or garden. Place thinly sliced apples and
peaches upon plates or trays, protect by clean cheesecloth, and
dry in the sun. The color may be dark, but the flavor is
excellent.
_Laboratory management._——The fruit selected for use in the school kitchen
depends upon the time of year. The autumn is the season for preserving,
but some fruit is available at any time of year: in the winter, apple and
peach butter from the dried fruit; in the spring rhubarb jam or jelly; in
the late spring or early summer, strawberry jam. If the school program and
the equipment permit the serving of meals by the class, fruit may be
preserved in the fall for these occasions.
EXERCISES
1. Explain the value of fruit in the diet.
2. Why is cooked fruit sometimes better than raw?
3. Inquire the price of fresh fruit in the market, and compute the cost of
a 100-Calorie portion of two of the most common and cheapest.
4. The same with one or two of the dried fruits.
5. What are the important points in the preparation of fresh fruit for the
table?
6. What changes are effected in baking an apple?
7. What are the principles of the preservation of food?
8. What is meant by a preservative?
9. What is meant by sterilization?
10. What is mold? Decay? Fermentation?
11. What are the important points in canning?
12. What is the difference between canned fruit and “preserves”?
13. How does jelly making differ from the other processes?
14. What is one of the most important points in cooking dried fruits?
15. Find the cost of a can of peaches at the grocery. Weigh the contents
and count the peaches. Compare with the cost of an equal amount of
home-canned peaches. What points in the problem must be taken into
account?
16. The same problem with jelly bought at the grocery and made at home.
17. Work out the problem of estimating the comparative cost of canned
peaches and dried peaches, when calculated to the same food value.
CHAPTER VII
VEGETABLES AND VEGETABLE COOKERY
The distinction between the fruit and the vegetable is purely arbitrary,
since both are parts of plants and have the same general composition.
Botanically the tomato is as truly a fruit as the apple; but when it is
stewed and served with meat, it is classed as a vegetable. Other parts of
plants, however, besides the fruit are used as vegetables.
=Composition and nutritive value.=——Vegetables are much like fruits in
composition, being richest usually in carbohydrates and ash, but sometimes
containing a large amount of protein. Some have carbohydrates in the form
of starch, as the potato, and others in the form of sugar, as the beet;
young corn is rich in sugar, old corn in starch. All have more or less
cellulose, that in lettuce being very tender, while that in beets is so
firm as to be softened only by long cooking. Study carefully Figs. 34 and
35. Notice how the amount of water compares with the amount in fruits.
See, too, that beans, both green and dry, are richer in protein than other
vegetables. Celery has the highest percentage of water, and is valuable
for its ash and the bulk it gives because of the large amount of
cellulose.
[Illustration: FIG. 34.——Composition of vegetables.]
[Illustration: FIG. 35.——Composition of vegetables.]
To explain these facts we must understand something of the physiology of
the plant. The stem is the carrier of water and nutritive material to
other parts of the plant. The onion bulb, the parsnip root, and the potato
tuber are the winter storehouses of food for the next year’s plant when
the leaves first sprout. In the dry bean seed, and also in the pea and
lentil, the young plant lies dormant, with a large supply of all the
foodstuffs ready for its first growth when warmth and moisture are
supplied in the spring. Classified according to their nutritive value, the
vegetables rank as follows. Leaves are grouped with stems.
The seeds Contain all the foodstuffs. High in
protein.
Roots and tubers Contain all the foodstuffs. Low in
and the bulb protein and fat. High in starch
or some form of sugar.
Rinds (squash and Contain all the foodstuffs in small
pumpkin) amounts. Mineral content the
chief value.
Leaves and stems Mineral content the chief value.
Certain substances in some vegetables are supposed to have a physiological
effect, but we should be cautious in accepting statements that have not
been scientifically proved; for instance, that celery is “good for the
nerves.” It is doubtless true that the oils which give onions and the
cabbage their strong flavors do not agree with some people, and these
vegetables should be eaten with caution.
=How to buy.=——Much interest is added to the study of vegetables by the
examination of a seed catalogue easily obtainable from a firm selling
seeds and plants. In this way, one may increase one’s knowledge of
varieties for planting in the home garden, even if they are not common on
the market. City markets offer an increasing variety of vegetables, and
the purchaser should not hesitate to buy a vegetable because it is new to
her. An inexpensive Italian vegetable, fenucchi, is now sometimes found on
sale, and its characteristic flavor is very agreeable.
[Illustration: FIG. 36.——100-Calorie portions of vegetables.
KIND WEIGHT OF PORTION, OUNCES
Asparagus 16
Beets 10
Cabbage 13
Carrots 10
Corn 9
Cucumbers 20
Lettuce 22
Onions 8
Potatoes 5
Spinach 15
Tomatoes 15
_A. Fowler, Photographer._]
The season of vegetables is so extended by canning, by the shipping of
vegetables from the South, and by growing under glass that there is always
a wide range of choice. There are in winter, however, some tempting
delicacies in the way of green vegetables that the buyer with a limited
purse should pass by. A cucumber at fifty cents or even at ten cents is
not a sensible purchase. Lettuce, grown under glass, at ten cents a head
is not an extravagance, if the income allows thirty-five to forty cents
per capita per day for food. As a rule, select the less expensive
vegetable, provided it is in good condition. The prices are so fluctuating
that a definite statement is impossible. (See Chapter XVII.)
_Root vegetables_ should be uniform in size, sound, the skins fair.
_Head vegetables_ should be solid, with but few waste leaves on the
outside.
_Vegetables with hard rind_ should be sound and firm.
_Asparagus_ should be even in size, the stalks not bitten by insects.
_Cauliflower_ should be firm and white, not affected by insects or blight.
_Celery_ should be firm and white, free from blemishes, fine in texture.
_Peas_ should have crisp pods well filled, but not too full.
_String beans_ should be crisp and snap easily.
_All leaf vegetables_ should be crisp——not wilted.
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
=Uncooked vegetables.=——Crisp vegetables with tender fiber are eaten raw.
Their preparation includes freshening in cold water, thorough washing to
remove grit and insects, thorough drying by shaking in a soft cloth or
wire basket, and cooling on the ice. Lettuce should not be served so wet
that the water collects on the plate, making it impossible to dress the
salad with oil. See salad making, Chapter XV.
=Cooked vegetables.=——Vegetable cooking is an art much neglected, and in
consequence vegetables are sometimes served lacking their proper flavor
and their original nutrients. To cook vegetables in boiling salted water,
throwing the water away, is not the correct method, except in a few cases.
With this method much of the valuable mineral matter and the flavoring
substances are lost in the water. With such strong flavored vegetables as
the cabbage, old onions and beets, and old potatoes this method is
permissible, but even in these cases the nutritive value is decreased.
=Principles of cooking.=——Softening of the fiber.
Opening of the starch granules, when starch is present, at a temperature
of 212° F. Retaining mineral and flavoring matters.
=Cooking processes.=——These rank in value as they do or do not retain the
mineral and flavoring matters.
_Baking._——No nutritive material lost. The best method for potatoes and
sweet potatoes. Used also for squash, pumpkin, beets, young onions, dried
beans, peas, and lentils.
_Steaming._ (Cooking in a steamer.)——No nutritive material lost. A good
method for all fresh vegetables. Steamed vegetables have less flavor than
baked.
_Stewing._——Cooking in a stew pan or kettle with so little water that it
is almost boiled out at the end of the process, any remaining liquid being
served with the vegetable. The best method for spinach, which can be
cooked with no additional water, beyond that remaining on the leaves from
the washing. The French use this method almost entirely, and with tender
peas and carrots they omit water and use butter only. A substitute for
this latter is a very small amount of water, with the addition of
butterine or some good butter substitute.
_Boiling._——Cooking in a large amount of boiling, salted water, the water
to be drained off and thrown away. May be used with old beets of rank
flavor, strong onions, old potatoes, or potatoes boiled with the skins on.
A wasteful method.
=Adjuncts.=——Salt, pepper, butter, or some other fat, milk, cheese, bread
crumbs, parsley, eggs.
=Utensils.=——A vegetable brush, a sharp knife, a chopper, a potato masher,
a strainer, a colander, a stew pan, kettle or steamer, baking pan, baking
dish, bean pot, frying pan or kettle.
=General directions.=——Wash the vegetables, scrubbing the skin vegetables
with a brush. Washing in several waters is important with spinach to
remove all grit. Scrape off thin skins or pare off the thicker. Thick
skins such as those of old beets are more easily removed after cooking.
The outer covering must be removed in the case of peas, shell beans, and
sweet corn. Pull or cut strings from string beans with great care. Discard
all poor portions. Remove and throw away the inner pulp and seeds of old
squashes and pumpkins. The whole of a tender summer squash is eatable.
When boiling salted water is used, allow one tablespoonful of salt to four
quarts of water. Steamed and stewed vegetables are salted and dressed with
butter or butter substitute before serving. Butter is a better dressing
for vegetables than white sauce. Where cream is available, nothing is so
delicious. Use white sauce very sparingly with some escalloped vegetable
for variety. Making a sauce adds to the labor of preparation, and the
sauce hides the delicious flavor of a well-cooked vegetable. Some
vegetables are mashed before serving; potatoes, turnip, squash, either
boiled or baked.
=Time of cooking.=——The following table is a guide, but one must learn
from practice, for the time depends upon the quality of the vegetable,
whether tender or tough, and upon the size whether large or small. Test by
gently inserting a fork.
Allow more time for cooking in a steamer, than for stewing or boiling. It
requires more time to bake a potato than to boil one of the same size.
Why?
Time-table
(For stewing and boiling unless stated otherwise.)
_Fifteen minutes._——Tender cabbage and sweet corn. These are usually
cooked too long.
_Thirty minutes._——Asparagus; peas; potatoes of medium size; summer
squash; tomatoes.
_Forty-five minutes._——Young beets and carrots; onions; young parsnips;
medium potatoes baked, sweet potatoes boiled.
_One hour._——String and shelled beans; cauliflower; oyster plant; winter
squash, steamed or baked; young turnips.
_Two hours._——Old carrots, beets, and turnips.
_Six to eight hours (or more)._——Dried beans, lentils, and peas, baked in
the oven, with water added.
=The potato, a starchy vegetable.=——Make it your pride to serve a plain
potato, mealy and inviting. Potatoes are “new,” fully ripe, and old. The
new potato is in market in July and August, and may be recognized by its
very thin skin. The later potatoes have a thicker skin, the color still
being fresh. In the spring after its winter storage, the potato is “old.”
It seems a little less firm, the color of the exterior is somewhat
changed; perhaps the buds in the eyes of the potato are beginning to grow.
When cooked it has a stronger flavor, and rather darker color. If the
potato has been frozen, a sweet flavor is developed, and the quality is
waxy. Potatoes are sometimes inferior in quality when the season is a poor
one, or when some potato disease is prevalent. The following
classification shows you in how many ways potatoes may be cooked, and also
shows you how easy it is to classify recipes in an orderly way.
I. Potatoes cooked whole.
1. Steamed.
_a._ With skin.
_b._ Without skin.
2. Boiled.
_a._ With skin.
_b._ Without skin.
3. Baked.
_a._ With skin.
_b._ Without skin.
II. Potatoes, not whole.
1. From raw potatoes.
_a._ Sliced and escalloped.
_b._ Cut in cubes and stewed.
_c._ Cut in slices or fancy shapes and fried.
2. From cooked potatoes.
_a._ Mashed.
(_a_) From boiled potatoes, plain or browned on top.
(_b_) From baked potatoes, seasoned and served in shell.
_b._ Creamed. From either cold-boiled or baked potatoes; the
latter are better.
_c._ Sauté.
(_a_) Sliced and browned.
(_b_) Hashed and browned.
If you know some other method, see if you can fit it into this grouping.
=1. Baked potatoes.=
_Method 1._ The best method, for new potatoes. Select those of
uniform size. When scrubbed, place them in a shallow pan, or upon
the rack of the oven. The oven should be hot, about 450° F. or
even a higher temperature. (See oven tests, Chapter IX.) The
length of time required depends upon the size of the potato,
forty-five minutes being the average time.
A potato is largely water. What is the temperature of the interior
of the potato during the baking process?
Test by pressing firmly, protecting the fingers by a soft cloth;
or insert a fork. When the potato is done, it yields to the
pressure of the fingers. If the potatoes cannot be served at once,
break the skin that the steam may escape, cover with a cloth, and
keep them hot.
For convenience at the table, cut the potatoes in two lengthwise,
loosen the content of each half with a fork, sprinkle with salt,
and add a bit of butter, as much as one would add at the table.
_Potato on the half shell_ carries serving one step farther. Cut
the baked potatoes in two lengthwise, remove the contents, mash
lightly, add butter or butterine, milk, and salt, allowing a
teaspoonful of butter, a tablespoonful of milk and a shake or two
of salt to each potato. These measurements cannot be given with
exactness, because potatoes vary in size. Beat this mixture well,
replace lightly in each half shell, and brown the tops slightly.
This is nothing more than mashed baked potato, prettily served.
Invent other variations of this dish, adding ingredients that are
agreeable when mixed with the potato. The beaten white of an egg
added, gives greater lightness to the mixture in the potato shell.
_Method 2._ The same as Method 1, except that the potatoes are
pared before baking. A good method when the skins are not fair. A
brown crust is formed on the potato, which is crisp and pleasant
to eat. Large potatoes may be cut in two before baking, or even
sliced.
What difference in length of baking will there be between Methods
1 and 2?
=2. Boiled potatoes.=
The only way to prevent the loss of nutrients in using this
process is to boil the potatoes with the “jackets” on. This is
the best way with new potatoes. This method with ripe and old
potatoes gives a yellowish color to the surface and indeed
throughout. It is a labor-saving method for the busy housewife,
as the skin cracks and loosens at the end of the boiling process,
and is easily removed.
If you choose to have a snow-white potato, it must be pared before
boiling, and thus you deliberately waste the valuable mineral
matter provided by nature. If your income permits this æsthetic
pleasure, the mineral matter can of course be supplied in other
vegetables. The woman who can spend but twenty to thirty cents per
capita for food per day should boil the potatoes with the skins on
and gratify her artistic sense in some other way.
The method of boiling is the same in either case, whether the
potato is pared or not.
Have enough boiling water to cover the potatoes. Put the potatoes
of uniform size one at a time into the kettle that the boiling may
not stop. Allow a gentle boiling to continue until the potatoes
are done. Why avoid rapid boiling? Test with a fork at the end of
half an hour. When the potatoes are mellow, drain off the water,
and set the kettle where the remaining moisture will steam off.
Shake gently to hasten this process, and sprinkle the potatoes
with salt. If they must stand before serving will you place a tin
cover or a cloth over the kettle? Old potatoes, with a strong
flavor, should be pared before boiling, or even soaked in cold
water.
=3. Mashed potatoes.=——Some one devised this convenient method of
serving, to save trouble at the table. Mashed potato can be very poor
and unappetizing when wet and lumpy. Do not attempt it with new,
poor, or old potatoes. See that the boiled potatoes are as dry as can
be——every particle of water steamed away. Mash thoroughly with the
wire masher, add butter or butterine, salt and milk in about the
proportions given for potato in the half shell. Use a tablespoonful
or so of cream if it is available. _Beat vigorously._ The mealiness
of the potato and the vigorous beating are the secrets of success.
The finished product should be light and somewhat moist,——_not wet_.
Reheat in the kettle. Pile lightly in a hot dish and serve; or brown
the top before serving.
_Potato puff._ (Soufflé.)——With your knowledge of mashed potato,
can you not invent a potato puff?
=4. Escalloped potato.=——The name _escalloped_ is applied to any
baked dish that is arranged in layers. Escalloped potato is a
palatable dish and this is one of the most economical of methods.
Wash, pare, and slice the potatoes in 1/4-inch pieces. Slightly
grease an earthen or enameled baking dish. Cover the bottom of
the dish with a layer of the slices, sprinkle the slices lightly
with flour, and put on two teaspoonfuls of butter, or butterine,
in small bits. Continue until the dish is nearly full. Pour in
milk to barely cover the potatoes, put a cover on the dish and
set the dish in an oven of 380° F. Remove the cover in time to
allow the top to brown. Allow rather more than half an hour for
the baking.
=5. Creamed potatoes.=——_Method 1_, an _easy way_. Chop cold _baked_
potatoes with the chopper. Allow one tablespoonful of butter to 1
pint of chopped potato. Melt the butter in a saucepan. Stir in the
potatoes. Shake from the dredger the equivalent of a tablespoonful of
flour, stirring the potato with one hand as you shake with the other.
Pour in enough milk to barely cover the chopped potato. Set the
saucepan in the coolest spot on the range; _or_ on the simmering
burner of a gas range, upon an asbestos mat; _or_ turn all into an
earthenware jar, or baking dish, and proceed as with escalloped
potato. Allow the mixture to cook until it becomes creamy.
_Method 2_. Cut the cold potatoes in cubes, and heat in a thin
white sauce. See Chapter X.
Boiled potatoes may be used, but baked are better in texture and
flavor for creaming.
=6. French fried potatoes.=——Wash and pare small potatoes, cut in
eighths lengthwise, and soak a few minutes in cold water. Take from
water, dry between towels, and fry in deep fat. Drain on brown paper
and sprinkle with salt.
(1) _Deep fat frying._——An iron kettle is the best for deep fat,
3 quarts a convenient size. A wire basket is almost necessary for
frying soft material.
Fill the kettle 1/2 full of fat and place over fire. When a slight
blue smoke or vapor rises from it, it is ready to test. Test with
small cubes of bread. If bread browns in 1 minute, the temperature
is right for uncooked mixtures. If it browns in 10 seconds, it is
right for cooked materials. Care must be taken to keep the
temperatures at the right point, for if too cool, the material
will soak fat; if too hot, both fat and material to be cooked will
burn.
(2) _To clarify fat._——Drop several slices raw, pared potato into
the fat and let bubble up. Strain all through cheesecloth back
into pail from which fat was taken. The potatoes seem to absorb
food odors and collect crumbs and leave the fat clear.
=7. Stewed celery.=——A green vegetable. Stalks of celery, too tough
or coarse for serving uncooked, are delicious when stewed. The
process is simple. Wash, scrape, and cut the stalks crosswise. Place
them in a stewpan, barely cover with hot water, adding a teaspoonful
of salt to a pint of celery. Cook gently for half an hour or until
the celery is tender. Use the liquid remaining in making a sauce,
adding some milk to make the necessary amount of liquid. Three
fourths of a cup of sauce is enough for a pint of celery. See Chapter
X.
=8. Cabbage.=——The method given makes cabbage a delicious and
attractive vegetable, as delicate as cauliflower, and the odor in the
kitchen is not noticeable.
Select a small cabbage, with the ribs in the leaves not too
thick. Prepare the cabbage before washing it by cutting out the
stalks from below with a sharp knife. Separate the leaves. Have
ready the largest kettle available, nearly full of rapidly
boiling water. Drop in one cabbage leaf at a time, pressing each
one down with a long-handled spoon or skimmer. Do this so slowly
that the water does not stop boiling. Leave the kettle uncovered,
and allow the cabbage to cook from 12 to 15 minutes, depending on
the thickness of the leaf stalks. Remove the leaves with a
long-handled skimmer, putting them into a colander standing on a
plate. _Immediately_ pour the hot water down the sink drain, turn
on the cold water to flush away the odor, and fill the kettle
with cold water. While the cabbage is cooking, you have made a
pint of white sauce, No. 2 (Ch. X), adding a teaspoonful of salt,
and have prepared 1/2 cup of buttered crumbs. Cut the cabbage
leaves slightly, place them in a baking dish, pour the white
sauce over them, sprinkle the crumbs on the top, and brown the
crumbs in the oven or under the gas. If you can, prepare this as
a surprise at home, and ask the family to “guess” what it is. If
the cabbage is a good one, some of the leaves turn a very pretty
green with this method of boiling.
=9. Baked beans.=——A nitrogenous vegetable and a meat substitute. A
dish known in old days in New England, baked to perfection in the old
brick oven. Baked beans seem difficult of digestion for some people.
The mustard is supposed to be helpful, and adds something to the
flavor. If the molasses is omitted, or but a small amount used, and
if butter takes the place of pork or suet, the beans seem more
digestible. In different parts of New England the dish is varied.
Some people prefer rather dry baked beans, others wish them moist and
very sweet.
_Utensils._——A kettle. A covered bean pot.
_Ingredients._——
1 quart of white beans.
1 teaspoonful of soda.
1/4 lb. salt pork or more, _or_
4 tablespoonfuls of beef fat or butter substitute.
Molasses, from two tablespoonfuls to 1/2 cup, _or none._
1 teaspoonful of mustard.
_Method._——Wash, and soak the beans in cold water over night.
Pour off any water that remains. Put the beans into the kettle,
cover with cold water, add the soda, and cook gently until the
beans are slightly softened. The soda aids the softening. Pour
off the water again, and put the beans into the pot. Mix the
molasses and mustard with a pint of water, and pour this over the
beans, adding more water if the beans are not covered. Place the
pork or other fat upon the beans, and cover the pot. If fat other
than pork is used, salt must be added to the beans. The beans
should bake slowly, for from 6 to 8 hours, and even longer in a
very slow oven. A stove of the type shown in Fig. 17 is good for
this purpose. They can be baked in the ordinary gas oven, if only
one burner is used, and that is turned very low.
_Laboratory management._——The last experiment is the only one not easily
performed in the school kitchen. The process, can begin perhaps on one
day, and be finished the next. If there is some apparatus that cooks at a
low temperature, the practical difficulties may be overcome.
=Vegetable, or “cream” soups.=
These are of two classes: the purées (porridge), or thick soups, with
vegetable pulp as the thickening material, and the cream soups, which are
somewhat thinner, the juices of some vegetable giving the flavor.
Potato purée, or soup, is an example of the first; cream of tomato of the
second. The line is not sharply drawn between the two in many cook books.
Milk is an important ingredient in these soups, so that they are sometimes
known as milk soups. Butter and flour are used in both,——the flour in the
purée “binds” the mixture and makes it smoother; in the cream soup the
flour is used for thickening as well.
Dried beans, peas, or lentils make a delicious purée, the secret of
success being long slow cooking in some low temperature apparatus. They
are brought to perfection in the Atkinson Cooker.
=10. Potato Pureé.=
_Ingredients._
Potato 1 cup
Milk 1 quart
Flour 1 tablespoonful
Butter 1 tablespoonful
Salt 2 teaspoonfuls
Celery stalks, cut small 1 teaspoonful
Onion, chopped 1 tablespoonful
Pepper, Cayenne To taste.
_Remarks._——If a thicker purée is desired, use more of the mashed potato.
If celery salt is used, omit one teaspoonful of the salt. Less onion may
be used, and the pepper omitted.
_Utensils._——Make the list yourself, after reading the directions for
mixing.
_Method of mixing._——Boil and mash the potato, or use cold mashed potato.
Heat the milk in the double boiler with the celery and onion. Add the milk
gradually to the mashed potato, beating vigorously.
Put this mixture through a strainer into the double boiler, and reheat
it. Melt the butter in a small saucepan, or stir in the flour, add
_slowly_ half a cup of the soup to the butter and flour paste, and then
pour this slowly into the mixture in the double boiler, stirring all the
time. The soup will be ready to serve in about ten minutes.
The _important point_ in this recipe is the quality of the mashed potato.
It should be dry and light. It may be made from hot, mealy baked potatoes.
If cold mashed potato is used, this should be made light again with a
fork. An excellent luncheon dish. Will serve four to six people.
=11. Cream of tomato soup.=
_Ingredients._
Tomato juice 1/2 cup
Milk 1 quart
Flour 2 tablespoonfuls
Butter 2 tablespoonfuls
Salt 2 teaspoonfuls
Bicarbonate of soda 1/2 teaspoonful
Pepper, Cayenne To taste.
_Remarks._——Celery and onion may be added, but are not necessary. When you
become expert, you will be able to use a larger amount of tomato juice,
and even omit the soda.
_Method of mixing._——This you will be able to work out for yourself. First
perform this simple experiment. Stir together a tablespoonful of stewed
tomato and a tablespoonful of milk. What happens? Heat this mixture. What
further do you notice? How may you best extract the juice from the tomato?
You have noticed the effect of the acid tomato upon the milk. The soda is
added to partly counteract this effect. Will you stir the soda into the
tomato juice or into the milk? Will you stir the tomato juice into the
milk, or the milk into the tomato juice? Will you cook the mixture at all?
How long before serving will you mix the two? When will you add the butter
and flour?
_Laboratory management._——An individual portion of soup may be made with
1/2 cup of liquid, but it is better to allow 1 cup when possible to each
pupil, or two pupils may work together.
The important point in this soup is to prevent the curdling, so you
safeguard the milk at each step.
Croutons may be served with any of these soups.
=12. Chili sauce.=
_Ingredients._
Tomatoes 12, medium sized and ripe
Green pepper 1, finely chopped
Vinegar 2 cups
Sugar 3 tablespoonfuls
Salt 1 tablespoonful
Clove 2 teaspoonfuls
Cinnamon 2 teaspoonfuls
Allspice 2 teaspoonfuls
Nutmeg 2 teaspoonfuls grated
_Method._——Peel tomatoes and slice into a preserving kettle. Add other
ingredients and heat to the boiling point. Cook slowly two and one half
hours. Pour into preserve jars and seal.
EXERCISES
1. What is the distinction between fruits and vegetables?
2. How does the composition of apples compare with that of carrots?
3. Contrast the nutritive values of celery, potatoes, and old beans.
4. What other foods must be served with potato to make a meal complete?
5. How may we best retain the mineral matter of vegetables in cooking?
6. Is it allowable to cook a vegetable in boiling water and throw away the
water?
7. Why must more time be allowed for baking a potato than for boiling?
8. Why more time for an old beet than for a young?
9. Find the cost of potatoes in your locality. Estimate the cost of a dish
of mashed potato for five people.
10. Estimate the cost of 100-Calorie portions of several vegetables. See
Fig. 36.
CHAPTER VIII
CEREAL PRODUCTS
The common grains, sometimes called cereals,[11] yield some of the most
important of all the food materials. Those most widely used are wheat,
maize, or Indian corn, oats, rice, barley, rye, and millet. In this
country wheat and corn are the two great crops upon which our prosperity
largely depends, and a shortage in one of these crops is felt in the
business world, not only in this country, but abroad. Rice is the
important cereal in China, Japan, and India, and a failure of the rice
crop may mean famine to millions of people, especially in India. These
facts are mentioned to show that the race has learned to depend upon the
grains as a staple food, and a study of their composition proves that this
common habit is founded in reason. The grains are all members of the grass
family, and the edible portion is the seed. From these seeds are
manufactured pure starch, breakfast cereals, meal, and flour. Like beans
and peas, these seeds are the storehouses of food for the young plants,
and we therefore find the high nutritive value depicted in Fig. 37. Notice
that the carbohydrate (starch) content is high in all; that all contain
protein, oats, wheat, and rye being about equal in this and higher than
the others; oats are highest in fat, corn ranking next. The ash contains
the same important mineral substances that we found in the fruits, the
percentages of each differing somewhat with the different grains and
being quite different for the cereals as a class than for the fruits and
vegetables as a class. It must be remembered that these percentages are
given for the whole grain, and that the amounts of the nutrients in the
manufactured product depend upon the process employed.
=Manufacture of cereal food materials.=[12]——The primitive method of
making the material in the grain available for use was by grinding the
grain between two stones, or by pounding one stone upon another, and this
method is used by the Mexicans and certain of the American Indians to this
day, human muscle being the power employed. Wind and water were harnessed
for grinding grain, and were the only motive powers available until the
invention of steam, the grinding being done by stones. In a Connecticut
town there still exists a mill stone, one of a pair so small that they
were carried into the settlement on horseback, and when placed in a small
mill by a brook, they ground a bushel of corn in a day.
[Illustration: FIG. 37.——Composition of cereals.]
Breakfast cereals and meal are now made in the great factories that
produce flour; steam is the motive power and the grains are broken, or
rolled, between steel rollers. (See Chapter XII.)
=Breakfast cereals.=——The ready-to-eat breakfast cereal has met the
popular demand for a quickly prepared food for the first meal of the day.
A few of these are made under known conditions, but they are sometimes
manufactured from inferior grain, and the presence of grit at times
indicates a possible lack of cleanliness in the process. It is a question,
too, whether or not the starch has been subjected to heat for a sufficient
length of time, and whether they can be masticated sufficiently to make
the grain digestible, and the nutritive material available. Their use for
young children is undesirable. For older people, they add variety to the
diet, but they are usually more expensive than the home-cooked breakfast
foods, even when the cost of fuel is taken into account. See Fig. 38.
=Cooked breakfast cereals.=——It is an easy task to cook a cereal,
especially now that the fireless cooker in some form is present in so many
homes. The cereal for breakfast does not necessitate early rising; as it
may be prepared the day or evening before and be served in palatable form
in the morning.
The most common breakfast cereals are made from oats, wheat, and corn,
varying in fineness of grain from those ground like a meal to the coarser
cracked wheat and the samp made from corn. It is well to use kinds made
from different grains, but when the worth of a few has been proved, it is
not wise to try another kind simply because it has a new label. One
manufacturer confessed to a visitor that the same cereal was put into
boxes of different colors and sold under different names as a means of
inviting purchasers. The cereal foods made from whole grains are
especially valuable on account of the high mineral content.
It usually pays to buy in boxes, rather than in bulk, in the case of
cereals; and always from a reliable grocer. If you purchase a box of
cereal as a “bargain,” weigh its contents and compare the weight with the
weight of a box bought in the regular way. Also examine such a box for the
presence of insects. These may be recognized sometimes by a webby
substance, and again the insects themselves may be detected. Do not buy
too large a stock of cereals, since they are better when they are fresh
from the factory, and a good firm renews its stock often.
[Illustration: FIG. 38.——100-Calorie portions of starches and cereals.
NO. KIND WEIGHT OF PORTION
OUNCES
1. Shredded Wheat 1.0
2. Cornmeal 1.0
3. Farina 1.0
4. Rice 1.0
5. Tapioca 1.0
6. Cornstarch 1.0
7. Hominy Grits 1.0
8. Rolled Oats 1.0
9. Flaked Wheat 1.0
10. Corn Flakes 1.0
11. Puffed Wheat 1.0
12. Puffed Rice 1.0
_A. Fowler, Photographer._]
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
=Principles of cooking.=——1. Softening of the fiber by long-continued low
temperature with a supply of water present.
2. Complete opening of the starch granules by the boiling temperature of
water.
3. The protein present presents no special problem. Its digestibility is
not especially affected, but the softening of the fiber of the cereal
makes the protein available to us.
=Methods.=——There are two classes into which the cereals may be divided,——
the flaked and the granular. The weighing experiments (page 62) show that
the granular is the heavier. This means that more water will be absorbed
by a given measure of the granular, because it contains more material.
In experimenting with a cereal at home it is well to try the proportion of
water and cereal printed on the box the first time, altering the
proportion if the first result is not satisfactory. There should be enough
water to soften the cereal, and _only_ just enough. If the cooked cereal
is stiff, the measure of water is short; if so thin that the cereal runs
on the plate, too much water was allowed.
=1. Preparation of breakfast cereal.=
_Ingredients._
1 part, by measure, flaked cereal to 2 of water.
1 part granular cereal to 3 to 4 of water.
1 cup of dry cereal will serve three or four people.
Samp, cracked wheat, and coarse corn meal will take from
4 to 6 parts of water.
Salt. A tablespoonful to a quart of water is an average
amount.
_Utensils_: a measuring cup; a double boiler; a fork.
_Method._——Measure the cereal and water, put the water into the
inner part of the double boiler with the salt. Have the lower part
of the boiler ready——about half full of hot water; place the inner
boiler directly upon the stove or over the flame. When the water
is boiling rapidly, shake the cereal into the water from a cup,
_so slowly that the water does not stop boiling_. This is the
first secret of a well-cooked cereal. The rapidly boiling water
keeps the grains of cereal in motion, and thus they do not stick
to the vessel nor to each other, and the heat reaches the starch
in the grains equally. If the grains begin to settle, shake the
vessel gently, but do not stir, even with a fork. Allow this
process to continue for about five minutes, or until you see a
thickening of the mass, so much so that the separate grains do not
settle. If toward the end of this stage there is danger of
sticking, _lift_ the mass with the fork, but do not stir it, as
this motion will break the grains. This first process opens the
starch grains. Place the inner part of the boiler in the outer
over boiling water and allow the cooking to continue for _at
least_ one hour. For this is the second secret of the perfect
cereal,——a long-continued process that softens the fiber and
develops flavor. One cereal, advertised as being cooked in three
minutes, remains unpalatable after that length of time, but is
delicious at the end of two hours. If you have a fireless cooker,
put the cereal in the double boiler into the cooker overnight for
the second stage. Any low temperature apparatus gives the desired
result.
=2. The uses of cold cereal.=——Never throw away cooked cereals. The
cold cereal is useful in many ways.
(_a_) Mold in small cups with dates or other fruit, and serve
with sugar and cream for luncheon.
(_b_) Cool corn meal mush in a flat dish, cut it in slices when
cold, and brown the slices in a frying pan, with beef fat, or a
butter substitute. Serve with sugar, molasses, or sirup for
breakfast or luncheon.
(_c_) Rice or hominy may be mixed with a beaten egg, molded into
small cakes, and browned either in the frying pan, or in the oven.
(_d_) A small remaining portion of any cereal may be used to
thicken soup.
(_e_) Any cooked cereal may be used in muffins or even yeast
bread. (See those chapters.)
=3. Corn meal “mush.”=——This is cooked by the same method as the
other cereals, except that the amount of water is larger and the
first boiling should continue longer. The meal must be scattered
slowly into the boiling water, or else be mixed first with cold
water, as it lumps very easily. The second stage of the process
should continue several hours.
_Rice._——Rice varies very much in quality and in the shape of the grain.
Louisiana and Chinese rice are among those that have a firm and large
grain keeping its shape well when cooked. Inferior varieties become too
soft, and the finished product is pasty and poor in color and flavor. Much
is said at present about the harmful effect of the polishing process upon
the quality of the rice. An unpolished rice may sometimes be found on the
market, brownish in color and with a good flavor.
=4. Boiled rice.=——Rice may be cooked in the double boiler by the
same method as other cereals, allowing 1 part of rice to 3 of water.
The rice should be well washed in cold water.
The second stage need not be continued so long, from three quarters of an
hour to an hour being sufficient. The flavor is improved by the use of
milk in place of half of the water. By this method the nutritive value is
much increased.
Another method used by the Chinese continues the boiling throughout the
whole process. A very large amount of water is used, several quarts for
one cup of rice, and when the water is boiling violently the rice is
scattered in very slowly. The boiling continues from twenty minutes to
half an hour, or until the grains are tender, and then the water is
drained off, through a colander. The rice in the colander should then be
placed where the remaining moisture will steam off. By this method
nutrients are lost, but the grains of the rice stand out distinctly and
are light and dry. It is a difficult method for the novice, because its
success depends upon the removal of the rice from the water just at the
moment it is tender, but not too soft. The grains should be tested in
twenty minutes.
_Corn products._——Corn being our most abundant grain, it is the cheapest,
and we should promote its use. Hominy and samp and Indian meal, when well
cooked, are all most palatable. There is a difference between old and new
process corn meal, to be noticed in the flavor and in the behavior of the
two kinds in cooking. The new process meal now more largely on the market
has been deprived of the germ, which contains a large amount of oil, and
although the meal does not deteriorate so soon, there is some loss of
flavor. Moreover, when the new process meal is used in an old-time
recipe, more wetting must be used than the recipe calls for and a larger
amount of fat.
The old process of grinding between stones is still employed in some
localities. Southern and Rhode Island corn meal are ground in this way,
and may be found at some groceries. There are also two colors, the yellow
and the white, each with a distinctive flavor, and some people who think
they dislike corn meal find the white meal agreeable.
=Pure starches.=——These occur as food materials in several forms.
Cornstarch is the starchy portion only removed from the grain of corn.
Wheat starch is more largely used for laundry purposes than for food. Rice
flour may be treated as starch in cooking. Arrowroot is a fine starch from
the roots of a family of plants growing in the West Indies and other warm
climates. It is used principally in cooking for invalids. Cassava,
manioca, tapioca, and sago are starchy materials in granular form. The
first three are made from the pith of the cassava plant, the sago from the
sago palm. The pure starches are all easily digested and inexpensive. Corn
starch is the most abundant and cheapest pure starch in this country.
=The starch granule.=——To understand the behavior of materials like
cornstarch, rice flour, and arrowroot in cooking, we need to know more of
the starch grain. Cornstarch is composed of myriads of tiny granules
somewhat like those pictured in Fig. 39, but smaller. The starch granules
of different plants differ in size and even in shape, but they all have a
covering lying in folds, the pure starch being within. The granule unfolds
or bursts when exposed to heat. When these granules are floating in water,
and, being heated, open at the same moment, the starch paste is smooth;
otherwise, the starch lumps.
_A. Starch experiments._
Starch turns a characteristic blue color in the presence of iodine. This
is an unfailing starch test, but must be used in the cold.
1. Grate a piece of potato into a small amount of water, and strain out
the pulp. The starch settles from the water in a few minutes. Pour off the
water, and add a drop of diluted iodine to the remaining starch. If a
microscope is available, dilute this mixture and with a dropper tube place
a drop upon a slide. The potato starch granules are comparatively large
and easy to see through the microscope.
2. Drop a teaspoonful of dry starch into boiling water.
3. Mix a teaspoonful of starch with a small quantity of cold water, and
stir this into boiling water.
4. Mix a teaspoonful of starch with ¼ cup of cold water, and bring the
water to the boiling point, stirring the mixture as it heats.
Why are 3 and 4 similar in result, and different from 2?
[Illustration: FIG. 39.——Changes of starch cells in cooking: _a_, cells of
a raw potato with starch grains in natural condition; _b_, cells of a
partially cooked potato; _c_, cells of a thoroughly boiled potato.
_Farmers’ Bulletin No. 295, U. S. Dept. Agriculture._]
=Desserts from the starches.=——Cornstarch, in particular, is often
disliked, because it is undercooked, and too large a proportion is used.
It may be made very palatable, and is too valuable in cooking and too
inexpensive to be discarded.
=5. Chocolate cornstarch.=
Milk 1 pint
Cornstarch 3 tablespoonfuls, _level_
Cocoa (Baker’s) 3 tablespoonfuls, _level_
Sugar 1/2 cup
Salt 1/4 teaspoonful
Vanilla 1 teaspoonful
What utensils? You should be able to plan the method of mixing.
The milk must be heated in a double boiler. Which method of
mixing in the cornstarch will you use? How can you best add the
cocoa, sugar, and salt? The vanilla?
It is difficult to boil milk directly over the fire or flame,
without scorching it. Since the starch cannot well be exposed to
the boiling temperature in this case, the process must continue in
the double boiler until the mixture has thickened well, for at
least half an hour, three quarters being better. When the cooking
is finished, pour the mixture into molds which have been wet in
cold water. When the mixture is cooled, chill it in the
refrigerator. Serve with cream or milk and sugar for those who may
want it sweeter. This gives a soft mold, that is much more
palatable than one so stiff, that it has a firm shape. This will
serve four or five people.
=6. Tapioca and sago.=——These materials make delicious desserts with
fruit. They are also used with eggs and milk. (See Chapter XV.)
_Laboratory management._——The undivided portion of cereal may be 1/4 cup.
Cornstarch may be made with 1/2 cup of liquid.
_Macaroni_, _spaghetti_, and _vermicelli_ are valuable cereal products
made from flour, this form of cereal food having originated in Italy. The
Italians manufacture the paste in a large variety of forms, and some of
the small fancy shapes are also used in soup. The composition of macaroni
is shown in Fig. 51. It is a valuable material, and when served or cooked
with cheese may well be the main dish of a home luncheon.
=7. Boiled macaroni.=
_Ingredients._
Macaroni 3/4 cup, broken in inch pieces
Boiling water 2 quarts
Salt 1 tablespoonful
Cream 1/2 cup
_Method._——Cook macaroni in boiling salted water twenty minutes
or until soft, drain in a strainer, pour cold water over it to
remove stickiness. Add cream and reheat. A thin white sauce may
be used in place of the cream.
=8. Macaroni baked with cheese.=——Cover the bottom of a baking dish
with plain boiled macaroni. Sprinkle with grated cheese. Add another
layer of macaroni and another of cheese. Repeat until the dish is
full. Pour a thin sauce over this, almost filling the dish. Cover
with buttered crumbs and bake in hot oven until crumbs are brown.
Some prefer to omit the crumbs and have a thick layer of the cheese
on top which becomes crisp and brown. Boiled macaroni and spaghetti
may be served with tomato sauce and a little grated cheese. This is
called “Italian style.”
EXERCISES
1. For what reasons are the cereal products so valuable?
2. Compare the composition of the different grains.
3. What changes are effected in the proper cookery of cereals?
4. What are the important points in practice?
5. What are the advantages of a good “ready to serve” breakfast cereal?
6. Ascertain the cost of a box of puffed cereal and an uncooked cereal of
the same size. Weigh the contents of the two.
7. Estimate the cost of each one served to a family of six.
8. What is the cost of a 100-Calorie portion?
9. What is the advantage of serving dry toast with a cereal?
CHAPTER IX
EGGS, MILK, AND CHEESE
Eggs are a specially interesting food because they contain all the
elements necessary to the development of the young chick within the shell.
The structure of the egg is familiar, with its division into the yolk and
white, and it is interesting to note the details of this structure.
Break a fresh egg carefully into a saucer. The shell is porous, allowing
water to evaporate from the egg and air to enter. To this porosity is due
the fact that other substances may enter the egg, giving it an unnatural
flavor and even hastening its deterioration. Within the shell is a fine
membrane which protects the white. The yolk is also divided from the white
by a more delicate membrane which enables one to separate the yolk from
the white of a fresh egg. A careful examination reveals at each end of the
yolk a continuation of this membrane in the form of small cords which are
fastened at each end of the shell, holding the yolk evenly suspended in
the center of the shell. Rough handling or jolting breaks this membrane,
and the yolk drops to one side.
Lift the white carefully with a fork, and notice its elasticity. This
cohesive property makes it possible to beat air into the white until the
whole mass become porous. The yolk is creamy rather than light when
beaten, and a bit of the yolk mixed with the white prevents the latter
from becoming light and dry.
=Composition of the egg.=——Figure 40 gives the composition of the yolk and
white taken together, and of the yolk and white separated. The protein
content is high, and the fat content as well, the yolk containing a higher
percentage of these two foodstuffs than the white. The mineral matter is
of high value, iron and phosphorus being found in ideal forms in the yolk.
In using the egg as food we are availing ourselves of one of nature’s
richest storehouses. A single egg of average size yields about 75
calories, of which 60 come from the yolk and 15 from the white. A _very_
large egg, weighing two and two thirds ounces, will yield 100 calories.
[Illustration: FIG. 40.——Composition of eggs and cheese.]
=Fresh eggs and cold storage eggs.=——The fresh-laid egg is always desired
for its delicious flavor, and this flavor changes but little in a week or
two if the egg is kept cool. It is desirable to preserve eggs, however,
for future use at the season when they are most abundant and cheap. Many
methods have been tried, such as laying them away in sawdust, sinking them
in water-glass solution, or coating the shell with paraffin or some other
substance to prevent evaporation and the entrance of air. The introduction
of cold storage on a large scale promises a solution of the problem. If
eggs are fresh when placed in storage, it is possible to keep them just
above the freezing temperature for months without appreciable
deterioration.
Eggs too long in storage may be detected by the musty odor and flavor, the
running of the yolk into the white, and the thin quality of the white
which prevents beating stiff. Some states have already passed stringent
laws in regard to the sale of cold storage eggs.
=The cost of eggs and how to buy.=——The demand for fresh eggs is great,
and so many eggs are exported, that the price is high, even in the summer.
Twenty-five cents a dozen is a reasonable price, but this is below the
average at the present date. The thirty-five or forty-cent daily
allowance for food will permit the moderate use of eggs at thirty-five
cents a dozen, but not a liberal use in cakes and desserts. They should be
used at such a price and with that allowance as the main dish for
breakfast or luncheon at times, and not in sweet dishes calling for three
or four eggs. If a recipe for soft custard calls for three eggs to a pint
of milk, leave out one egg or even two, and use one or two tablespoonfuls
of cornstarch instead. Select eggs with a hard shell, and yolk of rich
yellow. If the shell is soft and the yolk pale, these deficiencies should
be reported, as they can be corrected by the poultryman. The difference in
color of the shells, whether white or brown, is not of great consequence.
If you can buy eggs by the crate direct from the poultryman, this is a
saving, provided the eggs can be used before they deteriorate. A small
crate holds fifteen dozen; the usual size thirty dozen. Some express
companies have a special rate for eggs, and parcel post should aid in this
method of buying.
=Relative digestibility of soft and hard-cooked eggs.=——The fact must be
recalled that to digest is to dissolve, and that the digestion of food
means a dissolving by the digestive juices, aided by water. When we speak
of the digestibility of food we may mean the ease and comfort of
digestion, or the length of time taken by the process, or the completeness
of the process. If we take the third of these meanings, hard-cooked egg is
as digestible as the soft-cooked or the raw egg, because it is completely
dissolved in digestion in the course of time. If the second meaning of
digestion is taken, the hard-cooked egg may be slightly less digestible,
for a slightly longer time is consumed in the process. The latest
researches, however, show that the digestive process is longer with any
food than was formerly supposed, and the difference in this case is not
especially important. Indeed, we must accept the conclusions of the
scientist and frankly admit that the differences of temperature in cooking
of egg do not have any great effect upon its digestibility.
Why then the popular idea that a hard-boiled egg is “absolutely
indigestible”? A hard-boiled egg, or more than one, eaten rapidly, without
mastication, at a picnic, and with much sweet food at an unusual hour, may
interfere with the “ease and comfort in digestion” resulting from such a
meal. But if the whites of the hard-boiled eggs are chopped fine, the yolk
mashed, and the two served upon toast, thus insuring mastication, a dish
is produced that is of average digestibility and that may be used for
breakfast or luncheon without hesitation.
If a tender, jellylike consistency is wanted, cook the egg below the
boiling point of water. If, however, a firmer egg is preferred, use the
old-time method, and cook the egg three or four minutes in boiling water.
It is the easier and quicker method.
Moreover, do not hesitate to use an egg “boiled” half an hour, provided it
is chopped fine or sliced.
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
=1. Eggs used raw.=——An egg, swallowed whole, followed by a cracker,
is a “quick lunch” that is not harmful, and it is sometimes
convenient to be able to take an egg in this way. A sprinkling of
salt upon it makes it more agreeable.
=2. Beaten eggs.=——Beat the yolk and white separately. Add to the yolk a
teaspoonful of sugar, a shake of salt, some flavoring, and 3/4 of a cup of
milk. Beat the white gently into this mixture and serve in a glass. The
flavoring may be a quarter of a teaspoonful of vanilla, or a tablespoonful
of orange juice. This is sometimes served to an invalid who can take milk,
and is an agreeable luncheon for any one. If milk does not agree with one,
a larger amount of fruit juice may be used with the addition of some
water, possibly carbonated. The white alone is given in cases of severe
illness, mixed with a small amount of water, and fruit juice if the
physician permits the latter. This is sometimes the only food that can be
retained by an invalid.
=Principles of egg cookery.=——Protein in the form of an egg-albumin is the
foodstuff to consider in the cooking of eggs. Heat produces in the egg a
change in color and in texture or firmness, the firmness or hardness
depending upon the degree of heat and the length of time given to the
cooking. Coagulation is the term used for this change in the egg-albumin.
1. The white of egg begins to coagulate and to show an opaque white at
about 180° F.
2. A temperature somewhat below the boiling point of water for about ten
minutes will give the white a jellylike, tender consistency, and slightly
cook the yolk. Continued for an hour, the white becomes solid and adheres
to the shell.
3. The boiling point of water gives a firmer consistency than a
temperature below this point. The white is free from the shell.
4. A high temperature, that of a hot pan, will produce a leathery
consistency if long continued.
_A. An experiment with the egg._
Apparatus and materials.——A ring stand, wire net, Bunsen burner, glass
beaker, test tube, chemical thermometer, white of egg.
_Method._——Put the beaker two thirds full of water on the wire net over
the flame. Put enough white of egg into the test tube to cover the bulb of
the thermometer when this is put into the tube. Clamp the test tube so
that it rests in the water in the beaker. The surface of the water should
stand above the top of the white of egg. Clamp the thermometer so that it
is held in the white of egg in the test tube. The white should be stirred
with a fork before it is put into the test tube, and only a small quantity
used.
Note:
1. The temperature when the first visible change occurs.
2. The temperature when the whole mass becomes of a jellylike
consistency.
3. The temperature when the water reaches the boiling point.
Remove; note the consistency.
=3. Jellied or coddled eggs.=——See that the shells are whole and
clean. If the eggs are just taken from the refrigerator, lay them in
warm water a few minutes. Make ready a double boiler, the lower part
half full of boiling water. Put the required number of eggs into the
inner boiler, cover with water that has just stopped boiling, put on
the boiler cover, and stand the boiler where the water below will no
longer boil. The eggs will be done in from six to eight minutes.
Having performed the preceding experiment, you should be able to
invent another way of accomplishing this result.
=4. Boiled eggs.=
Put one egg at a time from a tablespoon into boiling water. Allow
the water to boil for three or four minutes, depending upon the
preference of those served. Remove the eggs, and serve at once.
The _hard-boiled egg_ should remain in the boiling water half an
hour.
Bearing in mind the fact that hard-boiled eggs must be chopped or
sliced, cannot you invent a way of using them in a luncheon dish?
=5. Poached eggs.=——Make ready a frying pan by setting muffin rings
in it, and filling it about half full of gently simmering water, with
a teaspoonful of salt dissolved in it. Break the eggs one at a time
into a saucer, and slip each egg carefully into a muffin ring. See
that the pan stands where the water is just below the boiling point,
for rapidly bubbling water breaks the eggs. When the white begins to
set, pour the hot water gently over the tops of the eggs from a
spoon. Cook until the white is firm. Slip a griddle cake turner under
the egg, lift it gently, and place it upon a piece of buttered toast
which you have ready on a hot plate, or platter, and remove the ring.
An easier method resembling the poached egg is to break the egg
raw into a small buttered cup or “patty,” standing the cups in a
pan of water just below the boiling point, the pan being on the
top of the stove or in the oven. Each egg should have a
sprinkling of salt, and may have a bit of butter, and a shake of
pepper. Cover the pan. This process is longer than the other, and
the eggs must be watched to see when the process is complete.
=6. Scrambled eggs.=
As the name denotes, this is a process needing a quick motion.
Allow an egg to each person. Have ready a frying pan heated, a
broad bladed knife, and a tablespoonful of butter, or butter
substitute, ready to melt in the pan.
(1) Melt the butter, break the eggs into the pan, without beating
them, and begin to scrape them from the bottom of the pan with the
knife, as fast as you can move your hand. This is an old-time
method, and gives a mixture of white and yellow color. Stop the
process when the eggs are softer than you wish them for serving,
as they will stiffen after they are removed from the fire.
Sprinkle in salt, before you give the last scramble, and serve at
once.
(2) Beat the eggs, adding a tablespoonful of water for each egg,
and a shake of salt for each, and proceed as in (1).
=7. The omelet.=
The novice should see an omelet made, as there is a “knack” in
the motion not to be conveyed by words. The omelet is a French
dish, and is made to perfection by the French cook. A perfect
omelet is rolled or folded over, and is creamy within and a
golden brown without. “Omelet pans” are made for the purpose, but
a small frying pan may be used. The pan should be perfectly
smooth. Do not attempt to make an omelet with more than two eggs
until you become expert. This is one method, and others are used
by different French cooks. The first stage makes the whole mass
creamy, the second browns one surface.
(1) Have the pan _warm_ enough to melt two teaspoonfuls of butter,
but not hot. Beat two eggs with a fork until they are creamy but
not foamy, and add two teaspoonfuls of water, with two shakes of
salt.
Put the mixture into the pan, standing the pan where it has a
medium heat. If over gas, the flame should be low, and covered
with asbestos. Proceed as with the scrambled egg, with great
rapidity, and when the mass is creamy, lift the pan, tip it
slightly, and push the whole mass toward the handle end of the
pan. Put two teaspoonfuls more of butter in the pan, and set it
where the heat is intense. Smooth the mass of egg over the whole
surface of the pan that the omelet may become brown underneath.
Shake the pan gently back and forth, lift the omelet at the edge
with a knife to see if the browning is accomplished, take the pan
from the fire, fold or roll the omelet from the handle end of the
pan to the front, and turn it out upon a hot plate.
A method easier for the novice is to accomplish the first stage in
a bowl set into a teakettle, beating into the mass as it thickens
a teaspoonful of butter, or a tablespoonful of cream. When the
mixture is evenly creamy, turn it into the hot buttered pan and
proceed as with (1).
(2) _Light omelet._——This is not a true omelet, but in reality a
soufflé cooked in a frying pan. It is somewhat insipid in flavor
and is not easier to make _well_ than the French omelet. As
commonly served it is apt to be underdone or tough.
With the light omelet, the eggs and whites are separated and the
whites beaten until light and dry. Beat the yolks until creamy,
adding water and salt as in (1). Pour this mixture over the white,
and cut and fold the mass. See page 63. Pour this into a buttered
baking dish and set in a _moderate_ oven. The oven should not be
more than 300° F. Serve in the pan.
When gas is used, the soufflé may be set in the oven with the
flame low, and browned for a moment under the flame turned high.
Both of these omelets may be varied by the addition of chopped
parsley or chopped ham, or grated cheese.
_Laboratory management._ When the price of eggs is high, some of the
experiments can be demonstrated by the teacher. Eggs should be used when
the price is at its lowest, even if this interferes with the logical
sequence of lessons.
MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS
Milk is the natural food of the young mammal, and contains all the
foodstuffs in a form easily assimilable. Starch is not present, the
carbohydrate being found in the form of lactose, or milk sugar, a sugar
differing somewhat from the sugars found in vegetables and fruit (see
Chapter X).
Whole milk and the milk products, cream, butter, and cheese, are all
important food materials among the nations of the western world; and the
manufacture of milk products, such as condensed milk, butter, and cheese,
has developed large industries. While the Chinese and Japanese are two
great peoples who have not utilized milk or any of its products as food
for grown people to any extent, yet we are fully justified in counting
these foods among the necessities. Nothing can fully take the place of
milk in the family dietary.
Figure 41 shows how all the foodstuffs are represented in milk. When milk
first comes from the cow the fat is suspended in tiny, invisible particles
throughout the water, giving the milk its yellow tint, and the fat rises
to the top in the form of cream after a few hours. The protein, sugar, and
ash are dissolved in the water. When milk reaches the stomach, the protein
separates from the water in the form of curd. This change is brought about
by an enzyme (soluble ferment) called rennin, which is present, along with
pepsin, in the gastric juice. Curd is also formed by the souring of milk
through the action of bacteria, or by adding acid directly to the milk.
Milk should never be gulped down, but taken in sips, so that only small
portions of curd are formed in the stomach, because these are much easier
to digest than large ones. Sometimes milk is soured purposely, as in
buttermilk or zoolak or matzoon, that curds may form and be beaten fine
before it is drunk. This is very easy to digest, because then no large
curds can form. For the same reason, it is often better to take milk with
bread or some other food, or to cook it in some dish. Skim milk is a
valuable food, for it has everything found in whole milk but the fat. We
miss the flavor of the fat in drinking it, hence it is better to use it in
pudding or soup or in cooking cereals where we do not care so much about
the milk flavor. Study Fig. 41, comparing the percentages of the
foodstuffs in whole, skim, and buttermilk, and cream. Notice that the skim
milk is higher than the whole milk in protein and sugar, that it has as
much ash, and a trace of fat even. It does not tell us, however, that the
forms of ash in milk are most valuable, and that it is richer in calcium
than any other food material. How these foods compare in fuel value is
shown in Fig. 42.
[Illustration: FIG. 41.——Composition of milk and cream.]
[Illustration: FIG. 42.——100-Calorie portions of milk and cream.
No. KIND WEIGHT OF PORTION, OUNCES
1. Cream (18.5% fat) 1.8
2. Whole milk 5.1
3. Skim milk 9.6
4. Buttermilk 9.9
_A. Fowler, Photographer._]
=Wholesome and clean milk.=——At present, the milk supply is one of our
most pressing community problems, showing how closely the country and the
city are united. A case of typhoid fever in one farm family, not properly
cared for, may be the seed of a serious epidemic in some town. To insure
clean milk to the consumer, and a fair return in money to the producer, is
a great sanitary and commercial problem, not to be solved in a day.
Milk is a medium in which bacteria flourish, both the harmless and the
disease producing. Typhoid fever and other fatal diseases may be carried
by milk from unclean barns and dairies, and tuberculosis is possible from
diseased cows. The cows must be in good health, and the stable clean.
Figure 43 shows a stable with cement floor and good drainage. The cows
must themselves be clean, and should be curried and washed. The milkers
should have clean clothes and hands, and all receptacles should be
sterilized. The milk must be rapidly cooled (see Fig. 44), bottled in
sterilized bottles, kept cool during transportation, and delivered as
promptly as possible to the consumer. “Certified” milk is produced and
handled under the best conditions, but costs at least 15 cents a quart.
Since a quart of milk is equivalent to a pound of steak or to 8 eggs, milk
even at 15 to 20 cents a quart is more economical than meat and eggs at
ordinary prices. At the usual price of 8 to 10 cents a quart, milk is very
economical as compared with other perishable foods.
[Illustration: FIG. 43.——A modern cow house. _Courtesy of the
Walker-Gordon Laboratory._]
[Illustration: FIG. 44.——Milk bottling room. _Courtesy of Walker-Gordon
Laboratory._]
The question of preservation and pasteurization can be treated here but
briefly. Preservatives are forbidden by law in most states. Pasteurization
is heating at a temperature sufficiently high to kill any disease germs
present, but not high enough to give a cooked taste. This process, while
it destroys most of the bacteria, does not kill the spores of all. The
chief arguments against pasteurization are (1) that on a commercial scale
it is difficult to really accomplish this, and (2) that it is easily used
to cover the sale of unclean milk. The argument for it is, that it is
impossible to obtain as yet an ideal supply for a large city in hot
weather, and that pasteurization, if properly conducted, kills nearly all
of the dangerous bacteria and saves the lives of many babies. Clean milk
that needs no pasteurization is our ultimate aim, and we must remember
that milk pasteurized under unknown conditions needs to be kept cold and
treated with even more care than fresh milk, for it “spoils” quite as
easily, only we may not know it because it may not taste sour.
In the last few years the question of pasteurization has been studied
with very great care. It is found best to heat the milk for 20 to 30
minutes at a temperature of 140° to 155° F. If it is certain that this
method has been used, one need not hesitate to trust the milk, for the
arguments against pasteurization do not properly apply here.
=How to buy.=——Investigate by question and inspection, if possible, the
available milk supply. Be sure to do this in the country in the summer.
Always buy bottled milk. Where the income is small, good quality milk
should be used for the little children and invalids, and skim milk
purchased for cooking. In many places skim milk is supplied in bottles by
reliable firms. The usual price for bottled milk in the city is 8 to 10
cents, and this is of good average quality. Keep milk cold. If there is no
ice, use an ice substitute (page 74), and in very hot weather pasteurize
or scald the milk, cooling afterward as quickly as possible by placing in
cold water and stirring the water.
GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES
=Principles of cookery.=——Clean, sweet milk is an ideal food, which
requires no cooking. Heating milk to 212° F. changes its properties in
some way, so that it is not considered an ideal food for babies’ regular
diet. If it must be used, for reasons of safety, some uncooked food, such
as orange juice, should also be given. This is the reason for pasteurizing
milk instead of boiling it.
Heating milk in an open vessel causes some of the protein to harden into a
thin “skin” on the top. This can be prevented by stirring the milk until
it is cool.
=1. To pasteurize milk.=
This cannot be done accurately without a thermometer. The milk
bottle should be placed upon a rack in a kettle of water, with a
clean thermometer inserted through the cover of the bottle. Heat
the water slowly, and watch the thermometer. When it reaches 155°
F., see that the water becomes no hotter. Set the kettle on a
rack on the stove top, or use a simmering burner with rack and
asbestos mat. It is difficult to keep the temperature even, but
it should remain at 140-155° F. half an hour. At the end of half
an hour, the bottle should be removed, and cooled as rapidly as
possible in running cold water.
=2. Rennet custard.=
1 quart milk, two tablespoonfuls of sugar, a shake of salt,
flavoring, 1 rennet tablet. The flavoring may be: 1 teaspoonful
vanilla, _or_ a few tablespoonfuls of orange juice, _or_ the
vanilla, plus three or four tablespoonfuls of cocoa to suit the
taste.
_To prepare._——This is a process without cooking. Rennet tablets
are made from the stomach of the calf, and contain the digestive
enzyme, rennin, which results in the solidifying of the curd of
the milk. Rennet custard has passed the first stage of milk
digestion.
Put all the flavoring substances into the milk, and warm it
slightly, not more than 100° F. The cocoa when used should be
“dissolved” in a small amount of hot water. Dissolve the rennet in
a tablespoonful of cold water, and stir this very thoroughly into
the milk. Pour the milk into the cups in which the custard will be
served, and set the cups in a warm but not hot place. A good
method is to place them in a pan of warm water (100° F.). The milk
becomes firm in a half hour or an hour, and as soon as it is set,
should be put in the ice box, otherwise the process continues and
the custard becomes watery as the curd shrinks and forces out the
whey. Serve very cold with fruit on the top, or whipped cream with
the cocoa flavoring; or put grated nutmeg or powdered cinnamon on
the top. This is a simple and delicious dessert, and one of the
most wholesome. For children it should be flavored with fruit
juice or vanilla rather than with cocoa.
=3. Uses of sour milk.=
Do not throw away any sour milk that is clean and not stale. Milk
that has soured enough to set, is a delicious dessert, with cream
and sugar. The acid is very pleasant, being the same as that of
buttermilk. Sour milk is better for griddlecakes and muffins than
sweet milk. (See Chapter XI.) Another excellent use for sour milk
is to make it into cottage cheese. (See below.)
=Matzoon= and other similar preparations are essentially soured milks,
prepared under controlled conditions. These preparations are the common
form of milk in certain parts of the Orient, where milk is never used
sweet.
=Kumyss= is milk slightly soured and fermented with one species of yeast.
This is a Russian method. These preparations are excellent for invalids
and exhausted people, for they can sometimes be assimilated because of the
fine curds when sweet milk cannot.