of marble, above this the wall is painted yellow with white panels
framed with green, in the middle of each of which is introduced
a picture. On the wall lying to the left of the entrance is the
abandonment of Ariadne on Naxos. The fair one deserted by Theseus at
the bidding of the gods is, as it seems, just awaked from slumber.
Astonished and terrified at being forsaken she lays her left hand
on her chin, while an Eros in order to bring her to understand her
position points to the ship of Theseus speeding away with sail full
set. The second picture is unfortunately destroyed, the slab of
stucco bearing it was in antiquity fastened on the wall with a series
of nails. The picture on the third wall represents the well-known
adventure of Hero and Leander (fig. 122). Besides these more important
pictures there are birds pecking fruit; above these comes a zone
of water with fish and other marine fauna, crowned by architecture
represented in perspective, on detached portions of which hanging
baskets and drinkinghorns are introduced, and also wild beasts chasing
one another. The room was once vaulted.
A richer decoration is to be seen in the paintings of the next room
towards the south, a triclinium: here the plinth is yellow and
ornamented with garlands, arabesques, hanging masks _etc._; above
come white panels, between which rises architecture with seated
and recumbent sphinxes. Of larger pictures only two are preserved;
of the other two one was destroyed, probably before the eruption of
Vesuvius, while the other fell a sacrifice to the diggers for treasure
who after the destruction of Pompeii lawfully or unlawfully explored
the abandoned houses, and for this purpose knocked holes through the
walls. On the side opposite the entrance the wrestling match between
Eros and Pan is represented, on the entrance side, Cyparissus and his
hind (fig. 123). Above these panels decorated with pictures comes a
cornice plastically constructed, higher still than this rise fresh
architectural forms comprising in their midst a broad exedra, with the
fore-part of a building approached by three steps. The central panels
are devoted to the representation of Jupiter and his mortal favourites,
there is seen on the right of the entrance Jupiter in youthful form
seated on his throne, while the other walls show Leda, Danaë, and a
third lady. But also the side panels, the out buildings made accessible
by stairs, are decorated with figures mostly taken from the Bacchic
cycle.
On the other side of the ostium the picture of the Lares (fig.
124) demands a brief notice. In the little temple supported by two
Corinthian columns and crowned by a pediment stands the Genius holding
patera and incense box. To right and left of him are painted the two
Lares, who symmetrically carry in one hand a bucket in the other a
drinkinghorn. Beneath them is observed the serpent that in many a curve
approaches the altar richly furnished with offerings. The remaining
apartments, with the exception of the cook’s bedroom, are without
painting.
The two cubicles lying west of the strongboxes have only unimportant
decorations; both alae display a black plinth enlivened by green
shrubs, and have above yellow panels with red borders, and having in
the centre small representations of still life; of these a cockfight
executed in a most lively style merits special attention. Beside a herm
stands a table with a large vessel; there stand two cocks, preparing
themselves for the fight; a third, the defeated one, lies under the
table, while the fourth, the conqueror, proudly marches off to the
right, with a twig of palm in his beak.
The peristyle has a black plinth decorated alternately with green
plants and vases (the pyramids of ivy there represented are now
imitated in nature in the garden of the peristyle). Above come
alternately large black panels framed in red, and fantastic pieces of
architecture on a white ground, which are bounded beneath by a yellow
slab with green or dark red border. The figure compositions introduced
in the centres of the panels consist for the most part of still life,
to which fish, fowls _etc._ contribute material, though there is no
lack of more important figures. To these belongs above all that of a
thick-set man who sits beside a chest filled with books. Scientific
efforts are suggested also by the figure of a Urania, who represented
as though in the act of imparting information, points with her staff
to the celestial globe lying before her (fig. 142); otherwise the
decoration of the hall is supplied by Satyrs and Bacchanals and the
winged female figures so frequently employed in Pompeii, together with
the attributes of various deities.
[Illustration: Fig. 124. The Shrine of the Lares (p. 88).]
Much more important however than these wall-paintings of the portico
are the sculptures which have been preserved in the enclosed garden
(fig. 125). In all four corners, and further at the second and third
columns of the narrower sides and the fourth and fifth of the long
sides there were once statuettes, twelve therefore in all, of which
nine are still preserved in their original position (fig. 126), while
two were removed to other parts of the building for repair. All these
statuettes, of which two are of bronze, the rest of marble, served
for fountains. The water either came directly out of them, or branch
pipes of the aqueduct were so laid on to them that it seemed as though
the water came from them; between them are placed several troughs and
receptacles of marble, which by their graceful shapes and beautiful
ornaments make a pleasing impression. The conduit too, save for slight
damage, was in such good repair that it has been found possible to
renew the play of the waters by means of a reservoir placed on the
roof. Marble tables between the columns and within the garden that is
still quite clearly marked out in beds, as well as two ivy-encircled
marble pedestals on each of which rests a double bust (fig. 127)
contribute in no slight measure to make the whole peristyle most
charming, and indeed a spot as yet unique in Pompeii.
[Illustration: Fig. 125. The Peristyle of the House of the Vettii (p.
89).]
A series of apartments too open on the peristyle, and in the first
place a triclinium. On a low foundation of imitation marble rises
the dark red plinth, over which again mounts a fanciful style of
architecture, leaving space in the centre for a sort of canopy.
The smaller pictures executed soberly in monochrome fall into the
background behind the large ones occupying the centre of the wall. Of
these large pictures the first is Hercules strangling the serpents
(fig. 128). The child Hercules has seized both the serpents sent by
Juno, and is throttling them, while his mother flies in terror, and
Amphitryo, his earthly father, is in the act of hastening to the
rescue. Yet the sight which presents itself to him checks any further
action, he sees that the child needs no help against the wretched
snakes: astonished and thoughtful he lays his right hand on his chin,
and he has every reason to be full of thoughts, for he could not have
expected such bravery from his own son. Jupiter in the meantime has
despatched his eagle to receive information as to his hero son. The
subject of the second picture is the punishment of Pentheus. The third
picture also is taken from a Theban myth, it represents the punishment
of Dirce, and corresponds to the well-known group of the so-called
Farnese Bull.
[Illustration: Fig. 126. Bacchus (p. 89).]
[Illustration: Fig. 127. Bacchus and Ariadne (p. 90).]
In like manner the corresponding room to the north of the _Ala
dextra_, which also opens its whole width on the peristyle, displays
rich ornament on the walls. In the plinth there is again an imitation
of marble, above in the middle is a red panel with a large square
picture, next is on each side a blue panel with the usual fantastic
architecture; then comes on both the longer sides a white panel. In the
centre of each of the three wallsurfaces a painting of larger size is
placed: first Daedalus and Pasiphae (fig. 129). The ingenious craftsman
has prepared the wooden cow as commissioned by the spouse of Minos, and
now the queen comes into the master’s studio to inspect his work. The
second picture treats of the punishment of Ixion. Mercury has delivered
over the miscreant to punishment, and Vulcan is just fastening him to
the wheel; vainly the mother or wife of Ixion implores Mercury to have
mercy; for even if he on his own account were inclined to grant her
prayer, yet this would be prevented by the presence of Juno, who in
queenly state has appeared with Iris to take note of the due exaction
of punishment (fig. 130).
[Illustration: Fig. 128. Hercules strangling Serpents (p. 90).]
While the connecting idea of both these pictures, viz unlawful love
and its punishment, is clear enough, the third picture, the finding of
Ariadne by Bacchus and his following, falls somewhat outside this range
of thought. I believe however that critics have gone too far in their
efforts to discover a harmonious unity of idea for the paintings of a
room. That the owner of the house might often demand of the artist to
see that a single harmonious train of thought was carried throughout a
room, is of course easily understood, but on the other hand it is again
quite clear that in the often great number of rooms to be decorated
the whole mythology was more or less drawn upon, and that frequently
the number of subjects at command, and therefore chance, determined
the choice of the pictures. So we cannot be surprised if we see the
Deliverance of Ariadne placed with pictures treating of the punishment
of unlawful love. Ariadne in her grief at being deserted by Theseus,
whose ship is still seen in the distance, has sunk into a slumber that
frees her from care: then Bacchus with his followers approaches, who
will raise Ariadne to be his bride.
[Illustration: Fig. 129. Daedalus and Pasiphae (p. 92).]
The side panels of this room also are adorned with paintings, which
though of smaller proportions are nevertheless well worth our notice.
These are oblong pictures of ships. Two to four strongly manned vessels
are represented, which rowed at full speed hasten against one another,
and by clever turnings seek to escape the enemy’s onset, the dangerous
blow with the ship’s beak. On the shorter sides the corresponding
positions are occupied by subjects of still life (birds with fruit, and
so on). Above these come flying figures arranged in pairs, swinging
garlands over their heads: they are probably intended for the Four
Seasons; above comes again architecture with figures.
The most splendid room however and the most interesting in the house
is, next to the garden of the peristyle, the large Oecus, which is
connected by a wide doorway with the portico, and by a small door with
another chamber devoid of ornament. The groundcolour of the whole room
is in the lower portion red and black, the plinth is sober black and
adorned with floral arabesques, above, however, the walls are red,
with black stripes. Beneath each vertical black stripe a picture is
introduced on the plinth, generally Amazons in warlike guise, buckler
and battleaxe in hand, but also Satyrs, Maenads, persons offering
sacrifice, _etc._ Over these figures comes a small oblong picture,
usually Psyches gathering flowers (fig. 131), here and there, however,
mythological scenes also are inserted. Three of these are preserved,
first Orestes and Pylades in Tauris. To the left sits Orestes, near him
is Pylades, towards them Iphigenia advances with the image of Diana,
on the right king Thoas is seated on a throne. The second picture
represents the triumph of Apollo over the serpent Pytho. The god has
killed the snake which guarded the sanctuary at Delphi; proud of his
victory he seized the lyre to sound the first paean in praise of the
omnipotence of the gods, and to his own especial glory; in his honour
the goddess of the place brings a bull, who is to fall as a sacrifice.
The third relates presumably to the sacrifice of Iphigenia in Aulis.
Before an altar, on which fire is burning, stands a woman with bowl
and chalice, from which she seems to besprinkle a hind standing in
front of her. From the right of the altar a wide-striding warrior
hastens up with drawn sword; a female figure wearing a wreath hurries
away to the left, evidently terrified at the warrior’s action. The
rendering varies from others relating to the same myth, yet scarcely
any other interpretation is left. That Iphigenia is not herself
introduced, but only the hind, may be pronounced remarkable, though why
should not the painter have hit upon this means of representing the
sudden change, especially if the other pictures in the room (cf. no. 1
of this series, Orestes and Pylades in Tauris) made the relations clear?
[Illustration: Fig. 130. Ixion’s Punishment (p. 92).]
The horizontal black bands beneath the red panels are occupied by
Erotes and Psyches, who with a naturally bright earnestness and
conscientiousness imitate the employments of daily life, chiefly the
exercise of certain trades, so that these bands may be reckoned among
the most interesting of Pompeii’s pictures. Here we have in the first
place the representation of a game, Erotes are busied in throwing
balls at a board. Further the manufacture and sale of garlands. Here
flowers are brought to the city by the gardener and his son, there
others are busy with the preparation of garlands, while on the left
haggling is going on about the finished garlands. Then follows the
production of oil, and the ointments prepared therefrom. A race too is
introduced (fig. 133); four Erotes distinguished by the four colours
of the Circus drive chariots harnessed with gazelles. On this follows
the representation of the goldsmith’s art, further that of the fuller’s
work, so important for ancient cities: two Erotes tread in a vat the
clothes to be cleaned, after this comes the removing of stains and the
brushing, or the raising the nap of the clothes, still further on the
clothes that have been cleaned are submitted to a thorough inspection
by Psyches. The following picture, the festival of Vesta, representing
the so-called _Vestalia_ is pretty well ruined, Erotes and Psyches are
reclining on the ground at a merry feast, and even the much tormented
donkeys have for once some rest. The next picture too is not well
preserved; on the left the vintage is represented, on the right the
wine-press. On the vintage follows the triumph of Bacchus, who is of
course represented by an Eros. The close of this series, so damaged
unfortunately in several of its scenes, is formed by the tavern with
the sale of wine (fig. 132). On the left stand a number of amphoras
just as they are still often found in Pompeii leaning on the wall in
a somewhat slanting position, in front of them stands mine host in an
easy posture, while he offers to his customer, who carries a little
stick, a bowl of wine to taste; two other Erotes are busy in drawing
wine for another sample from an amphora in a horizontal position.
In the centre of the red panels flying couples are depicted, derived
from mythology; we note, however, the want of freedom in choice which
the requirement as to pictures has imposed on the artist; here, as in
the War against the Giants at Pergamon, the whole force, so to speak,
has been mobilised. The figures preserved are those of Poseidon with
an inamorata, of Apollo with Daphne, of Bacchus with Ariadne, and of
Perseus with Andromeda.
In the centre of each wall there was also a large picture, these
however have not survived. On the other hand the upper part of the wall
above the red panels framed in black is still partly preserved; we
see here again new structures rising, which were peopled by numerous
figures, chiefly derived from the entourage of Bacchus.
[Illustration: Fig. 131. Psyches gathering Flowers (p. 94).]
Now it remains to describe the small space set apart for the ladies.
Here too the walls are adorned with paintings which attract less
attention only because the abundance of treasures offered to our gaze
in the Casa dei Vettii leaves scarcely time or inclination for the
smaller works of art. The first room has a black plinth, with green
shrubs and flowers as ornament, over this red panels separated by
white stripes; in the centre of each panel is a fabulous creature.
Here a Pegasus grazing beside a wall and the attributes of Athena is
most deserving of notice. The second room has black walls with white
bands, which as it were open up a view into the open air with trees &c.
In the centre of each wall there was originally a large picture, now
however only two are left; first the Discovery of Achilles in Scyros,
where Ulysses and Diomedes by a stratagem detect Achilles disguised in
woman’s clothing among the daughters of Lycomedes, and induce him to
take part in the expedition against Troy (fig. 134). The second picture
represents Hercules and Auge.
Next to these large wall-pictures, medallions with flying female
forms are placed on the side panels. It may be stated in passing that
throughout the whole mansion the medallions always prove to have been
separately inserted: clearly these pieces were produced by the artists
on slabs of stucco and kept in stock, so that during the preparation of
a wall they had simply to be let into it. Hence we cannot be surprised
if the medallions sometimes betray a style more or less at variance
with the other decorations of the wall.
[Illustration: Fig. 132. Cupid as Host (p. 95).]
Such are the paintings of the house known as _Domus Vettiorum_, a
house that in the number of pictures which are placed in it, and
in the beauty and grace of its peristyle, excels without doubt all
other houses as yet excavated. Of course we have not always to do
with masters of the first rank; should we ask as to the origin of
the pictures and how they had come to a little provincial town like
Pompeii, several hands that had been employed upon them might easily
be distinguished. Taken as a whole however the wall decorations are
unique; nay with regard to individual representations, above all in
the case of the frieze of Cupids in the Oecus, one can pronounce only
a favourable judgement, especially when one sees how lightly and
naturally, and yet with what a sure hand, and how characteristically,
the pictures have been conceived and executed. If ordinary decorative
painters produced such wall decoration for a small provincial town,
what triumph of art must have graced the mansions of the leading men in
the great cities! We have indeed a specimen of these in what is called
the House of Livia on the Palatine, and in the _Domus Transtiberina_,
the remains of which are exhibited in the Baths of Diocletian; these,
however, are but insignificant fragments as compared with the vast mass
of that which has been irretrievably lost.
Now that we have thus examined a house in its entirety we might take
our departure. Yet hold! Pompeii is indeed, as said above, in contrast
to Naples, the city of the Dead, yet in Pompeii there is still one spot
that in a greater degree may be designated the place of the Dead, this
is the Street of Tombs in front of the Gate of Herculaneum. Almost
all roads that led out of ancient cities were lined by the monuments
of the dead; so too at Pompeii, where on all the roads leading out of
the city, e. g. on that to Scafati, numerous burial places have been
discovered, but not one of these roads can compete with the place of
sepulture that lies in front of the Gate of Herculaneum. This then
deserves a more thorough investigation.
[Illustration: Fig. 133. A Race (p. 95).]
This is not the proper place to describe the methods of burial
prevailing among the Romans; it is sufficient here to state that in the
most ancient times the dead were laid to rest in sarcophagi; examples
of such a method of interment, which at Rome in particular gentes, or
clans, was observed uninterruptedly to the latest period, e. g. among
the Cornelii, are found also in Pompeii, but seem to go back to the
Oscan epoch. In those times the bodies were laid in coffinlike chests
of limestone, which were made up of square blocks or smaller stones,
and covered with earth, after all sorts of little vases, chiefly of
Nolan manufacture, had been put in with them. Examples of such a
method of burial are exhibited in the small Museum at the Porta della
Marina. Later, however, when Pompeii was added to the Roman Empire,
cremation generally took the place of interment. For this purpose in
a space specially set apart called _Ustrinum_, the funeral pile was
erected, to which the form of an altar was regularly given, the height
and decoration of which were naturally decided according to the rank
and wealth of the deceased. Such _ustrina_ were of course assigned
by the city, frequently however, where space permitted and police
regulations did not hinder, there were private grounds of this kind at
the hereditary burying places of distinguished families. At Pompeii
too such an _ustrinum_ has been supposed to exist before the Gate of
Herculaneum, but wrongly, for the insufficient distance from the city
would alone have absolutely prohibited the burning of corpses there.
The bier with the corpse was placed on the pyre and covered with sweet
smelling unguents, incense, costly stuffs &c. and then kindled by a
relative or friend with averted face. When the funeral pile was burned
to the ground the ashes had to be extinguished with water or wine, the
bones that were left collected, and then, after the customary lustral
sacrifice had been offered, the funeral feast had to be held at the
grave. The place required for such a feast, the _triclinium funebre_,
is still remaining at Pompeii. Some days later the bones, which in the
meantime had been dried in the sun, were sprinkled with milk and wine,
and, after the addition of fragrant materials, placed in a sepulchral
urn, that was afterwards conveyed to the tomb. The sepulchral urns were
generally hermetically sealed, but often provided with holes at the
top, so that on appointed days the usual libations to the dead could
be poured right on to the cremated remains, in order to ensure to the
deceased person the enjoyment of the sacrifices offered to him. Nay
pipes have (in the case of some of the graves situated on the road
leading to Scafati) been fixed in such a way as to render it possible
to convey directly to him such libations also as were dedicated to the
dead man outside the tomb.
[Illustration: Fig. 134. Achilles at the Court of Lycomedes (p. 96).]
[Illustration: Fig. 135. The Street of Tombs by the Gate of Herculaneum
(p. 100).]
Apart from some few graves dating back to Oscan times, the monuments in
front of the Gate of Herculaneum belong entirely to the Roman period
(fig. 135). Immediately to the left, behind the Gate, is seen a vaulted
niche, in which then was originally placed a statue, that of course of
the person buried there, with an altar before it for the sacrifices;
according to the inscription the grave belongs to the Augustalis M.
Cerrinius Restitutus, for whose burial the Decurions presented the
ground. The _Augustales_ formed a _collegium_ consisting of freedmen
dedicated to the cult of the emperors. This is the niche to which is
attached the well-known legend of the sentry fabled to have remained
at his post during the eruption of Vesuvius, and thereby met his
death: in reality there is no question of a sentrybox nor of a sentry,
for, according to the reports of the excavations, no skeleton at all
was found at this point. Passing on from the grave of M. Cerrinius
we come on the left to a semicircular bench which according to the
inscription was erected by decree of the Decurions in honour of Aulus
Veius, who had held the highest magistracies of the city. Probably his
remains were interred behind the bench. His statue will have stood on
the pedestal in the centre of the seat; it may be inferred from the
dignities named in the inscription as enjoyed by him that he lived not
later than Augustus.
[Illustration: Fig. 136. Continuation of the Street of Tombs (p. 103).]