FAMOUS ART CITIES;
No. 1,
POMPEII
POMPEII
BY
RICHARD ENGELMANN
TRANSLATED BY
TALFOURD ELY, M. A., F. S. A.;
FELLOW OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON
[Illustration]
1904
LONDON, W. C. NEW YORK
H. GREVEL & CO. CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
LEIPZIG, E. A. SEEMANN
PRINTED BY ERNST HEDRICH NACHF., G. M. B. H., LEIPZIG
Table of Contents
Preface
Index
List of Illustrations
PREFACE
The present work forms the first of a series of volumes published under
the general title of “_Famous Art Cities_”. The second, (by Dr. Gustav
Pauli), treats of Venice; its immediate successors will deal with
Florence and Nuremberg. Rome, Siena, Ravenna and Cairo will represent a
continuation.
Whoever visits Pompeii for the first time will not grudge a corner
beside his guide-book for a _Vademecum_ such as this, which offers the
inspiration of the _Genius loci_ to the traveller of artistic tastes.
As the one meets his material needs, so the other ministers to the
intellectual interests of the man of education, and may, at a later
time, preserve or renew in the liveliest fashion his remembrance of
what he has seen.
[Illustration: Excavation (p. 9).]
“Vedi Napoli e poi muori”; “See Naples and die!” is a saying one often
hears, a saying which means that after seeing Naples in all her beauty
one has nothing on earth left to admire.
And in a certain sense this is true enough: there are but few places
which in beauty of scenery can compare with the Bay of Naples. Yet
a visit to Naples is not all; equally with the City of the Living,
so attractive to the stranger for its life ever freshly throbbing
early and late, the City of the Dead, Pompeii, deserves also thorough
investigation and careful study. Whoever goes to Naples must not fail
to turn his attention also to its near neighbour Pompeii. This nowadays
is so easy a matter, whether one drives along the beautiful roads
between smiling gardens that adorn the slopes of Vesuvius, or takes
train across the lavabeds close to the sea, whose waves break on the
embankment. The goal is quickly reached: there is music and refreshment
in one of the hotels which are in front of the ruins; then quickly to
the entrance; where we settle as to tickets and guides, and through the
Porta Marina or Sea Gate we enter the ancient city.
But what is Pompeii, and why should we not leave Naples without seeing
Pompeii also. Those whose memory goes far back enough remember that
in April 1872 the eyes of all were turned to the neighbourhood of
Naples. But this time it was not the splendour of the country that
caused universal attention, and brought to the Bay of Naples countless
foreigners from near and far. It was a drama of Nature at once imposing
and terrible that formed the attraction for the hosts that gathered
there. Vesuvius which for several years (since 1865) had never quite
slumbered, showed itself once more in all its terrors, and ever more
awful than before: showers of fire burst forth to a vast height from
old craters and new, clouds of ashes darkened the air for miles, and
filled the streets even of distant towns: immense streams of lava burst
from the mountain’s flanks hurling death and destruction before them.
[Illustration: Fig. 1. Vesuvius before the eruption (p. 3).]
And yet in spite of all its terrors the eruption did not equal the
one with which Vesuvius first in historic times announced itself as
a volcano and covered with lava and ejected stones the three cities
of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae, to say nothing of less famous
places. The desolate cone of ashes which now towers high above the
ordinary surface did not exist at an earlier period; right up to the
summit the mountain was clothed with woods, while on its flanks the
grape ripened into costly wine (see fig. 1, a Pompeian wall-painting
representing in all probability Monte di Somma before the evolution
of the crater of Vesuvius). And if one enquirer or another drew some
conclusion as to the volcanic nature from the depression on its summit
and the fruitfulness of the neighbouring land, yet people thought it
altogether extinct, and believed they had nothing to fear from it.
[Illustration: Fig. 2. Contest between Pompeians and Nucerians in the
amphitheatre (p. 6).]
Then, on August 24th, A. D. 79, clouds of smoke rose suddenly from the
mountain, stones were hurled forth, the heavens grew dark, so that
it might well be thought night had come on, every one took to flight
as he could, one got in another’s way. Whoever was out of the city
hastened back into it, to rescue what he could. He who was in the city
sought to reach the open country as quickly as possible. Those on shore
hurried to the sea, those at sea hurried to the shore. In short there
was everywhere the most terrible confusion, no one knew what was to
come next. We can scarcely realise sufficiently the horrors of the
situation. What in 1872 is reported of Portici and Resina and Torre
del Greco, can give but a faint idea of what happened in 79 when the
danger came much nearer and was far more unexpected. A description by
the younger Pliny, whose uncle met his death at Stabiae in the eruption
of Vesuvius, has been preserved for us, telling of what happened that
day at Misenum, a place distant from Vesuvius about twenty miles in
a straight line. This may be abridged as follows--“For several days
vibrations of the earth had been noticed, but less fear was aroused
because this is not an unusual phenomenon in Campania. On that night
however they were so violent that everything seemed to be upset.”
[Illustration: Fig. 3. Plaster-cast of a Pompeian woman (p. 6).]
“My mother burst into my bedroom, and I too was in the act of getting
up to wake her in case she should still be asleep. It was now the
seventh hour, yet it was still gloomy and dark. Since the neighbouring
houses were much damaged and ready to fall, we decided to leave the
city, and our example was followed by the whole of the terrorstricken
inhabitants who hustled and pushed past us as we went. When we were out
of the immediate neighbourhood of the houses we stopped:--there were
extraordinary things to see. The vehicles which we had collected were
being thrown in opposite directions, although the surface of the ground
was quite level, and even stones thrust under them could not keep them
in the same position. Besides, the sea appeared to retire, at least
the shore was extended, and many creatures belonging to the sea were
stranded on the sands. From the other side came a threatening black
cloud, pierced by glittering lightning: it seemed to descend upon the
earth and brood over the waters; already it had quite enveloped Capri
and withdrawn Cape Misenum from our sight. When my mother saw this, she
adjured me to abandon her and take to flight alone, that I might at
least save my own life; I on the contrary refused to think of escaping
without her, seized her hand, and compelled her to set forth. Ashes
were already falling, though as yet to but a slight extent; I look
behind me, thick mist is threatening in the rear and pursues us; let
us, said I, while we can still see, step aside, so as not by remaining
in the road to be thrown down and trampled on in the darkness by the
multitude following us. Scarcely had we seated ourselves when dark
night fell round us as it does in closed rooms when the light is put
out. Then were heard lamentations of women, cries of children, shouts
of men, some called to their parents, others to their children, others
to husband or wife; some bemoaned their own fate, others that of their
dear ones, some even prayed for death. Many raised their hands to the
gods, still more cried that the gods no longer existed, that the last
eternal night had come. Nor were there wanting those who increased
existing terrors by false news, that Misenum had fallen in ruin and
was in flames, which was loudly proclaimed and believed though it was
not true. Gradually things became clear again; this seemed to us not
the light of day, but a token of the approaching fire. Then followed
again darkness and showers of ashes; had we not often stood up to shake
ourselves free of the ashes we should have been covered by them and
overwhelmed by their weight. At last the thick cloud little by little
dispersed as if dissolved like smoke; soon it was actually day, and
the sun broke forth, though overcast as it is wont to be in time of
eclipse; everything seemed to our eyes altered and covered with ashes
as if with snow.”
[Illustration: Fig. 4. Plaster-cast of a dog (p. 6).]
If at Misenum, at so considerable a distance from the actual point of
eruption, things went on as here described, what scenes must have been
enacted in Pompeii, the inhabitants of which were drawn into joint
suffering in quite another way. It is commonly said that the people
of Pompeii were at the time congregated together in the amphitheatre
at the extreme end of the city, to witness gladiatorial contests, so
that for the most part they could more easily escape. This however is
a mere myth, as is proved by the ruinous condition of the amphitheatre
when first discovered as well as from the history of the city. In A.
D. 60 the city had been deprived by the Roman Senate of the privilege
of exhibiting gladiatorial contests because such a performance had
given occasion to a sanguinary struggle between the inhabitants of
Pompeii and those of Nuceria who were allowed a share in the use of the
amphitheatre (the scene is represented in a Pompeian wall-painting,
fig. 2); and in A. D. 63 a terrible earthquake had destroyed a great
number of buildings and among them the amphitheatre so that it is
certain that at the time of the eruption neither gladiatorial shows nor
wild beast hunts could have been held in it. Yet the greatest number
of the inhabitants must have succeeded in escaping since on the basis
of the skeletons found up to the present time the number of those who
perished within the city can be estimated at 2,000, out of a total of
30,000 inhabitants. Many of course may have fallen a sacrifice to the
eruption of Vesuvius also outside the city walls; thus for example in
1880-81 there were found the remains of such, who had met with their
death to the south of the city, probably on what was then the bank of
the Sarno. Those however who had fled before the storm to cellars or
similar places were doomed to certain destruction, because all exit was
cut off by the falling pumice-stone and ashes, others who had taken
refuge in the upper rooms may still have escaped during a pause in the
shower of pumice-stone. Many indeed in vain: after they had worked
their way through the layer of pumice-stone they sank down exhausted
and were enveloped by the ashes. But since these ashes which came
down mixed with rain contained much Pozzolana earth they have taken a
fixed shape around the bodies; in the course of centuries the bodies
have shrunk to a few remains of bones, but the hollow impression has
remained in the shape. Thus attention having been drawn to this through
the frequent occurrence of similar cases, as soon as a hollow appeared
in the stratum of ashes during the excavation, the opportunity has been
seized and liquid plaster poured in. By this process the bodily forms
of various inhabitants of Pompeii, of animals, and of inanimate objects
have been preserved, casts which do not indeed exhibit the sharp
outlines to which we are accustomed in those produced by artistically
prepared moulds, yet which are of the highest interest to the observer
as direct reminders of those terrible hours. See figures 3 and 4.
* * * * *
[Illustration: Fig. 5. Panorama of Pompeii (p. 11).]
When the mountain had in some measure discontinued its work, the
showers of stones and ashes had ceased, and the sun had appeared again,
the inhabitants of Pompeii who had escaped returned to their city; but
they had some trouble to find it, for it was buried beneath stones
and ashes. They endeavoured as far as it was possible, to secure some
salvage from the ruins; and so many a work of art, as well as most of
the treasures in gold and silver, may well have been withdrawn from
the protecting bosom of the earth either by their lawful owners or by
unauthorised persons. A systematic excavation of the houses, however,
and a reoccupation of the city were not to be thought of, the ruin was
too complete for that. So much the better for us for whom in this way
under the ashes from Vesuvius an ancient Roman city has been preserved
in the precise condition in which it was on the twenty fourth of August
A. D. 79 (apart of course from the changes which certain materials must
have undergone in so long a time). It seems that the people of Pompeii
settled further towards Vesuvius; the ruins of their old city so far as
they appeared above the accumulated rubbish gradually collapsed, others
disappeared before the plough which began to pass over the fields,
and thus after a few centuries the name of Pompeii with the place
which pertained to it vanished from the memory of men. So it remained
throughout the whole of the Middle Ages; often enough indeed the
countryfolk while tilling their fields struck against old masonry or
found ancient utensils, but the isolated occurrences remained unnoticed.
[Illustration: Fig. 6. The Street of Mercury (p. 15).]
More remarkable indeed is it that when the architect Domenico Fontana
in the year 1594 constructed a canal to bring the water of the Sarno
to Torre dell’ Annunziata, a canal which still at the present day
intersects Pompeii, people were not incited to a thorough investigation
by the numerous relics of antiquity that during these operations must
have been cleared out of the way. It was not till the discovery of
Herculaneum (1709) that men’s thoughts were directed to another city,
smitten by a like fate--Pompeii--and when in 1748 peasants again struck
upon masonry and other more valuable objects, then at last people began
to mark the spot and to undertake more extensive excavations. Not,
it is true, in a very commendable way, since it was gold and silver
and the greater treasures of art that were especially sought, the
excavators contented themselves with grubbing the earth, and when at
most the better wall-paintings had been cut away, filling up again the
excavated houses. Such for a long time was the system of excavation;
even after an interest in the matter had been roused in higher quarters
the work was carried on with more or less provision of labour, often
only two or three workmen being employed--for many years indeed the
excavations were altogether discontinued. Only the time when Naples
was under the rule of France forms a glorious exception: the work was
entered on with zeal: as many as six-hundred and seventy four persons
with twenty six carts and seven mules were employed to remove the
_lapilli_, and thus the few years 1806-1815 shew more results than
the preceding period of more than half a century. With the return of
the Bourbon _régime_ the old conditions of course reappeared, and it
is only in modern times that an improvement in this respect has been
brought about. Since Naples has become part of the Kingdom of Italy the
work (and this is especially due to the energy of Giuseppe Fiorelli)
has been arranged in a rational manner and vigorously pushed forward,
so that the completion of the excavations may be expected within a
conceivable time. Men and a great many boys are daily employed, some
in excavating, others in carrying the _lapilli_ in baskets to the
waggons which then are taken on a railway away from Pompeii. (See the
illustration on page 1.)
[Illustration: Fig. 7. The Street of Nola and its continuation (p. 15).]
While Herculaneum for the most part (only with the exception of some
portions lying close to the sea, which resemble Pompeii) has been
covered by a vast stream of mud to a depth of twenty metres, the
mass of which hardened into tufa cannot be broken up without great
trouble, so that the excavation of the city can be effected only by
a process of mining, and this too with great care, on account of the
city of Resina lying above it, the stratum which covers Pompeii may be
called comparatively light. Whitish-grey pumice-stones, the so-called
_lapilli_, of various sizes, cover the ground to the height of two to
three metres; above lies a layer of volcanic ashes, which mixed with
a quantity of pozzolana earth and falling with frightful torrents of
rain, the usual accompaniment of volcanic eruptions, passed through the
upper layers of pumice-stone, and made their way where the _lapilli_
could not fall (e. g. into the cellars). Over these lie in some
places, but less abundantly, other _lapilli_ which proceeded from
later eruptions of Vesuvius, and the scanty soil that in the course
of centuries has developed from the ashes. All this therefore had to
be removed in order to lay bare the ruins. The system and method then
according to which the excavations were in earlier times conducted was
in the highest degree prejudicial to the remains of the buildings; for
since after once reaching the original ground level the excavators
worked onwards uniformly upon that level, it necessarily followed that
the upper parts of the buildings, which after the decay of the beams
were supported only by the surrounding masses of pumice-stone, fell in
ruin, and so always only slight remains were preserved.
[Illustration: Fig. 8. Section of a Tower.]
[Illustration: Fig. 9. View of the City Wall from outside.]
[Illustration: Fig. 10. Section of the City Wall (p. 17).]
In modern times on the contrary, since Fiorelli’s administration
(1861), the aim has been to preserve in its original position every
part of the ancient walls that is concealed under the surface. This
object is attained by the excavators as they work from above carefully
removing one horizontal layer after another and supporting the masonry
thus brought to light until it is possible to replace the woodwork
destroyed in the course of centuries by new timber of equal size. Thus
they have succeeded in preserving not only a part of an upper story
overhanging the street, but also others of the higher portions of
the buildings altogether uninjured. In this way the parts of the city
lately excavated present an appearance essentially different from that
of those previously uncovered; and since too everything is left on the
spot that can be left, especially pictures and mosaics, and since every
effort is made to protect them against the unfavourable effects of the
weather, by roofing, and coating with wax, and other means; while it is
no longer the case (as it used to be) that everything is either removed
to the Naples Museum, or (as also often happened) wantonly destroyed,
the visitor is afforded an opportunity of forming for himself a far
more truthful picture of ancient life than was possible at an earlier
period. (See fig. 5, giving a view of part of the excavated city. The
Street of Mercury lies before us, which reaches to the Forum. The roofs
which are seen in the illustration serve to protect the wall-paintings,
mosaics, &c. and are therefore almost exclusively modern.)
[Illustration: Fig. 11. The Gate of Herculaneum (p. 17).]
That the movable objects, especially those of gold, silver, bronze, and
terracotta, should have been brought to the Museum is of course only
reasonable and proper. Considering the various characters of the host
of visitors to Pompeii, it could scarcely fail to happen that one or
other article was destroyed through too rigid an examination, quite
apart from the fact that among such visitors there are always some who
“out of love for Antiquity” are ever ready to carry away with them
some souvenir of the city. Hence it is necessary, if we would form an
accurate representation of the life of the ancients, to avail ourselves
of the Museo Nazionale in Naples, where all the furniture from Pompeii
is preserved so far as place has not been found for it in the little
museum in Pompeii itself at the Porta della Marina. Perhaps however
if Italy’s financial difficulties come to an end (as they must some
day) a plan will be carried out which has long been talked of, viz.,
that a house in Pompeii should be furnished exactly as it was ages ago,
equipped with all the articles which were used in daily life, even if
they have to be collected from different houses. Thus with less trouble
one could form a general conception of the life of that epoch, a much
more difficult task under present circumstances when one has to examine
the various articles of furniture one by one in the Museum far from
their original position.
[Illustration: Fig. 12. The Street of Abundance (p. 18).]
These movable objects moreover are commonly to be found in the lowest
layer of pumice-stone to the height of one metre; torn from their
proper places by the breaking down of the roof they have necessarily
assumed this position. For this reason the rooms are first of all
cleared to within half a metre of the ground, and then the remainder
is subjected to a thorough examination by experienced excavators.
Since there are always some such rooms ready, it is possible, if
distinguished visitors arrive even unexpectedly, to arrange a so-called
gala excavation, such as is often mentioned in the papers. The stratum
of pumice-stone only half a metre thick is simply removed, and
something is sure to be found. For the most part it is objects used in
daily life, utensils of bronze or terracotta, with or without their
contents, also candelabra, lamps, &c. Statuettes too of bronze are not
uncommonly found. These “war-preparations” are however the cause of
great dangers to the buildings, the pumice-stone sucks up water like
a sponge, and so never allows the walls to get quite dry, which is
however the first and most important condition for their preservation.
[Illustration: Fig. 13. Window in Pompeii (p. 19).]
[Illustration: Fig. 14. Pompeian inscription on wall (p. 20).]
[Illustration: Fig. 15. Pompeian graffito (p. 20).]
But enough of excavations. Let us turn to the consideration of the city
itself.
At first sight the city gives the impression of the greatest
uniformity. Apart from size and the wealth of its former inhabitants
one house seems to have been built at the same time, and adorned with
the same artistic resources as another. Yet that is the result of the
stucco-coating which under the Empire gradually became so fashionable
that it was deemed advisable to cover everything with it. A more
accurate examination however convinces us that under the stucco lie
concealed the most distinct periods of building, with the help of which
the gradual development of the city can be recognised.
[Illustration: Fig. 16. Public Fountain (p. 21).]
[Illustration: Fig. 17. Street of Stabiae with water reservoir (p. 21).]
[Illustration: Fig. 18. Restored View of a Cookshop (p. 21).]
To determine the architectural history of the city there are--apart
from the very meagre literary tradition--two means, firstly the
distinction of the material of which the houses are built, and secondly
the measures employed. In respect of the first point it proves that
limestone which could be procured in the immediate neighbourhood of
Pompeii from the deposits of the Sarno, was employed in the earliest
period for building houses, with clay as cement. With this was
associated also tufa, a volcanic product which when just quarried can
be easily cut. An essential progress was made by the introduction of
lime-mortar, the knowledge of which was apparently transmitted through
the Carthaginians to the western Greeks and the inhabitants of Italy.
By the aid of this lighter and smaller stones could be utilised to
form walls capable of supporting considerable weight. In place of
lime-mortar there was gradually introduced Pozzolana (named from
Pozzuoli on the Bay of Naples), a volcanic earth resembling cement
in its effect. Of lasting influence was further the introduction
and gradual spread of building with kiln-baked bricks, although in
private buildings they were never employed to such an extent as in
Rome and other Italian cities. Finally, the last period, that of the
restoration, when the question was how in the shortest time and with
limited means to rebuild the city which had been almost entirely
destroyed by the earthquake of the year A. D. 63. (The devastation had
been so complete that the Roman Senate could deliberate as to whether
the people of Pompeii should be permitted to rebuild their city.) Haste
and negligence and the use of the first materials that came to hand
characterise this epoch.
As a second means of distinguishing the various periods one from
another we have the standard of measure employed. According as the
walls have been built in conformity with the Oscan or the Roman
foot (the Oscan foot has a length of .273 of a metre, the Roman of
.29) the corresponding buildings can be assigned to the one or the
other period, and since it was not usual to demolish what already
existed, but to make use of it as far as possible, people have through
observation of the various measures, attained even to the possibility
of distinguishing the older parts of buildings from the later, and
often recognising their earlier destination.
With the help of those distinguishing marks, and of the scanty notices
handed down by ancient writers, and of the inscriptions we are enabled
to establish the following as to the city’s history.
Whether the name Pompeii is connected with πέμπω, πομπή or is derived
from the Oscan _pompe_ = five is all the same to us, since we can draw
no further conclusion therefrom. In any case nothing further is known
as to the year of foundation: though from the ruins of the temple in
the Triangular Forum which belongs to the sixth century we may conclude
that the city was already in existence at that period. It was founded
in regular form by the Oscans on a hill formed by an old stream of
lava, but was at a later time about B. C. 420 occupied by the Samnites.
Two streets the _Strada di Mercurio_ with its extension southwards from
the Forum (Fig. 6) and the _Strada di Nola_ (_Decumanus major_, Fig.
7) traverse the city from one end to the other, and fix thereby the
direction of the streets from north to south and east to west. Only
now and then have special peculiarities of the surface led to slight
deviations in the parallel streets. The city was encircled by a wall,
which was protected by towers at regular intervals to give it greater
security, on the other side in order to allow of large bodies of armed
citizens mounting the wall in time of danger, steps were in parts added
to the wall, in other parts a slope of earth was placed against it.
Only on the west and southwest sides had the walls been broken down in
antiquity and replaced by houses, apparently to gain space for the
extension of the city. Pompeii, true to its origin, had, in the Social
War (B. C. 90-88), joined the Italians and with the rest had bravely
defended its independence against the Romans; nay in the year 89 it had
sustained a siege by Sulla himself. For this it was punished, being
compelled to give up part of its possessions to the colonists sent by
Sulla in the year 80. (Hence the new name of the city _Colonia Cornelia
Veneria Pompeianorum_.)
[Illustration: Fig. 19. Cookshop of the Casa di Sallustio (p. 21).]
[Illustration: Fig. 20. Oilmerchant’s Shop (p. 21).]
[Illustration: Fig. 21. Entrance to the Triangular Forum (p. 22).]
[Illustration: Fig. 22. The Triangular Forum (p. 22).]
Under Augustus also was an enlargement of the city undertaken, the
_Pagus Augustus Felix_ being then founded. That numerous storms have
broken over Pompeii may be seen by the walls, stripped as they have
been completely of their massive facing and restored only to such an
extent as was absolutely necessary (originally two massive walls were
built and the space between them filled with rubble and concrete,
see fig. 8-10); the towers seem not to have been placed on the wall
till a later time. The city has eight gates, which were more or less
strengthened by fortifications; especially in the case of the Gate of
Nola, on the east side, on which attack was most to be expected, one
can clearly recognise how one fortification has been from time to time
strengthened by others. Interesting too in another way is the Gate of
Herculaneum on the northwest side of the city, in front of which the
road is bordered right and left by graves, in accordance with the usage
of the ancients to place their graves beside the public roads outside
the city. (See fig. 11.)
[Illustration: Fig. 23. The Forum Civile, seen from the South (p. 23).]
[Illustration: Fig. 24. Forum Civile, from the Temple of Jupiter (p.
23).]
The streets of the city are essentially distinguished from those of our
cities by their narrowness; the widest measure barely seven metres,
some indeed are not more than from two and a half to three metres
broad. They were made so narrow with the object of securing shade in
the streets, so necessary a requisite in the South, the want of which
one feels in a most unpleasant way for example now where in Pompeii
there is no shade. A part of the width is taken up by the footpath
running on each side, which slightly raised above the level of the
street is paved with small stones, or bricks, or pieces of marble,
according as the fancy or the wealth of the owner of the adjoining
property, (on whom evidently rested the care of the footway), prompted
the choice of one method or another. The carriage road itself is
paved with polygonal blocks of lava, in which the wheels have often
worn deep ruts. (See Fig. 12 and 17.) If the ruts were too deep, or
otherwise repair of the street was found necessary, the remedy was
applied in the simplest fashion, the stones were merely relaid so
that those little used came where the wheels ran and those cut up by
traffic were transferred to another place. This explains the curious
fact that stones worn into deep ruts are often found in positions
where no wheel can ever have come. Then on both sides of the street
run gutters, through which the water is conducted into deep drains
and so removed from the city. In the violent showers of rain which
in the South at times pour down in torrents these provisions might
often have proved insufficient and the street also may have been
under water. In order therefore to provide the foot passenger with as
dry as possible a crossing from one side of the roads to the other,
stepping-stones have been placed at intervals across the street. These
met the requirements of the case without interfering with the carriage
traffic (for the draught-animals were attached only at the extremity
of the pole, so they could pass between the stones more easily than
would be possible with our modern way of harnessing). Some streets on
the other hand were entirely closed against wheel-traffic. This was
quite possible, carriages being as a rule employed for the transport of
persons only in travelling outside the city. Besides the difference in
width the streets of Pompeii are essentially distinguished from those
of our cities by the circumstance that the houses at any rate on the
groundfloor have no windows. The ancient house in its main features was
built solely with regard to interior effect. Only occasionally was the
surface of the outer wall broken by small openings widening inwards,
which are all that can be compared with our windows (Fig. 13); and
these too, raised far above the height of a man, are barred by lattice
of iron or terracotta. On the other hand the street-front was often
enlivened by painting, the outer wall was divided into panels which
were painted red or yellow with various ornaments according to the
taste of the respective householders. Larger paintings are often to be
found, as the twelve gods, sacrifices to the Lares, the household gods,
_etc._ In places likely to be misused were painted a pair of serpents
_etc._ as a deterrent. Besides these things there were all sorts of
inscriptions on the houses. A distinction is usually made between two
classes of inscriptions, _Dipinti_ and _Graffiti_. The former are
painted on the walls with a broad brush in large letters, for the most
part in red colour on a white ground. By _Graffiti_ on the other hand
are understood inscriptions slightly scratched with a pointed style
or nail in the plaster. The _Dipinti_ contain summonses to elections,
announcements of Games &c. _Duumviri juri dicundo_, the Board of Two,
the highest magistracy of the city, are to be elected; there being
no newspaper, the names of the candidates are painted on the walls,
and underneath is written Proposed by so and so (Fig. 14). Or a new
troop of gladiators arrives: in order to entice as many spectators as
possible, an advertisement is written on the walls with the names of
the principal combatants and the number of their victories, nor do they
forget to add that to guard against the sun’s heat awnings are spread
over the theatre; in short one lights on the very footsteps and traces
of quickly throbbing life, so that one feels oneself carried back into
the time of the old citizens of Pompeii.
[Illustration: Fig. 25. Life in the Forum (p. 23).]
With almost greater originality the life of the old Pompeians rises
before us in the _Graffiti_. Scarcely a spot strikes the eye that is
not covered with such outpourings of gay or wicked fancy scratched in
the slightest strokes. Here one tells another’s secrets, there one
celebrates in verse a sweetheart, a third complains of the obstinacy
of a maiden, a fourth, no doubt a boy fresh from school--he could
not reach far--attempts to write down the beginning of a well-known
poem but he does not get much further than the first words. A second,
proud of his learning, begins the verse afresh, yet he too comes to a
standstill when he has carried the verse a little further. A third at
last completes the whole verse. At another place a parasite gives a
broad hint for an invitation or pays his debt of thanks. (See fig. 15.
Semper M. Terentius Eudoxus unus supstenet amicos et tenet et tutat,
supstenet omnem modum.)
[Illustration: Fig. 26. Bust of Jupiter (p. 25).]
Thus witticisms and drolleries abound in those inscriptions, so that
one who passed through the streets and had a liking to decipher these
scrawls need not want for amusement. Variety too is afforded by the
fountains (Fig. 16) which were fed from the public water-supply
(probably this was a branch of the conduit which brought the water to
Naples from the mountain range on the east). In Pompeii, as in Palermo
at the present day, the water was for better distribution conducted
into reservoirs raised on high pillars. From these the water was
brought through lead pipes to the public fountains and to the houses.
(See fig. 17, representing a corner of the Stabiae Street with the
pillars to support the water.) These fountains were ornamented with
small reliefs, for example a Silenus leaning on a wine-skin, from
the opening of which the water escapes; an eagle that has seized a
hare (here the water flows out of the hare’s mouth), and similar
representations. On the fountain’s brim may still often be seen the
place where the young people drinking straight from the spout used to
put their hands. To this picture of the streets however the liveliest
touches were given by the shops, rooms open on the outside their whole
breadth, in which retail trade was carried on. As at the present time,
in the palaces of Italian cities, the groundfloor is occupied by shops
which bring in to the owner an excellent rent, the rich Pompeians also
did not disdain to establish shops on the street-side of their houses
which without any connection with the principal edifice were let to
persons engaged in trade, to whom a kind of upper chamber above the
shop often served as a dwelling. Or the householder himself carried
on a trade, in which case he established a connection with the inner
part of the house by means of a door, to facilitate his watching over
the business, whether he managed it in his own person or through a
slave. There are cook shops, recognised as such by the hearth and the
pots fixed in it, from which the food was ladled out (fig. 18 and
19), oil shops with large pitchers similarly fixed, and huge barrels
in the background (fig. 20), shops where wine and other drinks were
sold, with shelves built up like steps so as to admit of arranging
the drinking vessels conveniently, and with a little room at the back
for regular customers: there are butchers’ and bakers’ shops that by
means of pictures bring before the passer by the various objects to be
purchased therein. In short an abundance of fresh sights, so that the
eye can experience no weariness.
[Illustration: Fig. 27. The Temple of Jupiter (p. 25).]
[Illustration: Fig. 28. The Temple of Jupiter, Reconstruction (p. 25).]
[Illustration: Fig. 29. The Macellum, (the Meat market) (p. 25).]
[Illustration: Fig. 30. Wall ornamented with pictures in the Macellum
(p. 26).]
So much for the streets of Pompeii. Of open spaces for public use
there have been found as yet two, if we leave out of consideration
the doubtful Forum Boarium, excavated at an earlier period in the
neighbourhood of the amphitheatre, but afterwards filled up again,
viz., the principal Forum (_Forum Civile_) and the one called from its
shape the Triangular Forum. The latter a three-cornered space in the
southwest angle of the city lying close to both theatres from which
an open flight of steps leads, is certainly one of the oldest parts
of the city, as is amply proved by the scanty remains of the Temple
situated there, which is contemporary with the most ancient temples of
Paestum and Selinus. The open space was surrounded on three sides by a
colonnade, and a portico or Propylaion forms the entrance to it (fig.
21 and 22). The Temple, dedicated according to the latest researches
to Minerva, had apparently like the Temple of Zeus at Agrigentum,
seven columns on the narrow sides, and according to its form must be
classified as Pseudodipteros (before the eruption it had already been
destroyed and on its site a very modest sanctuary had been erected).
Close to it is a seat, from which could be enjoyed the magnificent
view over the sea and the splendid Monte Santangelo far spreading and
towering high into the air. On the other side a small dome indicates
an ancient fountain. To a later epoch belongs the _Forum Civile_, lying
to the northwest of the above, and forming a rectangle (fig. 23 taken
from the south side, fig. 24 from the north). That the laying out
of this is comparatively modern, follows from the fact that through
the surrounding buildings a series of streets have been reduced to
blind-alleys, which at the time of their formation was assuredly not
intended. The decoration of the Forum, it seems, was not yet completed
when the eruption of Vesuvius buried Pompeii. The footpath was to
be paved with marble slabs, and a colonnade was to be erected all
round, double on the South, with a gallery above for women, when the
games were held in the Forum. But this was never carried out; the
architectural members lie around still unused. The built up bases too
for statues of honour and equestrian statues seem to have been still
unoccupied, if some excavation made shortly after the eruption has not
robbed us of the chief objects. The ancestors of the emperors, the
Julian family, and the Kings of Rome ought to have been placed around
on pedestals, yet the only inscriptions found are those referring to
Romulus and Aeneas. Of the business prevailing in the Forum, taken
up as it was with trade and commerce and even schoolwork, we derive
information from the Pompeian wall-paintings, e. g. fig. 25. Vehicles
were not admitted, and there are indeed indications that (at elections
and on similar occasions) the approaches could be completely closed
with railings. In no other part of Pompeii are there so many public
buildings, no private house ventured to intrude here. In the first
place at the north end, the Temple of Jupiter, clearly identified by
the bust found in it (fig. 26), springs forward far into the Forum
and rises on a lofty substructure, to which led a flight of steps
with projecting sides, once adorned with equestrian statues. Twelve
Corinthian columns, six in front, three on each side, supported the
Vestibule; while other columns within the cella (probably Ionic, above
which rose Corinthian) supported the entablature. The large pedestal
at the back was no doubt intended for the Capitoline Trinity, Jupiter,
Juno, and Minerva (fig. 27 and 28). On the right, abutting on the
Temple is a Triumphal Arch, which formerly covered with marble and
adorned with statues and fountains must have presented an imposing
appearance. The eastern long side of the Forum, is, on the north,
occupied by the so-called Pantheon, more correctly the Macellum, i.
e. Meat market (fig. 29). That such it is, is shown above all by the
space on the right at the back, which clearly contained a butcher’s
stall built up with arrangement for discharge of water, and also by
the shops on the south side, which to judge by the pictures placed
there, contained stalls for provisions of various kinds. In the midst
of the court rose apparently a domed structure on columns (hence the
pedestals). Here the fish were stripped of their scales, at least
a great number of scales were found in the drain. United with the
Macellum there was a chapel for the cult of the Imperial family; the
marble statues found here have been removed to Naples, and are replaced
in Pompeii by plaster casts. The paintings of the entrance wall (fig.
30) deserve special notice on account of the beautiful architecture.
The central picture represents Io watched by Argos. Next comes an
apartment once splendidly furnished, which is usually called Senaculum,
but its destination is not as yet ascertained. It is thought that
it was a sanctuary of the tutelary deities of the city, the _Lares
Publici_. With greater certainty the adjoining building on the right
may be designated as a “Temple of Vespasian” (fig. 31). From a relief
on the altar standing in front of the temple (fig. 32) in which the
temple itself is represented, (it is the sacrifice of a bull that is
depicted, as usually offered to the Genius of the emperor), we can
recognise that the edifice was dedicated to the worship of the emperor.
Since it was built before the earthquake of A. D. 63, yet was not quite
ready for use at the time of the catastrophe, it is most probable that
it was founded in honour of Vespasian’s Genius.
[Illustration: Fig. 31. The Temple of Vespasian (p. 26).]
[Illustration: Fig. 32. Altar of the Temple of Vespasian (p. 26).]
On the south of this follows the large building raised according to the
inscription by the priestess Eumachia at her own cost and dedicated to
Concordia Augusta and Pietas. This was apparently devoted to industrial
purposes. Since the fullers (fullones) have dedicated a statue to
the foundress in the crypt (fig. 33) we may surmise that the whole
structure served as a market hall for woollen stuffs.
The south side of the Forum is occupied by three buildings closely
resembling one another, each of which consists of a large hall. The
central hall was apparently intended for the meetings of the Decurions,
the city magistrates of Pompeii, while on its left the judicial
Duumvirs had their seat, on the right the Aediles.
On the West side first of all comes the Basilica, with its end
bordering on the Forum (fig. 35). This served for market purposes, to
the relief of the Forum, and at the same time afforded space for the
administration of justice in the raised tribunal at the end opposite
the Forum. It must have produced an impression of grandeur with its
internal columns on which the roof rested, and its walls decorated
with pillars arranged in two rows one above another, the walls being
in their upper story provided with wide openings flanked by columns.
Under the tribunal is found a cellar-like room which was formerly
always called a prison; it is however little suited for this purpose,
not being sufficiently enclosed, if at least it were a question of
imprisonment for a long period. Next comes the Temple of Apollo (fig.
36), separated from the Basilica by the Strada della Marina. That
the sanctuary which was formerly designated the Temple of Venus was
dedicated to Apollo results both from an Oscan inscription on the
floor of the Temple and also from the _Omphalos_, the Navel of the
earth introduced into the _cella_, which on account of its relation
to Delphi is frequently indicated in connection with Apollo. A Tripod
also, equally an attribute of Apollo, is painted on a pilaster in the
courtyard. This courtyard was surrounded by a Corinthian colonnade,
in front of which stood statues of deities that were honoured in
conjunction with Apollo (Venus, Diana, Mercury and others; also
a bronze statue of Apollo himself, see fig. 34). In front of the
steps leading up to the Temple stands the great altar on which the
burnt-offerings were placed. When we return to the Forum we at once
notice the gauging table with the standard measures (the original is
in Naples) with openings beneath, which can be closed or opened to
let the measured fluids or corn run out (fig. 37). Next to this is a
dilapidated chamber which is now supposed to have been a sale-room, and
north of this a public lavatory, so situated as not to be overlooked
from the Forum. An edifice of uncertain purpose (Prison? Treasury?)
ends this side of the Forum, which is united with the Temple of Jupiter
by a wall pierced by a door.
[Illustration: Fig. 33. Portrait statue of Eumachia (p. 26).]
[Illustration: Fig. 34. Statue of Apollo (p. 28).]
[Illustration: Fig. 35. The Basilica (p. 26).]
[Illustration: Fig. 36. The Temple of Apollo (p. 27).]
[Illustration: Fig. 37. Gauging Table from the Forum (p. 29).]
Of other sanctuaries there are in Pompeii the Temple of Fortuna in the
wide mainstreet leading northwards from the Forum, placed at the corner
of the Street of Nola (here too the temple is approached by a flight
of steps, on a landing in which stands the altar, see fig. 38); and
also, in the Street of Stabiae, the small temple of Zeus Meilichios
(this name belongs to it according to an Oscan inscription found at
the Gate of Stabiae). In this during the building of the temple of
Jupiter the deities worshipped in the latter sanctuary had found
refuge. Then there is the Temple of Isis near the _Forum Triangulare_
(fig. 39). This according to the inscription over the entrance had been
rebuilt after the earthquake, at his own cost, by the six years old N.
Popidius Celsinus (i. e. wealthy freedpeople who wished to obtain for
their son a position of greater distinction than they themselves could
assume must have done this in his name). In consequence of this Master
Popidius Celsinus received the title of Town-Councillor.
Besides the flight of steps in front the temple was approached by means
of a secret staircase, serving no doubt to give the priests access to
the temple unseen by the multitude of worshippers of Isis. The small
building on the left of the temple, the so-called _Purgatorium_,
contains a staircase which most likely led to a reservoir filled with
water from the Nile which was used in the ceremonies. In front of
this lies an altar approached from the side, and on this altar at the
time of its excavation were found ashes and remains of sacrifices.
On the right near the entrance is a walled up cavity which contained
the ashes and remnants of burnt fruits, undoubtedly the remains of
sacrifice. It may here be mentioned that in front of the temple there
was found a tablet of hieroglyphics which had nothing to do with the
worship of Isis, and therefore served only as an imposition; also that
at the time of the eruption the temple was shut; in the ashes from
Vesuvius there was preserved so exact an impression of the door with
its three leaves that a drawing of it could be made from the impression.