Meanwhile, the relations between Church and State began to show signs of

change. The chief supporters of the claims of the papacy to temporal

power were the clericals of France and Austria, but in the former

country they had lost all influence, and the situation between the

Church and the government was becoming every day more strained. With the

rebellion of her "Eldest Daughter," the Roman Church could not continue

in her old attitude of uncompromising hostility towards United Italy,

and the Vatican began to realize the folly of placing every Italian in

the dilemma of being _either_ a good Italian _or_ a good Catholic, when

the majority wished to be both. Outside of Rome relations between the

clergy and the authorities were as a rule quite cordial, and in May 1903

Cardinal Sarto, the patriarch of Venice, asked for and obtained an

audience with the king when he visited that city, and the meeting which

followed was of a very friendly character. In July following Leo XIII.

died, and that same Cardinal Sarto became pope under the style of Pius

X. The new pontiff, although nominally upholding the claims of the

temporal power, in practice attached but little importance to it. At the

elections for the local bodies the Catholics had already been permitted

to vote, and, availing themselves of the privilege, they gained seats in

many municipal councils and obtained the majority in some. At the

general parliamentary elections of 1904 a few Catholics had been elected

as such, and the encyclical of the 11th of June 1905 on the political

organization of the Catholics, practically abolished the _non expedit_.

In September of that year a number of religious institutions in the Near

East, formerly under the protectorate of the French government, in view

of the rupture between Church and State in France, formally asked to be

placed under Italian protection, which was granted in January 1907. The

situation thus became the very reverse of what it had been in Crispi's

time, when the French government, even when anti-clerical, protected the

Catholic Church abroad for political purposes, whereas the conflict

between Church and State in Italy extended to foreign countries, to the

detriment of Italian political interests. A more difficult question was

that of religious education in the public elementary schools. Signor

Giolitti wished to conciliate the Vatican by facilitating religious

education, which was desired by the majority of the parents, but he did

not wish to offend the Freemasons and other anti-clericals too much, as

they could always give trouble at awkward moments. Consequently the

minister of education, Signor Rava, concocted a body of rules which, it

was hoped, would satisfy every one: religious instruction was to be

maintained as a necessary part of the curriculum, but in communes where

the majority of the municipal councillors were opposed to it it might be

suppressed; the council in that case must, however, facilitate the

teaching of religion to those children whose parents desire it. In

practice, however, when the council has suppressed religious instruction

no such facilities are given. At the general elections of March 1909,

over a score of Clerical deputies were returned, Clericals of a very

mild tone who had no thought of the temporal power and were supporters

of the monarchy and anti-socialists; where no Clerical candidate was in

the field the Catholic voters plumped for the constitutional candidate

against all representatives of the Extreme Left. On the other hand, the

attitude of the Vatican towards Liberalism within the Church was one of

uncompromising reaction, and under the new pope the doctrines of

Christian Democracy and Modernism were condemned in no uncertain tone.

Don Romolo Murri, the Christian Democratic leader, who exercised much

influence over the younger and more progressive clergy, having been

severely censured by the Vatican, made formal submission, and declared

his intention of retiring from the struggle. But he appeared again on

the scene in the general elections of 1909, as a Christian Democratic

candidate; he was elected, and alone of the Catholic deputies took his

seat in the Chamber on the Extreme Left, where all his neighbours were

violent anti-clericals.

Earthquake of December 1908.

At 5 A.M. on the 28th of December 1908, an earthquake of appalling

severity shook the whole of southern Calabria and the eastern part of

Sicily, completely destroying the cities of Reggio and Messina, the

smaller towns of Canitello, Scilla, Villa San Giovanni, Bagnara, Palmi,

Melito, Porto Salvo and Santa Eufemia, as well as a large number of

villages. In the case of Messina the horror of the situation was

heightened by a tidal wave. The catastrophe was the greatest of its kind

that has ever occurred in any country; the number of persons killed was

approximately 150,000, while the injured were beyond calculation.

Foreign affairs.

The characteristic feature of Italy's foreign relations during this

period was the weakening of the bonds of the Triple Alliance and the

improved relations with France, while the traditional friendship with

England remained unimpaired. Franco-Italian friendship was officially

cemented by the visit of King Victor Emmanuel and Queen Elena in October

1903 to Paris where they received a very cordial welcome. The visit was

returned in April 1904 when M. Loubet, the French president, came to

Rome; this action was strongly resented by the pope, who, like his

predecessor since 1870, objected to the presence of foreign Catholic

rulers in Rome, and led to the final rupture between France and the

Vatican. The Franco-Italian understanding had the effect of raising

Italy's credit, and the Italian _rente_, which had been shut out of the

French bourses, resumed its place there once more, a fact which

contributed to increase its price and to reduce the unfavourable rate of

exchange. That agreement also served to clear up the situation in

Tripoli; while Italian aspirations towards Tunisia had been ended by the

French occupation of that territory, Tripoli and Bengazi were now

recognized as coming within the Italian "sphere of influence." The

Tripoli hinterland, however, was in danger of being absorbed by other

powers having large African interests; the Anglo-French declaration of

the 21st of March 1899 in particular seemed likely to interfere with

Italian activity.

The Triple Alliance was maintained and renewed as far as paper documents

were concerned (in June 1902 it was reconfirmed for 12 years), but

public opinion was no longer so favourably disposed towards it.

Austria's petty persecutions of her Italian subjects in the _irredente_

provinces, her active propaganda incompatible with Italian interests in

the Balkans, and the anti-Italian war talk of Austrian military circles,

imperilled the relations of the two "allies"; it was remarked, indeed,

that the object of the alliance between Austria and Italy was to prevent

war between them. Austria had persistently adopted a policy of

pin-pricks and aggravating police provocation towards the Italians of

the Adriatic Littoral and of the Trentino, while encouraging the

Slavonic element in the former and the Germans in the latter. One of the

causes of ill-feeling was the university question; the Austrian

government had persistently refused to create an Italian university for

its Italian subjects, fearing lest it should become a hotbed of

"irredentism," the Italian-speaking students being thus obliged to

attend the German-Austrian universities. An attempt at compromise

resulted in the institution of an Italian law faculty at Innsbruck, but

this aroused the violent hostility of the German students and populace,

who gave proof of their superior civilization by an unprovoked attack on

the Italians in October 1902. Further acts of violence were committed by

the Germans in 1903, which led to anti-Austrian demonstrations in Italy.

The worst tumults occurred in November 1904, when Italian students and

professors were attacked at Innsbruck without provocation; being

outnumbered by a hundred to one the Italians were forced to use their

revolvers in self-defence, and several persons were wounded on both

sides. Anti-Italian demonstrations occurred periodically also at Vienna,

while in Dalmatia and Croatia Italian fishermen and workmen (Italian

citizens, not natives) were subject to attacks by gangs of half-savage

Croats, which led to frequent diplomatic "incidents." A further cause of

resentment was Austria's attitude towards the Vatican, inspired by the

strong clerical tendencies of the imperial family, and indeed of a large

section of the Austrian people. But the most serious point at issue was

the Balkan question. Italian public opinion could not view without

serious misgivings the active political propaganda which Austria was

conducting in Albania. The two governments frequently discussed the

situation, but although they had agreed to a self-denying ordinance

whereby each bound itself not to occupy any part of Albanian territory,

Austria's declarations and promises were hardly borne out by the

activity of her agents in the Balkans. Italy, therefore, instituted a

counter-propaganda by means of schools and commercial agencies. The

Macedonian troubles of 1903 again brought Austria and Italy into

conflict. The acceptance by the powers of the Mürzsteg programme and the

appointment of Austrian and Russian financial agents in Macedonia was an

advantage for Austria and a set-back for Italy; but the latter scored a

success in the appointment of General de Giorgis as commander of the

international Macedonian gendarmerie; she also obtained, with the

support of Great Britain, France and Russia, the assignment of the

partly Albanian district of Monastir to the Italian officers of that

corps.

In October 1908 came the bombshell of the Austrian annexation of Bosnia,

announced to King Victor Emmanuel and to other rulers by autograph

letters from the emperor-king. The news caused the most widespread

sensation, and public opinion in Italy was greatly agitated at what it

regarded as an act of brigandage on the part of Austria, when Signor

Tittoni in a speech at Carate Brianza (October 6th) declared that "Italy

might await events with serenity, and that these could find her neither

unprepared nor isolated." These words were taken to mean that Italy

would receive compensation to restore the balance of power upset in

Austria's favour. When it was found that there was to be no direct

compensation for Italy a storm of indignation was aroused against

Austria, and also against Signor Tittoni.

On the 29th of October, however, Austria abandoned her military posts in

the sandjak of Novibazar, and the frontier between Austria and Turkey,

formerly an uncertain one, which left Austria a half-open back door to

the Aegean, was now a distinct line of demarcation. Thus the danger of a

"pacific penetration" of Macedonia by Austria became more remote.

Austria also gave way on another point, renouncing her right to police

the Montenegrin coast and to prevent Montenegro from having warships of

its own (paragraphs 5, 6 and 11 of art. 29 of the Berlin Treaty) in a

note presented to the Italian foreign office on the 12th of April 1909.

Italy had developed some important commercial interests in Montenegro,

and anything which strengthened the position of that principality was a

guarantee against further Austrian encroachments. The harbour works in

the Montenegrin port of Antivari, commenced in March 1905 and completed

early in 1909, were an Italian concern, and Italy became a party to the

agreement for the Danube-Adriatic Railway (June 2, 1908) together with

Russia, France and Servia; Italy was to contribute 35,000,000 lire out

of a total capital of 100,000,000, and to be represented by four

directors out of twelve. But the whole episode was a warning to Italy,

and the result was a national movement for security. Credits for the

army and navy were voted almost without a dissentient voice; new

battleships were laid down, the strength of the army was increased, and

the defences of the exposed eastern border were strengthened. It was

clear that so long as Austria, bribed by Germany, could act in a way so

opposed to Italian interests in the Balkans, the Triple Alliance was a

mockery, and Italy could only meet the situation by being prepared for

all contingencies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--It is difficult to indicate in a short space the most

important sources of general Italian history. Muratori's great

collection, the _Rerum Italicarum scriptores_ in combination with his

_Dissertationes_, the chronicles and other historical material

published by the _Archivio Storico Italiano_, and the works of

detached annalists of whom the Villani are the most notable, take

first rank. Next we may mention Muratori's _Annali d' Italia_,

together with Guicciardini's _Storia d' Italia_ and its modern

continuation by Carlo Botta. Among the more recent contributions S. de

Sismondi's _Républiques italiennes_ (Brussels, 1838) and Carlo Troya's

_Storia d' Italia nel medio evo_ are among the most valuable general

works, while the large _Storia Politica d' Italia_ by various authors,

published at Milan, is also important--F. Bertolini, _I Barbari_; F.

Lanzani, _Storia dei comuni italiani dalle origini fino al 1313_

(1882); C. Cipolla, _Storia delle Signorie Italiane dal 1313 al 1530_

(1881); A. Cosci, _L' Italia durante le preponderanze straniere,

1530-1789_ (1875); A. Franchetti, _Storia d' Italia dal 1789 al 1799_;

G. de Castro, _Storia d' Italia dal 1789 al 1814_ (1881). For the

beginnings of Italian history the chief works are T. Hodgkin's _Italy

and her Invaders_ (Oxford, 1892-1899) and P. Villari's _Le Invasioni

barbariche_ (Milan, 1900), both based on original research and sound

scholarship. The period from 1494 to modern times is dealt with in

various volumes of the _Cambridge Modern History_, especially in vol.

i., "The Renaissance," which contains valuable bibliographies.

Giuseppe Ferrari's _Rivoluzioni d' Italia_ (1858) deserves notice as a

work of singular vigour, though no great scientific importance, and

Cesare Balbo's _Sommario_ (Florence, 1856) presents the main outlines

of the subject with brevity and clearness. For the period of the

French revolution and the Napoleonic wars see F. Lemmi's _Le Origini

del risorgimento italiano_ (Milan, 1906); E. Bonnal de Ganges, _La

Chute d'une république [Venise]_ (Paris, 1885); D. Carutti, _Storia

della corte di Savoia durante la rivoluzione e l' impero francese_ (2

vols., Turin, 1892); G. de Castro, _Storia d' Italia dal 1797 al 1814_

(Milan, 1881); A. Dufourcq, _Le Régime jacobin en Italie, 1796-1799_

(Paris, 1900); A. Franchetti, _Storia d' Italia dal 1789 al 1799_

(Milan, 1878); P. Gaffarel, _Bonaparte et les républiques italiennes_

(1796-1799) (Paris, 1895); R. M. Johnston, _The Napoleonic Empire in

Southern Italy_ (2 vols., with full bibliography, London, 1904); E.

Ramondini, _L' Italia durante la dominazione francese_ (Naples, 1882);

E. Ruth, _Geschichte des italienischen Volkes unter der napoleonischen

Herrschaft_ (Leipzig, 1859). For modern times, see Bolton King's

_History of Italian Unity_ (1899) and Bolton King and Thomas Okey's

_Italy To-day_ (1901). With regard to the history of separate

provinces it may suffice to notice N. Machiaveili's _Storia

fiorentina_, B. Corio's _Storia di Milano_, G. Capponi's _Storia della

repubblica di Firenze_ (Florence, 1875), P. Villari's _I primi due

secoli della storia di Firenze_ (Florence, 1905), F. Pagano's _Istoria

del regno di Napoli_ (Palermo-Naples, 1832, &c.), P. Romanin's _Storia

documentata di Venezia_ (Venice, 1853), M. Amari's _Musulmani di

Sicilia_ (1854-1875), F. Gregorovius's _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_

(Stuttgart, 1881), A. von Reumont's _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_

(Berlin, 1867), L. Cibrario's _Storia della monarchia piemontese_

(Turin, 1840), and D. Carutti's _Storia della diplomazia della corte

di Savoia_ (Rome, 1875). The _Archivii storici_ and _Deputazioni di

storia patria_ of the various Italian towns and provinces contain a

great deal of valuable material for local history. From the point of

view of papal history, L. von Ranke's _History of the Popes_ (English

edition, London, 1870), M. Creighton's _History of the Papacy_

(London, 1897) and L. Pastor's _Geschichte der Päpste_ (Freiburg i.

B., 1886-1896), should be mentioned. From the point of view of general

culture, Jacob Burckhardt's _Cultur der Renaissance in Italien_

(Basel, 1860), E. Guinet's _Révolutions d' Italie_ (Paris, 1857), and

J. A. Symonds's _Renaissance in Italy_ (5 vols., London, 1875, &c.)

should be consulted. (L. V.*)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] On the derivation see below, _History_, section A, _ad. init_.

[2] The actually highest point is the Maschio delle Faete (3137 ft.).

(See ALBANUS MONS.)

[3] On the influence of malaria on the population of Early Italy see

W. H. S. Jones in _Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology_, ii. 97

sqq. (Liverpool, 1909).

[4] The 2nd category of the 1875 law had practically ceased to exist.

[5] This may be reduced, in consequence of the adoption of the new

Q.F. gun, 1 to 6.

[6] "Movement of capital" consists, as regards "income," of the

proceeds of the sale of buildings, Church or Crown lands, old

prisons, barracks, &c., or of moneys derived from sale of

consolidated stock. Thus "income" really signifies diminution of

patrimony or increase of debt. In regard to "expenditure," "movement

of capital" refers to extinction of debt by amortization or

otherwise, to purchases of buildings or to advances made by the

state. Thus "expenditure" really represents a patrimonial

improvement, a creation of credit or a decrease of indebtedness. The

items referring to "railway construction" represent, on the one hand,

repayments made to the exchequer by the communes and provinces of

money disbursed on their account by the State Treasury; and, on the

other, the cost of new railways incurred by the Treasury. The items

of the "_partite di giro_" are inscribed both on the credit and debit

sides of the budget, and have merely a figurative value.

[7] Financial operations (mainly in connexion with railway purchase)

figure on each side of the account for about £22,000,000.

[8] For example, wheat, the price of which was in 1902 26 lire per

cwt., pays a tax of 7½ lire; sugar pays four times its wholesale

value in tax; coffee twice its wholesale value.

[9] "Privileges" assure to creditors priority of claim in case of

foreclosure for debt or mortgage. Prior to the law of the 23rd of

January 1887 harvested produce and agricultural implements were

legally exempt from "privilege."

[10] At the beginning of 1902 the Italian parliament sanctioned a

bill providing for the abolition of municipal duties on bread and

farinaceous products within three years of the promulgation of the

bill on 1st July 1902.

[11] Among the insurgents of Romagna was Louis Napoleon, afterwards

emperor of the French.

[12] In Rome itself a certain Angelo Brunetti, known as Ciceruacchio,

a forage merchant of lowly birth and a Carbonaro, exercised great

influence over the masses and kept the peace where the authorities

would have failed.

[13] The popular cry of "Viva Verdi!" did not merely express

enthusiasm for Italy's most eminent musician, but signified, in

initials: "Viva Vittorio Emanuele Re d' Italia!"

[14] La Farina's _Epistolario_, ii. 426.

[15] In reality the emperor was contemplating an Etrurian kingdom

with the prince at its head.

[16] N. Bianchi, _Cavour_, p. 118.

[17] He asked for the Neapolitan viceroyalty for life, which the king

very wisely refused.

[18] The counterblast of Pius IX. to this convention was the

encyclical _Quanta Cura_ of Dec. 8, 1864, followed by the famous

_Syllabus_.

ITEM (a Latin adverb meaning "also," "likewise"), originally used

adverbially in English at the beginning of each separate head in a list

of articles, or each detail in an account book or ledger or in a legal

document. The word is thus applied, as a noun, to the various heads in

any such enumeration and also to a piece of information or news.

ITHACA ([Greek: Ithakê]), vulgarly Thiaki ([Greek: Thiakê]), next to

Paxo the smallest of the seven Ionian Islands, with an area of about 44

sq. m. It forms an eparchy of the nomos of Cephalonia in the kingdom of

Greece, and its population, which was 9873 in 1870, is now about 13,000.

The island consists of two mountain masses, connected by a narrow

isthmus of hills, and separated by a wide inlet of the sea known as the

Gulf of Molo. The northern and greater mass culminates in the heights of

Anoi (2650 ft.), and the southern in Hagios Stephanos, or Mount

Merovigli (2100 ft.). Vathy ([Greek: Bathu] = "deep"), the chief town

and port of the island, lies at the northern foot of Mount Stephanos,

its whitewashed houses stretching for about a mile round the deep bay in

the Gulf of Molo, to which it owes its name. As there are only one or

two small stretches of arable land in Ithaca, the inhabitants are

dependent on commerce for their grain supply; and olive oil, wine and

currants are the principal products obtained by the cultivation of the

thin stratum of soil that covers the calcareous rocks. Goats are fed in

considerable number on the brushwood pasture of the hills; and hares (in

spite of Aristotle's supposed assertion of their absence) are

exceptionally abundant. The island is divided into four districts:

Vathy, Aeto (or Eagle's Cliff), Anoge (Anoi) or Upland, and Exoge (Exoi)

or Outland.

The name has remained attached to the island from the earliest

historical times with but little interruption of the tradition; though

in Brompton's travels (12th century) and in the old Venetian maps we

find it called Fale or Val de Compar, and at a later date it not

unfrequently appears as Little Cephalonia. This last name indicates the

general character of Ithacan history (if history it can be called) in

modern and indeed in ancient times; for the fame of the island is almost

solely due to its position in the Homeric story of Odysseus. Ithaca,

according to the Homeric epos, was the royal seat and residence of King

Odysseus. The island is incidentally described with no small variety of

detail, picturesque and topographical; the Homeric localities for which

counterparts have been sought are Mount Neritos, Mount Neion, the

harbour of Phorcys, the town and palace of Odysseus, the fountain of

Arethusa, the cave of the Naiads, the stalls of the swineherd Eumaeus,

the orchard of Laertes, the Korax or Raven Cliff and the island Asteris,

where the suitors lay in ambush for Telemachus. Among the

"identificationists" there are two schools, one placing the town at

Polis on the west coast in the northern half of the island (Leake,

Gladstone, &c.), and the other at Aeto on the isthmus. The latter site,

which was advocated by Sir William Gell (_Topography and Antiquities of

Ithaca_, London, 1807), was supported by Dr H. Schliemann, who carried

on excavations in 1873 and 1878 (see H. Schliemann, _Ithaque, le

Péloponnèse, Troie_, Paris, 1869, also published in German; his letter

to _The Times_, 26th of September, 1878; and the author's life prefixed

to _Ilios_, London, 1880). But his results were mainly negative. The

fact is that no amount of ingenuity can reconcile the descriptions given

in the _Odyssey_ with the actual topography of this island. Above all,

the passage in which the position of Ithaca is described offers great

difficulties. "Now Ithaca lies low, farthest up the sea line towards the

darkness, but those others face the dawning and the sun" (Butcher and

Lang). Such a passage fits very ill an island lying, as Ithaca does,

just to the east of Cephalonia. Accordingly Professor W. Dörpfeld has

suggested that the Homeric Ithaca is not the island which was called

Ithaca by the later Greeks, but must be identified with Leucas (Santa

Maura, q.v.). He succeeds in fitting the Homeric topography to this

latter island, and suggests that the name may have been transferred in

consequence of a migration of the inhabitants. There is no doubt that

Leucas fits the Homeric descriptions much better than Ithaca; but, on

the other hand, many scholars maintain that it is a mistake to treat the

imaginary descriptions of a poet as if they were portions of a

guide-book, or to look, in the author of the _Odyssey_, for a close

familiarity with the geography of the Ionian islands.

See, besides the works already referred to, the separate works on

Ithaca by Schreiber (Leipzig, 1829); Rühle von Lilienstern (Berlin,

1832); N. Karavias Grivas ([Greek: Historia tês nêsou Ithakês])

(Athens, 1849); Bowen (London, 1851); and Gandar, (Paris, 1854);

Hercher, in _Hermes_ (1866); Leake's _Northern Greece_; Mure's _Tour

in Greece_; Bursian's _Geogr. von Griechenland_; Gladstone, "The

Dominions of Ulysses," in _Macmillan's Magazine_ (1877). A history of

the discussions will be found in Buchholz, _Die Homerischen Realien_

(Leipzig, 1871); Partsch, _Kephallenia und Ithaka_ (1890); W. Dörpfeld

in _Mélanges Perrot_, pp. 79-93 (1903); P. Goessler, _Leukas-Ithaka_

(Stuttgart, 1904). (E. Gr.)

ITHACA, a city and the county-seat of Tompkins county, New York, U.S.A.,

at the southern end of Cayuga Lake, 60 m. S.W. of Syracuse. Pop. (1890)

11,079, (1900) 13,136, of whom 1310 were foreign-born, (1910 census)

14,802. It is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western and the

Lehigh Valley railways and by inter-urban electric line; and steamboats

ply on the lake. Most of the city is in the level valley, from which it

spreads up the heights on the south, east and west. The finest

residential district is East Hill, particularly Cornell and Cayuga

Heights (across Fall Creek from the Cornell campus). Renwick Beach, at

the head of the lake, is a pleasure resort. The neighbouring region is

one of much beauty, and is frequented by summer tourists. Near the city

are many waterfalls, the most notable being Taughannock Falls (9 m. N.),

with a fall of 215 ft. Through the city from the east run Fall,

Cascadilla and Six Mile Creeks, the first two of which have cut deep

gorges and have a number of cascades and waterfalls, the largest, Ithaca

Fall in Fall Creek, being 120 ft. high. Six Mile Creek crosses the south

side of the city and empties into Cayuga Inlet, which crosses the

western and lower districts, often inundated in the spring. The Inlet

receives the waters of a number of small streams descending from the

south-western hills. Among the attractions in this direction are

Buttermilk Falls and ravine, on the outskirts of the city, Lick Brook

Falls and glen and Enfield Falls and glen, the last 7 m. distant. Fall

Creek furnishes good water-power. The city has various manufactures,

including fire-arms, calendar clocks, traction engines, electrical

appliances, patent chains, incubators, autophones, artesian well drills,

salt, cement, window glass and wall-paper. The value of the factory

product increased from $1,500,604 in 1900 to $2,080,002 in 1905, or

38.6%. Ithaca is also a farming centre and coal market, and much fruit

is grown in the vicinity. The city is best known as the seat of Cornell

University (q.v.). It has also the Ezra Cornell Free Library of about

28,000 volumes, the Ithaca Conservatory of Music, the Cascadilla School

and the Ithaca High School. Ithaca was settled about 1789, the name

being given to it by Simeon De Witt in 1806. It was incorporated as a

village in 1821, and was chartered as a city in 1888. At Buttermilk

Falls stood the principal village of the Tutelo Indians, Coreorgonel,

settled in 1753 and destroyed in 1779 by a detachment of Sullivan's

force.

ITINERARIUM (i.e. road-book, from Lat. _iter_, road), a term applied to

the extant descriptions of the ancient Roman roads and routes of

traffic, with the stations and distances. It is usual to distinguish two

classes of these, _Itineraria adnotata_ or _scripta_ and _Itineraria

picta_--the former having the character of a book, and the latter being

a kind of travelling map. Of the Itineraria Scripta the most important

are: (1) _It. Antonini_ (see ANTONINI ITINERARIUM), which consists of

two parts, the one dealing with roads in Europe, Asia and Africa, and

the other with familiar sea-routes--the distances usually being measured

from Rome; (2) _It. Hierosolymitanum_ or _Burdigalense_, which belongs

to the 4th century, and contains the route of a pilgrimage from Bordeaux

to Jerusalem and from Heraclea by Rome to Milan (ed. G. Parthey and M.

Pinder, 1848, with the _Itinerarium Antonini_); (3) _It. Alexandria_

containing a sketch of the march-route of Alexander the Great, mainly

derived from Arrian and prepared for Constantius's expedition in A.D.

340-345 against the Persians (ed. D. Volkmann, 1871). A collected

edition of the ancient itineraria, with ten maps, was issued by Fortia

d'Urban, _Recueil des itinéraires anciens_ (1845). Of the Itineraria

Picta only one great example has been preserved. This is the famous

_Tabula Peutingeriana_, which, without attending to the shape or

relative position of the countries, represents by straight lines and

dots of various sizes the roads and towns of the whole Roman world

(facsimile published by K. Miller, 1888; see also MAP).

ITIUS PORTUS, the name given by Caesar to the chief harbour which he

used when embarking for his second expedition to Britain in 54 B.C. (_De

bello Gallico_, v. 2). It was certainly near the uplands round Cape

Grisnez (_Promuntorium Itium_), but the exact site has been violently

disputed ever since the renaissance of learning. Many critics have

assumed that Caesar used the same port for his first expedition, but the

name does not appear at all in that connexion (_B. G._ iv. 21-23). This

fact, coupled with other considerations, makes it probable that the two

expeditions started from different places. It is generally agreed that

the first embarked at Boulogne. The same view was widely held about the

second, but T. Rice Holmes in an article in the _Classical Review_ (May

1909) gave strong reasons for preferring Wissant, 4 m. east of Grisnez.

The chief reason is that Caesar, having found he could not set sail from

the small harbour of Boulogne with even 80 ships simultaneously, decided

that he must take another point for the sailing of the "more than 800"

ships of the second expedition. Holmes argues that, allowing for change

in the foreshore since Caesar's time, 800 specially built ships could

have been hauled above the highest spring-tide level, and afterwards

launched simultaneously at Wissant, which would therefore have been

"commodissimus" (v. 2) or opposed to "brevissimus traiectus" (iv. 21).

See T. R. Holmes in _Classical Review_ (May 1909), in which he

partially revises the conclusions at which he arrived in his _Ancient

Britain_ (1907), pp. 552-594; that the first expedition started from

Boulogne is accepted, e.g. by H. Stuart Jones, in _English Historical

Review_ (1909), xxiv. 115; other authorities in Holmes's article.

ITO, HIROBUMI, PRINCE (1841-1909), Japanese statesman, was born in 1841,

being the son of Ito Juzo, and (like his father) began life as a

retainer of the lord of Choshu, one of the most powerful nobles of

Japan. Choshu, in common with many of his fellow Daimyos, was bitterly

opposed to the rule of the shôgun or tycoon, and when this rule resulted

in the conclusion of the treaty with Commodore M. C. Perry in 1854, the

smouldering discontent broke out into open hostility against both

parties to the compact. In these views Ito cordially agreed with his

chieftain, and was sent on a secret mission to Yedo to report to his

lord on the doings of the government. This visit had the effect of

causing Ito to turn his attention seriously to the study of the British

and of other military systems. As a result he persuaded Choshu to

remodel his army, and to exchange the bows and arrows of his men for

guns and rifles. But Ito felt that his knowledge of foreigners, if it

was to be thorough, should be sought for in Europe, and with the

connivance of Choshu he, in company with Inouye and three other young

men of the same rank as himself, determined to risk their lives by

committing the then capital offence of visiting a foreign country. With

great secrecy they made their way to Nagasaki, where they concluded an

arrangement with the agent of Messrs Jardine, Matheson & Co. for

passages on board a vessel which was about to sail for Shanghai (1863).

At that port the adventurers separated, three of their number taking

ship as passengers to London, while Ito and Inouye preferred to work

their passages before the mast in the "Pegasus," bound for the same

destination. For a year these two friends remained in London studying

English methods, but then events occurred in Japan which recalled them

to their country. The treaties lately concluded by the shôgun with the

foreign powers conceded the right to navigate the strait of Shimonoseki,

leading to the Inland Sea. On the northern shores of this strait

stretched the feudal state ruled over by Prince Choshu, who refused to

recognize the clause opening the strait, and erected batteries on the

shore, from which he opened fire on all ships which attempted to force

the passage. The shôgun having declared himself unable in the

circumstances to give effect to the provision, the treaty powers

determined to take the matter into their own hands. Ito, who was better

aware than his chief of the disproportion between the fighting powers of

Europe and Japan, memorialized the cabinets, begging that hostilities

should be suspended until he should have had time to use his influence

with Choshu in the interests of peace. With this object Ito hurried back

to Japan. But his efforts were futile. Choshu refused to give way, and

suffered the consequences of his obstinacy in the destruction of his

batteries and in the infliction of a heavy fine. The part played by Ito

in these negotiations aroused the animosity of the more reactionary of

his fellow-clansmen, who made repeated attempts to assassinate him. On

one notable occasion he was pursued by his enemies into a tea-house,

where he was concealed by a young lady beneath the floor of her room.

Thus began a romantic acquaintance, which ended in the lady becoming the

wife of the fugitive. Subsequently (1868) Ito was made governor of

Hiogo, and in the course of the following year became vice-minister of

finance. In 1871 he accompanied Iwakura on an important mission to

Europe, which, though diplomatically a failure, resulted in the

enlistment of the services of European authorities on military, naval

and educational systems.

After his return to Japan Ito served in several cabinets as head of the

bureau of engineering and mines, and in 1886 he accepted office as prime

minister, a post which, when he resigned in 1901, he had held four

times. In 1882 he was sent on a mission to Europe to study the various

forms of constitutional government; on this occasion he attended the

coronation of the tsar Alexander III. On his return to Japan he was

entrusted with the arduous duty of drafting a constitution. In 1890 he

reaped the fruits of his labours, and nine years later he was destined

to witness the abrogation of the old treaties, and the substitution in

their place of conventions which place Japan on terms of equality with

the European states. In all the great reforms in the Land of the Rising

Sun Ito played a leading part. It was mainly due to his active interest

in military and naval affairs that he was able to meet Li Hung-chang at

the end of the Chinese and Japanese War (1895) as the representative of

the conquering state, and the conclusion of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance

in 1902 testified to his triumphant success in raising Japan to the

first rank among civilized powers. As a reward for his conspicuous

services in connexion with the Chinese War Ito was made a marquis, and

in 1897 he accompanied Prince Arisugawa as a joint representative of the

Mikado at the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. At the close of 1901 he

again, though in an unofficial capacity, visited Europe and the United

States; and in England he was created a G.C.B. After the Russo-Japanese

War (1905) he was appointed resident general in Korea, and in that

capacity he was responsible for the steps taken to increase Japanese

influence in that country. In September 1907 he was advanced to the rank

of prince. He retired from his post in Korea in July 1909, and became

president of the privy council in Japan. But on the 26th of October,

when on a visit to Harbin, he was shot dead by a Korean assassin.

He is to be distinguished from Admiral Count Yuko Ito (b. 1843), the

distinguished naval commander.

ITRI, a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, 6 m. by

road N.W. of Formia. Pop. (1901) 5797. The town is picturesquely

situated 690 ft. above sea-level, in the mountains which the Via Appia

traverses between Fondi and Formia. Interesting remains of the

substruction wall supporting the ancient road are preserved in Itri

itself; and there are many remains of ancient buildings near it. The

brigand Fra Diavolo, the hero of Auber's opera, was a native of Itri,

and the place was once noted for brigandage.

ITURBIDE (or YTURBIDE), AUGUSTIN DE (1783-1824), emperor of Mexico from

May 1822 to March 1823, was born on the 27th of September 1783, at

Valladolid, now Morelia, in Mexico, where his father, an Old Spaniard

from Pampeluna, had settled with his creole wife. After enjoying a

better education than was then usual in Mexico, Iturbide entered the

military service, and in 1810 held the post of lieutenant in the

provincial regiment of his native city. In that year the insurrection

under Hidalgo broke out, and Iturbide, more from policy, it would seem,

than from principle, served in the royal army. Possessed of splendid

courage and brilliant military talents, which fitted him especially for

guerilla warfare, the young creole did signal service, and rapidly rose

in military rank. In December 1813 Colonel Iturbide, along with General

Llano, dealt a crushing blow to the revolt by defeating Morelos, the

successor of Hidalgo, in the battle of Valladolid; and the former

followed it up by another decisive victory at Puruaran in January 1814.

Next year Don Augustin was appointed to the command of the army of the

north and to the governorship of the provinces of Valladolid and

Guanajuato, but in 1816 grave charges of extortion and violence were

brought against him, which led to his recall. Although the general was

acquitted, or at least although the inquiry was dropped, he did not

resume his commands, but retired into private life for four years,

which, we are told, he spent in a rigid course of penance for his former

excesses. In 1820 Apodaca, viceroy of Mexico, received instructions from

the Spanish cortes to proclaim the constitution promulgated in Spain in

1812, but although obliged at first to submit to an order by which his

power was much curtailed, he secretly cherished the design of reviving

the absolute power for Ferdinand VII. in Mexico. Under pretext of

putting down the lingering remains of revolt, he levied troops, and,

placing Iturbide at their head, instructed him to proclaim the absolute

power of the king. Four years of reflection, however, had modified the

general's views, and now, led both by personal ambition and by patriotic

regard for his country, Iturbide resolved to espouse the cause of

national independence. His subsequent proceedings--how he issued the

_Plan of Iguala_, on the 24th of February 1821, how by the refusal of

the Spanish cortes to ratify the treaty of Cordova, which he had signed

with O'Donoju, he was transformed from a mere champion of monarchy into

a candidate for the crown, and how, hailed by the soldiers as Emperor

Augustin I. on the 18th of May 1822, he was compelled within ten months,

by his arrogant neglect of constitutional restraints, to tender his

abdication to a congress which he had forcibly dissolved--will be found

detailed under Mexico. Although the congress refused to accept his

abdication on the ground that to do so would be to recognize the

validity of his election, it permitted the ex-emperor to retire to

Leghorn in Italy, while in consideration of his services in 1820 a

yearly pension of £5000 was conferred upon him. But Iturbide resolved to

make one more bid for power; and in 1824, passing from Leghorn to

London, he published a _Statement_, and on the 11th of May set sail for

Mexico. The congress immediately issued an act of outlawry against him,

forbidding him to set foot on Mexican soil on pain of death. Ignorant of

this, the ex-emperor landed in disguise at Soto la Marina on the 14th of

July. He was almost immediately recognized and arrested, and on the 19th

of July 1824 was shot at Padilla, by order of the state of Tamaulipas,

without being permitted an appeal to the general congress. Don Augustin

de Iturbide is described by his contemporaries as being of handsome

figure and ingratiating manner. His brilliant courage and wonderful

success made him the idol of his soldiers, though towards his prisoners

he displayed the most cold-blooded cruelty, boasting in one of his

despatches of having honoured Good Friday by shooting three hundred

excommunicated wretches. Though described as amiable in his private

life, he seems in his public career to have been ambitious and

unscrupulous, and by his haughty Spanish temper, impatient of all

resistance or control, to have forfeited the opportunity of founding a

secure imperial dynasty. His grandson Augustin was chosen by the

ill-fated emperor Maximilian as his successor.

See _Statement of some of the principal events in the public life of

Augustin de Iturbide_, written by himself (Eng. trans., 1824).

ITZA, an American-Indian people of Mayan stock, inhabiting the country

around Lake Peten in northern Guatemala. Chichen-Itza, among the most

wonderful of the ruined cities of Yucatan, was the capital of the Itzas.

Thence, according to their traditions they removed, on the breaking up

of the Mayan kingdom in 1420, to an island in the lake where another

city was built. Cortes met them in 1525, but they preserved their

independence till 1697, when the Spaniards destroyed the city and

temples, and a library of sacred books, written in hieroglyphics on bark

fibre. The Itzas were one of the eighteen semi-independent Maya states,

whose incessant internecine wars at length brought about the

dismemberment of the empire of Xibalba and the destruction of Mayan

civilization.

ITZEHOE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of

Schleswig-Holstein, on the Stör, a navigable tributary of the Elbe, 32

m. north-west of Hamburg and 15 m. north of Glückstadt. Pop. (1900)

15,649. The church of St Lawrence, dating from the 12th century, and the

building in which the Holstein estates formerly met, are noteworthy. The

town has a convent founded in 1256, a high school, a hospital and other

benevolent institutions. Itzehoe is a busy commercial place. Its sugar

refineries are among the largest in Germany. Ironfounding, shipbuilding

and wool-spinning are also carried on, and the manufactures include

machinery, tobacco, fishing-nets, chicory, soap, cement and beer.

Fishing employs some of the inhabitants, and the markets for cattle and

horses are important. A considerable trade is carried on in agricultural

products and wood, chiefly with Hamburg and Altona.

Itzehoe is the oldest town in Holstein. Its nucleus was a castle, built

in 809 by Egbert, one of Charlemagne's counts, against the Danes. The

community which sprang up around it was diversely called Esseveldoburg,

Eselsfleth and Ezeho. In 1201 the town was destroyed, but it was

restored in 1224. To the new town the Lübeck rights were granted by

Adolphus IV. in 1238, and to the old town in 1303. During the Thirty

Years' War Itzehoe was twice destroyed by the Swedes, in 1644 and 1657,

but was rebuilt on each occasion. It passed to Prussia in 1867, with the

duchy of Schleswig-Holstein.

IUKA, the county-seat of Tishomingo county, Mississippi, U.S.A., about

25 m. S.E. of Corinth in the N.E. corner of the state and 8 m. S. of the

Tennessee river. Pop. (1900) 882; (1910) 1221. It is served by the

Southern railway, and has a considerable trade in cotton and farm

products. Its mineral springs make it a health resort. In the American

Civil War, a Confederate force under General Sterling Price occupied the

town on the 14th of September 1862, driving out a small Union garrison;

and on the 19th of September a partial engagement took place between

Price and a Federal column commanded by General Rosecrans, in which the

Confederate losses were 700 and the Union 790. Price, whose line of

retreat was threatened by superior forces under General Grant, withdrew

from Iuka on the morning of the 20th of September.

IULUS, in Roman legend: (a) the eldest son of Ascanius and grandson of

Aeneas, founder of the Julian gens (_gens Iulia_), deprived of his

kingdom of Latium by his younger brother Silvius (Dion. Halic. i. 70);

(b) another name for, or epithet of, Ascanius.

IVAN (JOHN), the name of six grand dukes of Muscovy and tsars of Russia.

IVAN I., called _Kalita_, or Money-Bag (d. 1341), grand duke of

Vladimir, was the first _sobiratel_, or "gatherer" of the scattered

Russian lands, thereby laying the foundations of the future autocracy as

a national institution. This he contrived to do by adopting a policy of

complete subserviency to the khan of the Golden Horde, who, in return

for a liberal and punctual tribute, permitted him to aggrandize himself

at the expense of the lesser grand dukes. Moscow and Tver were the first

to fall. The latter Ivan received from the hand of the khan, after

devastating it with a host of 50,000 Tatars (1327). When Alexander of

Tver fled to the powerful city of Pskov, Ivan, not strong enough to

attack Pskov, procured the banishment of Alexander by the aid of the

metropolitan, Theognost, who threatened Pskov with an interdict. In 1330

Ivan extended his influence over Rostov by the drastic methods of

blackmail and hanging. But Great Novgorod was too strong for him, and

twice he threatened that republic in vain. In 1340 Ivan assisted the

khan to ravage the domains of Prince Ivan of Smolensk, who had refused

to pay the customary tribute to the Horde. Ivan's own domains, at any

rate during his reign, remained free from Tatar incursions, and

prospered correspondingly, thus attracting immigrants and their wealth

from the other surrounding principalities. Ivan was a most careful, not

to say niggardly economist, keeping an exact account of every village or

piece of plate that his money-bags acquired, whence his nickname. The

most important event of his reign was the transference of the

metropolitan see from Vladimir to Moscow, which gave Muscovy the

pre-eminence over all the other Russian states, and made the

metropolitan the ecclesiastical police-superintendent of the grand duke.

The Metropolitan Peter built the first stone cathedral of Moscow, and

his successor, Theognost, followed suit with three more stone churches.

Simultaneously Ivan substituted stone walls for the ancient wooden ones

of the Kreml', or citadel, which made Moscow a still safer place of

refuge.

See S. M. Solov'ev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.), vol. iii. (St

Petersburg, 1895); Polezhaev, _The Principality of Moscow in the first

half of the 14th Century_ (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1878).

IVAN II. (1326-1359), grand duke of Vladimir, a younger son of Ivan

Kalita, was born in 1326. In 1353 he succeeded his elder brother Simeon

as grand duke, despite the competition of Prince Constantine of Suzdal,

the Khan Hanibek preferring to bestow the _yarluik_, or letter of

investiture, upon Ivan rather than upon Constantine. At first the

principalities of Suzdal, Ryazan and the republic of Novgorod refused to

recognize him as grand duke, and waged war with him till 1354. The

authority of the grand duchy sensibly diminished during the reign of

Ivan II. The surrounding principalities paid but little attention to

Moscow, and Ivan, "a meek, gentle and merciful prince," was ruled to a

great extent by the _tuisyatsky_, or chiliarch, Alexis Khvost, and,

after his murder by the jealous boyars in 1357, by Bishop Alexis. He

died in 1359. Like most of his predecessors, Ivan, by his last will,

divided his dominions among his children.

See Dmitry Ilovaisky, _History of Russia_ (Rus.), vol. ii. (Moscow,

1876-1894).

IVAN III. (1440-1505), grand duke of Muscovy, son of Vasily (Basil)

Vasilievich the Blind, grand duke of Moscow, and Maria Yaroslavovna, was

born in 1440. He was co-regent with his father during the latter years

of his life and succeeded him in 1462. Ivan tenaciously pursued the

unifying policy of his predecessors. Nevertheless, cautious to timidity,

like most of the princes of the house of Rurik, he avoided as far as

possible any violent collision with his neighbours until all the

circumstances were exceptionally favourable, always preferring to attain

his ends gradually, circuitously and subterraneously. Muscovy had by

this time become a compact and powerful state, whilst her rivals had

grown sensibly weaker, a condition of things very favourable to the

speculative activity of a statesman of Ivan III.'s peculiar character.

His first enterprise was a war with the republic of Novgorod, which,

alarmed at the growing dominancy of Muscovy, had placed herself beneath

the protection of Casimir IV., king of Poland, an alliance regarded at

Moscow as an act of apostasy from orthodoxy. Ivan took the field against

Novgorod in 1470, and after his generals had twice defeated the forces

of the republic, at Shelona and on the Dvina, during the summer of 1471,

the Novgorodians were forced to sue for peace, which they obtained on

engaging to abandon for ever the Polish alliance, ceding a considerable

portion of their northern colonies, and paying a war indemnity of 15,500

roubles. From henceforth Ivan sought continually a pretext for

destroying Novgorod altogether; but though he frequently violated its

ancient privileges in minor matters, the attitude of the republic was so

wary that his looked-for opportunity did not come till 1477. In that

year the ambassadors of Novgorod played into his hands by addressing him

in public audience as "Gosudar" (sovereign) instead of "Gospodin"

("Sir") as heretofore. Ivan at once seized upon this as a recognition of

his sovereignty, and when the Novgorodians repudiated their ambassadors,

he marched against them. Deserted by Casimir IV., and surrounded on

every side by the Muscovite armies, which included a Tatar contingent,

the republic recognized Ivan as autocrat, and surrendered (January 14,

1478) all her prerogatives and possessions (the latter including the

whole of northern Russia from Lapland to the Urals) into his hands.

Subsequent revolts (1479-1488) were punished by the removal _en masse_

of the richest and most ancient families of Novgorod to Moscow, Vyatka

and other central Russian cities. After this, Novgorod, as an

independent state, ceased to exist. The rival republic of Pskov owed the

continuance of its own political existence to the readiness with which

it assisted Ivan against its ancient enemy. The other principalities

were virtually absorbed, by conquest, purchase or marriage

contract--Yaroslavl in 1463, Rostov in 1474, Tver in 1485.

Ivan's refusal to share his conquests with his brothers, and his

subsequent interference with the internal politics of their inherited

principalities, involved him in several wars with them, from which,

though the princes were assisted by Lithuania, he emerged victorious.

Finally, Ivan's new rule of government, formally set forth in his last

will to the effect that the domains of all his kinsfolk, after their

deaths, should pass directly to the reigning grand duke instead of

reverting, as hitherto, to the princes' heirs, put an end once for all

to these semi-independent princelets. The further extension of the

Muscovite dominion was facilitated by the death of Casimir IV. in 1492,

when Poland and Lithuania once more parted company. The throne of

Lithuania was now occupied by Casimir's son Alexander, a weak and

lethargic prince so incapable of defending his possessions against the

persistent attacks of the Muscovites that he attempted to save them by a

matrimonial compact, and wedded Helena, Ivan's daughter. But the clear

determination of Ivan to appropriate as much of Lithuania as possible at

last compelled Alexander in 1499 to take up arms against his

father-in-law. The Lithuanians were routed at Vedrosha (July 14, 1500),

and in 1503 Alexander was glad to purchase peace by ceding to Ivan

Chernigov, Starodub, Novgorod-Syeversk and sixteen other towns.

It was in the reign of Ivan III. that Muscovy rejected the Tatar yoke.

In 1480 Ivan refused to pay the customary tribute to the grand Khan

Ahmed. When, however, the grand khan marched against him, Ivan's courage

began to fail, and only the stern exhortations of the high-spirited

bishop of Rostov, Vassian, could induce him to take the field. All

through the autumn the Russian and Tatar hosts confronted each other on

opposite sides of the Ugra, till the 11th of November, when Ahmed

retired into the steppe. In the following year the grand khan, while

preparing a second expedition against Moscow, was suddenly attacked,

routed and slain by Ivak, the khan of the Nogai Tatars, whereupon the

Golden Horde suddenly fell to pieces. In 1487 Ivan reduced the khanate

of Kazan (one of the offshoots of the Horde) to the condition of a

vassal-state, though in his later years it broke away from his

suzerainty. With the other Mahommedan powers, the khan of the Crimea and

the sultan of Turkey, Ivan's relations were pacific and even amicable.

The Crimean khan, Mengli Girai, helped him against Lithuania and

facilitated the opening of diplomatic intercourse between Moscow and

Constantinople, where the first Russian embassy appeared in 1495.

The character of the government of Muscovy under Ivan III. changed

essentially and took on an autocratic form which it had never had

before. This was due not merely to the natural consequence of the

hegemony of Moscow over the other Russian lands, but even more to the

simultaneous growth of new and exotic principles falling upon a soil

already prepared for them. After the fall of Constantinople, orthodox

canonists were inclined to regard the Muscovite grand dukes as the

successors by the Byzantine emperors. This movement coincided with a

change in the family circumstances of Ivan III. After the death of his

first consort, Maria of Tver (1467), at the suggestion of Pope Paul II.

(1469), who hoped thereby to bind Russia to the holy see, Ivan III.

wedded the Catholic Zoe Palaeologa (better known by her orthodox name of

Sophia), daughter of Thomas, despot of the Morea, who claimed the throne

of Constantinople as the nearest relative of the last Greek emperor. The

princess, however, clave to her family traditions, and awoke imperial

ideas in the mind of her consort. It was through her influence that the

ceremonious etiquette of Constantinople (along with the imperial

double-headed eagle and all that it implied) was adopted by the court of

Moscow. The grand duke henceforth held aloof from his boyars. The old

patriarchal systems of government vanished. The boyars were no longer

consulted on affairs of state. The sovereign became sacrosanct, while

the boyars were reduced to the level of slaves absolutely dependent on

the will of the sovereign. The boyars naturally resented so insulting a

revolution, and struggled against it, at first with some success. But

the clever Greek lady prevailed in the end, and it was her son Vasily,

not Maria of Tver's son, Demetrius, who was ultimately crowned co-regent

with his father (April 14, 1502). It was in the reign of Ivan III. that

the first Russian "Law Book," or code, was compiled by the scribe Gusev.

Ivan did his utmost to promote civilization in his realm, and with that

object invited many foreign masters and artificers to settle in Muscovy,

the most noted of whom was the Italian Ridolfo di Fioravante, nicknamed

Aristotle because of his extraordinary knowledge, who built the

cathedrals of the Assumption (Uspenski) and of Saint Michael or the Holy

Archangels in the Kreml.

See P. Pierling, _Mariage d'un tsar au Vatican, Ivan III. et Sophie

Paléologue_ (Paris, 1891); E. I. Kashprovsky, _The Struggle of Ivan

III. with Sigismund I._ (Rus.) (Nizhni, 1899); S. M. Solov'ev,

_History of Russia_ (Rus.), vol. v. (St Petersburg, 1895).

IVAN IV., called "the Terrible" (1530-1584), tsar of Muscovy, was the

son of Vasily [Basil] III. Ivanovich, grand duke of Muscovy, by his

second wife, Helena Glinska. Born on the 25th of August 1530, he was

proclaimed grand duke on the death of his father (1533), and took the

government into his own hands in 1544, being then fourteen years old.

Ivan IV. was in every respect precocious; but from the first there was

what we should now call a neurotic strain in his character. His father

died when he was three, his mother when he was only seven, and he grew

up in a brutal and degrading environment where he learnt to hold human

life and human dignity in contempt. He was maltreated by the leading

boyars whom successive revolutions placed at the head of affairs, and

hence he conceived an inextinguishable hatred of their whole order and a

corresponding fondness for the merchant class, their natural enemies. At

a very early age he entertained an exalted idea of his own divine

authority, and his studies were largely devoted to searching in the

Scriptures and the Slavonic chronicles for sanctions and precedents for

the exercise and development of his right divine. He first asserted his

power by literally throwing to the dogs the last of his boyar tyrants,

and shortly afterwards announced his intention of assuming the title of

tsar, a title which his father and grandfather had coveted but never

dared to assume publicly. On the 16th of January 1547, he was crowned

the first Russian tsar by the metropolitan of Moscow; on the 3rd of

February in the same year he selected as his wife from among the virgins

gathered from all parts of Russia for his inspection, Anastasia

Zakharina-Koshkina, the scion of an ancient and noble family better

known by its later name of Romanov.

Hitherto, by his own showing, the private life of the young tsar had

been unspeakably abominable, but his sensitive conscience (he was

naturally religious) induced him, in 1550, to summon a _Zemsky Sobor_ or

national assembly, the first of its kind, to which he made a curious

public confession of the sins of his youth, and at the same time

promised that the realm of Russia (for whose dilapidation he blamed the

boyar regents) should henceforth be governed justly and mercifully. In

1551 the tsar submitted to a synod of prelates a hundred questions as to

the best mode of remedying existing evils, for which reason the decrees

of this synod are generally called _stoglav_ or _centuria_. The

decennium extending from 1550 to 1560 was the good period of Ivan IV.'s

reign, when he deliberately broke away from his disreputable past and

surrounded himself with good men of lowly origin. It was not only that

he hated and distrusted the boyars, but he was already statesman enough

to discern that they could not be fitted into the new order of things

which he aimed at introducing. Ivan meditated the regeneration of

Muscovy, and the only men who could assist him in his task were men who

could look steadily forward to the future because they had no past to

look back upon, men who would unflinchingly obey their sovereign because

they owed their whole political significance to him alone. The chief of

these men of good-will were Alexis Adashev and the monk Sylvester, men

of so obscure an origin that almost every detail of their lives is

conjectural, but both of them, morally, the best Muscovites of their

day. Their influence upon the young tsar was profoundly beneficial, and

the period of their administration coincides with the most glorious

period of Ivan's reign--the period of the conquest of Kazan and

Astrakhan.

In the course of 1551 one of the factions of Kazan offered the whole

khanate to the young tsar, and on the 20th of August 1552 he stood

before its walls with an army of 150,000 men and 50 guns. The siege was

long and costly; the army suffered severely; and only the tenacity of

the tsar kept it in camp for six weeks. But on the 2nd of October the

fortress, which had been heroically defended, was taken by assault. The

conquest of Kazan was an epoch-making event in the history of eastern

Europe. It was not only the first territorial conquest from the Tatars,

before whom Muscovy had humbled herself for generations; at Kazan Asia,

in the name of Mahomet, had fought behind its last trench against

Christian Europe marshalled beneath the banner of the tsar of Muscovy.

For the first time the Volga became a Russian river. Nothing could now

retard the natural advance of the young Russian state towards the east

and the south-east. In 1554 Astrakhan fell almost without a blow. By

1560 all the Finnic and Tatar tribes between the Oka and the Kama had

become Russian subjects. Ivan was also the first tsar who dared to

attack the Crimea. In 1555 he sent Ivan Sheremetev against Perekop, and

Sheremetev routed the Tatars in a great two days' battle at

Sudbishenska. Some of Ivan's advisers, including both Sylvester and

Adashev, now advised him to make an end of the Crimean khanate, as he

had already made an end of the khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan. But

Ivan, wiser in his generation, knew that the thing was impossible, in

view of the immense distance to be traversed, and the predominance of

the Grand Turk from whom it would have to be wrested. It was upon

Livonia that his eyes were fixed, which was comparatively near at hand

and promised him a seaboard and direct communication with western

Europe. Ivan IV., like Peter I. after him, clearly recognized the

necessity of raising Muscovy to the level of her neighbours. He proposed

to do so by promoting a wholesale immigration into his tsardom of

master-workmen and skilled artificers. But all his neighbours,

apprehensive of the consequences of a civilized Muscovy, combined to

thwart him. Charles V. even went so far as to disperse 123 skilled

Germans whom Ivan's agent had collected and brought to Lübeck for

shipment to a Baltic port. After this, Ivan was obliged to help himself

as best he could. His opportunity seemed to have come when, in the

middle of the 16th century, the Order of the Sword broke up, and the

possession of Livonia was fiercely contested between Sweden, Poland and

Denmark. Ivan intervened in 1558 and quickly captured Narva, Dorpat and

a dozen smaller fortresses; then, in 1560, Livonia placed herself

beneath the protection of Poland, and King Sigismund II. warned Ivan off

the premises.

By this time, Ivan had entered upon the second and evil portion of his

reign. As early as 1553 he had ceased to trust Sylvester and Adashev,

owing to their extraordinary backwardness in supporting the claims of

his infant son to the throne while he himself lay at the point of death.

The ambiguous and ungrateful conduct of the tsar's intimate friends and

protégés on this occasion has never been satisfactorily explained, and

he had good reason to resent it. Nevertheless, on his recovery, much to

his credit, he overlooked it, and they continued to direct affairs for

six years longer. Then the dispute about the Crimea arose, and Ivan

became convinced that they were mediocre politicians as well as

untrustworthy friends. In 1560 both of them disappeared from the scene,

Sylvester into a monastery at his own request, while Adashev died the

same year, in honourable exile as a general in Livonia. The death of his

deeply beloved consort Anastasia and his son Demetrius, and the

desertion of his one bosom friend Prince Kurbsky, about the same time,

seem to have infuriated Ivan against God and man. During the next ten

years (1560-1570) terrible and horrible things happened in the realm of

Muscovy. The tsar himself lived in an atmosphere of apprehension,

imagining that every man's hand was against him. On the 3rd of December

1564 he quitted Moscow with his whole family. On the 3rd of January 1565

he declared in an open letter addressed to the metropolitan his

intention to abdicate. The common people, whom he had always favoured at

the expense of the boyars, thereupon implored him to come back on his

own terms. He consented to do so, but entrenched himself within a

peculiar institution, the _oprichina_ or "separate estate." Certain

towns and districts all over Russia were separated from the rest of the

realm, and their revenues were assigned to the maintenance of the tsar's

new court and household, which was to consist of 1000 carefully selected

boyars and lower dignitaries, with their families and suites, in the

midst of whom Ivan henceforth lived exclusively. The _oprichina_ was no

constitutional innovation. The _duma_, or council, still attended to all

the details of the administration; the old boyars still retained their

ancient offices and dignities. The only difference was that the tsar had

cut himself off from them, and they were not even to communicate with

him except on extraordinary and exceptional occasions. The _oprichniki_,

as being the exclusive favourites of the tsar, naturally, in their own

interests, hardened the tsar's heart against all outsiders, and trampled

with impunity upon every one beyond the charmed circle. Their first and

most notable victim was Philip, the saintly metropolitan of Moscow, who

was strangled for condemning the _oprichina_ as an unchristian

institution, and refusing to bless the tsar (1569). Ivan had stopped at

Tver, to murder St Philip, while on his way to destroy the second

wealthiest city in his tsardom--Great Novgorod. A delator of infamous

character, one Peter, had accused the authorities of the city to the

tsar of conspiracy; Ivan, without even confronting the Novgorodians with

their accuser, proceeded at the end of 1569 to punish them. After

ravaging the land, his own land, like a wild beast, he entered the city

on the 8th of January 1570, and for the next five weeks, systematically

and deliberately, day after day, massacred batches of every class of the

population. Every monastery, church, manor-house, warehouse and farm

within a circuit of 100 m. was then wrecked, plundered and left

roofless, all goods were pillaged, all cattle destroyed. Not till the

13th of February were the miserable remnants of the population permitted

to rebuild their houses and cultivate their fields once more.

An intermittent and desultory war, with Sweden and Poland

simultaneously, for the possession of Livonia and Esthonia, went on from

1560 to 1582. Ivan's generals (he himself rarely took the field) were

generally successful at first, and bore down their enemies by sheer

numbers, capturing scores of fortresses and towns. But in the end the

superior military efficiency of the Swedes and Poles invariably

prevailed. Ivan was also unfortunate in having for his chief antagonist

Stephen Báthory, one of the greatest captains of the age. Thus all his

strenuous efforts, all his enormous sacrifices, came to nothing. The

West was too strong for him. By the peace of Zapoli (January 15th, 1582)

he surrendered Livonia with Polotsk to Báthory, and by the truce of

Ilyusa he at the same time abandoned Ingria to the Swedes. The Baltic

seaboard was lost to Muscovy for another century and a half. In his

latter years Ivan cultivated friendly relations with England, in the

hope of securing some share in the benefits of civilization from the

friendship of Queen Elizabeth, one of whose ladies, Mary Hastings, he

wished to marry, though his fifth wife, Martha Nagaya, was still alive.

Towards the end of his life Ivan was partially consoled for his failure

in the west by the unexpected acquisition of the kingdom of Siberia in

the east, which was first subdued by the Cossack hetman Ermak or Yermak

in 1581.

In November 1580 Ivan in a fit of ungovernable fury at some

contradiction or reproach, struck his eldest surviving son Ivan, a

prince of rare promise, whom he passionately loved, a blow which proved

fatal. In an agony of remorse, he would now have abdicated "as being

unworthy to reign longer"; but his trembling boyars, fearing some dark

ruse, refused to obey any one but himself. Three years later, on the

18th of March 1584, while playing at chess, he suddenly fell backwards

in his chair and was removed to his bed in a dying condition. At the

last moment he assumed the hood of the strictest order of hermits, and

died as the monk Jonah.

Ivan IV. was undoubtedly a man of great natural ability. His political

foresight was extraordinary. He anticipated the ideals of Peter the

Great, and only failed in realizing them because his material resources

were inadequate. But admiration of his talents must not blind us to his

moral worthlessness, nor is it right to cast the blame for his excesses

on the brutal and vicious society in which he lived. The same society

which produced his infamous favourites also produced St Philip of

Moscow, and by refusing to listen to St Philip Ivan sank below even the

not very lofty moral standard of his own age. He certainly left

Muscovite society worse than he found it, and so prepared the way for

the horrors of "the Great Anarchy." Personally, Ivan was tall and

well-made, with high shoulders and a broad chest. His eyes were small

and restless, his nose hooked, he had a beard and moustaches of imposing

length. His face had a sinister, troubled expression; but an enigmatical

smile played perpetually around his lips. He was the best educated and

the hardest worked man of his age. His memory was astonishing, his

energy indefatigable. As far as possible he saw to everything

personally, and never sent away a petitioner of the lower orders.

See S. M. Solov'ev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.) vol. v. (St Petersburg,

1895); A. Brückner, _Geschichte Russlands bis zum Ende des 18ten

Jahrhunderts_ (Gotha, 1896); E. Tikhomirov, _The first Tsar of

Moscovy, Ivan IV._ (Rus.) (Moscow, 1888); L. G. T. Tidander, _Kriget

mellan Sverige och Ryssland åren 1555-1557_ (Vesterås, 1888); P.

Pierling, _Un Arbitrage pontifical au XVI^e siècle entre la Pologne et

la Russie_ (Bruxelles, 1890); V. V. Novodvorsky, _The Struggle for

Livonia, 1570-1582_ (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1904); K. Waliszewski,

_Ivan le terrible_ (Paris, 1904); R. N. Bain, _Slavonic Europe_, ch. 5

(Cambridge, 1907).

IVAN V.[1] (1666-1696), tsar of Russia, was the son of Tsar Alexius

Mikhailovich and his first consort Miloslavzkoya. Physically and

mentally deficient, Ivan was the mere tool of the party in Muscovy who

would have kept the children of the tsar Alexis, by his second consort

Natalia Naruishkina, from the throne. In 1682 the party of progress,

headed by Artamon Matvyeev and the tsaritsa Natalia, passed Ivan over

and placed his half-brother, the vigorous and promising little tsarevich

Peter, on the throne. On the 23rd of May, however, the Naruishkin

faction was overthrown by the _stryeltsi_ (musketeers), secretly worked

upon by Ivan's half-sister Sophia, and Ivan was associated as tsar with

Peter. Three days later he was proclaimed "first tsar," in order still

further to depress the Naruishkins, and place the government in the

hands of Sophia exclusively. In 1689 the name of Ivan was used as a

pretext by Sophia in her attempt to oust Peter from the throne

altogether. Ivan was made to distribute beakers of wine to his sister's

adherents with his own hands, but subsequently, beneath the influence of

his uncle Prozorovsky, he openly declared that "even for his sister's

sake, he would quarrel no longer with his dear brother." During the

reign of his colleague Peter, Ivan V. took no part whatever in affairs,

but devoted himself "to incessant prayer and rigorous fasting." On the

9th of January 1684 he married Praskovia Saltuikova, who bore him five

daughters, one of whom, Anne, ultimately ascended the Russian throne. In

his last years Ivan was a paralytic. He died on the 29th of January

1696.

See R. Nisbet Bain, _The First Romanovs_ (London, 1905); M. P.

Pogodin, _The First Seventeen Years of the Life of Peter the Great_

(Rus.) (Moscow, 1875).

IVAN VI. (1740-1764), emperor of Russia, was the son of Prince Antony

Ulrich of Brunswick, and the princess Anna Leopoldovna of Mecklenburg,

and great-nephew of the empress Anne, who adopted him and declared him

her successor on the 5th of October 1740, when he was only eight weeks

old. On the death of Anne (October 17th) he was proclaimed emperor, and

on the following day Ernest Johann Biren, duke of Courland, was

appointed regent. On the fall of Biren (November 8th), the regency

passed to the baby tsar's mother, though the government was in the hands

of the capable vice-chancellor, Andrei Osterman. A little more than

twelve months later, a _coup d'état_ placed the tsesarevna Elizabeth on

the throne (December 6, 1741), and Ivan and his family were imprisoned

in the fortress of Dünamünde (Ust Dvinsk) (December 13, 1742) after a

preliminary detention at Riga, from whence the new empress had at first

decided to send them home to Brunswick. In June 1744 they were

transferred to Kholmogory on the White Sea, where Ivan, isolated from

his family, and seeing nobody but his gaoler, remained for the next

twelve years. Rumours of his confinement at Kholmogory having leaked

out, he was secretly transferred to the fortress of Schlüsselburg

(1756), where he was still more rigorously guarded, the very commandant

of the fortress not knowing who "a certain arrestant" committed to his

care really was. On the accession of Peter III. the condition of the

unfortunate prisoner seemed about to be ameliorated, for the

kind-hearted emperor visited and sympathized with him; but Peter himself

was overthrown a few weeks later. In the instructions sent to Ivan's

guardian, Prince Churmtyev, the latter was ordered to chain up his

charge, and even scourge him should he become refractory. On the

accession of Catherine still more stringent orders were sent to the

officer in charge of "the nameless one." If any attempt were made from

outside to release him, the prisoner was to be put to death; in no

circumstances was he to be delivered alive into any one's hands, even if

his deliverers produced the empress's own sign-manual authorizing his

release. By this time, twenty years of solitary confinement had

disturbed Ivan's mental equilibrium, though he does not seem to have

been actually insane. Nevertheless, despite the mystery surrounding him,

he was well aware of his imperial origin, and always called himself

_gosudar_ (sovereign). Though instructions had been given to keep him

ignorant, he had been taught his letters and could read his Bible. Nor

could his residence at Schlüsselburg remain concealed for ever, and its

discovery was the cause of his ruin. A sub-lieutenant of the garrison,

Vasily Mirovich, found out all about him, and formed a plan for freeing

and proclaiming him emperor. At midnight on the 5th of July 1764,

Mirovich won over some of the garrison, arrested the commandant,

Berednikov, and demanded the delivery of Ivan, who there and then was

murdered by his gaolers in obedience to the secret instructions already

in their possession.

See R. Nisbet Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897); M.

Semevsky, _Ivan VI. Antonovich_ (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1866); A.

Brückner, _The Emperor Ivan VI. and his Family_ (Rus.) (Moscow, 1874);

V. A. Bilbasov, _Geschichte Catherine II._ (vol. ii., Berlin,

1891-1893). (R. N. B.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Ivan V., if we count from the first grand duke of that name, as

most Russian historians do; Ivan II., if, with the minority, we

reckon from Ivan the Terrible as the first Russian tsar.

IVANGOROD, a fortified town of Russian Poland, in the government of

Lublin, 64 m. by rail S.E. from Warsaw, at the confluence of the Wieprz

with the Vistula. It is defended by nine forts on the right bank of the

Vistula and by three on the left bank, and, with Warsaw, Novo-Georgievsk

and Brest-Litovsk, forms the Polish "quadrilateral."

IVANOVO-VOZNESENSK, a town of middle Russia, in the government of

Vladimir, 86 m. by rail N. of the town of Vladimir. Pop. (1887) 22,000;

(1900) 64,628. It consists of what were originally two villages--Ivanovo,

dating from the 16th century, and Voznesensk, of much more recent

date--united into a town in 1861. Of best note among the public buildings

are the cathedral, and the church of the Intercession of the Virgin,

formerly associated with an important monastery founded in 1579 and

abandoned in 1754. One of the colleges of the town contains a public

library. Linen-weaving was introduced in 1751, and in 1776 the

manufacture of chintzes was brought from Schlüsselburg. The town has

cotton factories, calico print-works, iron-works and chemical works.

IVARR, BEINLAUSI (d. 873), son of Ragnar Lothbrok, the great Viking

chieftain, is known in English and Continental annals as Inuaer, Ingwar

or Hingwar. He was one of the Danish leaders in the Sheppey expedition

of 855 and was perhaps present at the siege of York in 867. The chief

incident in his life was his share in the martyrdom of St Edmund in 870.

He seems to have been the leader of the Danes on that occasion, and by

this act he probably gained the epithet "crudelissimus" by which he is

usually described. It is probable that he is to be identified with

Imhar, king of the Norsemen of all Ireland and Britain, who was active

in Ireland between the years 852 and 873, the year of his death.

IVIZA, IBIZA or IVIÇA, an island in the Mediterranean Sea, belonging to

Spain, and forming part of the archipelago known as the Balearic Islands

(q.v.). Pop. (1900) 23,524; area 228 sq. m. Iviza lies 50 m. S.W. of

Majorca and about 60 m. from Cape San Martin on the coast of Spain. Its

greatest length from north-east to south-west is about 25 m. and its

greatest breadth about 13 m. The coast is indented by numerous small

bays, the principal of which are those of San Antonio on the north-west,

and of Iviza on the south-east. Of all the Balearic group, Iviza is the

most varied in its scenery and the most fruitful. The hilly parts which

culminate in the Pico de Atalayasa (1560 ft.), are richly wooded. The

climate is for the most part mild and agreeable, though the hot winds

from the African coast are sometimes troublesome. Oil, corn and fruits

(of which the most important are the fig, prickly pear, almond and

carob-bean) are the principal products; hemp and flax are also grown,

but the inhabitants are rather indolent, and their modes of culture are

very primitive. There are numerous salt-pans along the coast, which were

formerly worked by the Spanish government. Fruit, salt, charcoal, lead

and stockings of native manufacture are exported. The imports are rice,

flour, sugar, woollen goods and cotton. The capital of the island, and,

indeed, the only town of much importance--for the population is

remarkably scattered--is Iviza or La Ciudad (6527), a fortified town on

the south-east coast, consisting of a lower and upper portion, and

possessing a good harbour, a 13th-century Gothic collegiate church and

an ancient castle. Iviza was the see of a bishop from 1782 to 1851.

South of Iviza lies the smaller and more irregular island of Formentera

(pop., 1900, 2243; area, 37 sq. m.), which is said to derive its name

from the production of wheat. With Iviza it agrees both in general

appearance and in the character of its products, but it is altogether

destitute of streams. Goats and sheep are found in the mountains, and

the coasts are greatly frequented by flamingoes. Iviza and Formentera

are the principal islands of the lesser or western Balearic group,

formerly known as the Pityusae or Pine Islands.

IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842), Scottish mathematician, was born in Dundee

in 1765. In 1779 he entered the university of St Andrews, distinguishing

himself especially in mathematics. He then studied theology; but, after

two sessions at St Andrews and one at Edinburgh, he abandoned all idea

of the church, and in 1786 he became an assistant-teacher of mathematics

and natural philosophy in a newly established academy at Dundee. Three

years later he became partner in and manager of a flax-spinning company

at Douglastown in Forfarshire, still, however, prosecuting in moments of

leisure his favourite studies. He was essentially a self-trained

mathematician, and was not only deeply versed in ancient and modern

geometry, but also had a full knowledge of the analytical methods and

discoveries of the continental mathematicians. His earliest memoir,

dealing with an analytical expression for the rectification of the

ellipse, is published in the _Transactions of the Royal Society of

Edinburgh_ (1796); and this and his later papers on "Cubic Equations"

(1799) and "Kepler's Problem" (1802) evince great facility in the

handling of algebraic formulae. In 1804 after the dissolution of the

flax-spinning company of which he was manager, he obtained one of the

mathematical chairs in the Royal Military College at Marlow (afterwards

removed to Sandhurst); and till the year 1816, when falling health

obliged him to resign, he discharged his professional duties with

remarkable success. During this period he published in the

_Philosophical Transactions_ several important memoirs, which earned for

him the Copley medal in 1814 and ensured his election as a Fellow of the

Royal Society in 1815. Of special importance in the history of

attractions is the first of these earlier memoirs (_Phil. Trans._,

1809), in which the problem of the attraction of a homogeneous ellipsoid

upon an external point is reduced to the simpler case of the attraction

of another but related ellipsoid upon a corresponding point interior to

it. This theorem is known as Ivory's theorem. His later papers in the

_Philosophical Transactions_ treat of astronomical refractions, of

planetary perturbations, of equilibrium of fluid masses, &c. For his

investigations in the first named of these he received a royal medal in

1826 and again in 1839. In 1831, on the recommendation of Lord Brougham,

King William IV. granted him a pension of £300 per annum, and conferred

on him the Hanoverian Guelphic order of knighthood. Besides being

directly connected with the chief scientific societies of his own

country, the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Royal Irish Academy, &c.,

he was corresponding member of the Royal Academy of Sciences both of

Paris and Berlin, and of the Royal Society of Göttingen. He died at

London on the 21st of September 1842.

A list of his works is given in the _Catalogue of Scientific Papers of

the Royal Society of London_.

IVORY (Fr. _ivoire_, Lat. _ebur_), strictly speaking a term confined to

the material represented by the tusk of the elephant, and for commercial

purposes almost entirely to that of the male elephant. In Africa both

the male and female elephant produce good-sized tusks; in the Indian

variety the female is much less bountifully provided, and in Ceylon

perhaps not more than 1% of either sex have any tusks at all. Ivory is

in substance very dense, the pores close and compact and filled with a

gelatinous solution which contributes to the beautiful polish which may

be given to it and makes it easy to work. It may be placed between bone

and horn; more fibrous than bone and therefore less easily torn or

splintered. For a scientific definition it would be difficult to find a

better one than that given by Sir Richard Owen. He says:[1] "The name

ivory is now restricted to that modification of dentine or tooth

substance which in transverse sections or fractures shows lines of

different colours, or striae, proceeding in the arc of a circle and

forming by their decussations minute curvilinear lozenge-shaped spaces."

These spaces are formed by an immense number of exceedingly minute tubes

placed very close together, radiating outwards in all directions. It is

to this arrangement of structure that ivory owes its fine grain and

almost perfect elasticity, and the peculiar marking resembling the

engine-turning on the case of a watch, by which many people are guided

in distinguishing it from celluloid or other imitations. Elephants'

tusks are the upper incisor teeth of the animal, which, starting in

earliest youth from a semi-solid vascular pulp, grow during the whole of

its existence, gathering phosphates and other earthy matters and

becoming hardened as in the formation of teeth generally. The tusk is

built up in layers, the inside layer being the last produced. A large

proportion is embedded in the bone sockets of the skull, and is hollow

for some distance up in a conical form, the hollow becoming less and

less as it is prolonged into a narrow channel which runs along as a

thread or as it is sometimes called, nerve, towards the point of the

tooth. The outer layer, or bark, is enamel of similar density to the

central part. Besides the elephant's tooth or tusk we recognize as

ivory, for commercial purposes, the teeth of the hippopotamus, walrus,

narwhal, cachalot or sperm-whale and of some animals of the wild boar

class, such as the warthog of South Africa. Practically, however,

amongst these the hippo and walrus tusks are the only ones of importance

for large work, though boars' tusks come to the sale-rooms in

considerable quantities from India and Africa.

Generally speaking, the supply of ivory imported into Europe comes from

Africa; some is Asiatic, but much that is shipped from India is really

African, coming by way of Zanzibar and Mozambique to Bombay. A certain

amount is furnished by the vast stores of remains of prehistoric animals

still existing throughout Russia, principally in Siberia in the

neighbourhood of the Lena and other rivers discharging into the Arctic

Ocean. The mammoth and mastodon seem at one time to have been common

over the whole surface of the globe. In England tusks have been recently

dug up--for instance at Dungeness--as long as 12 ft. and weighing 200

lb. The Siberian deposits have been worked for now nearly two centuries.

The store appears to be as inexhaustible as a coalfield. Some think that

a day may come when the spread of civilization may cause the utter

disappearance of the elephant in Africa, and that it will be to these

deposits that we may have to turn as the only source of animal ivory. Of

late years in England the use of mammoth ivory has shown signs of

decline. Practically none passed through the London sale-rooms during

1903-1906. Before that, parcels of 10 to 20 tons were not uncommon. Not

all of it is good; perhaps about half of what comes to England is so,

the rest rotten; specimens, however, are found as perfect and in as fine

condition as if recently killed, instead of having lain hidden and

preserved for thousands of years in the icy ground. There is a

considerable literature (see Shooting) on the subject of big-game

hunting, which includes that of the elephant, hippopotamus and smaller

tusk-bearing animals. Elephants until comparatively recent times roamed

over the whole of Africa from the northern deserts to the Cape of Good

Hope. They are still abundant in Central Africa and Uganda, but

civilization has gradually driven them farther and farther into the

wilds and impenetrable forests of the interior.

The quality of ivory varies according to the districts whence it is

obtained, the soft variety of the eastern parts of the continent being

the most esteemed. When in perfect condition African ivory should be if

recently cut of a warm, transparent, mellow tint, with as little as

possible appearance of grain or mottling. Asiatic ivory is of a denser

white, more open in texture and softer to work. But it is apt to turn

yellow sooner, and is not so easy to polish. Unlike bone, ivory requires

no preparation, but is fit for immediate working. That from the

neighbourhood of Cameroon is very good, then ranks the ivory from

Loango, Congo, Gabun and Ambriz; next the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone and

Cape Coast Castle. That of French Sudan is nearly always "ringy," and

some of the Ambriz variety also. We may call Zanzibar and Mozambique

varieties soft; Angola and Ambriz all hard. Ambriz ivory was at one time

much esteemed, but there is comparatively little now. Siam ivory is

rarely if ever soft. Abyssinian has its soft side, but Egypt is

practically the only place where both descriptions are largely

distributed. A drawback to Abyssinian ivory is a prevalence of a rather

thick bark. Egyptian is liable to be cracked, from the extreme

variations of temperature; more so formerly than now, since better

methods of packing and transit are used. Ivory is extremely sensitive to

sudden extremes of temperature; for this reason billiard balls should be

kept where the temperature is fairly equable.

The market terms by which descriptions of ivory are distinguished are

liable to mislead. They refer to ports of shipment rather than to places

of origin. For instance, "Malta" ivory is a well-understood term, yet

there are no ivory producing animals in that island.

Tusks should be regular and tapering in shape, not very curved or

twisted, for economy in cutting; the coat fine, thin, clear and

transparent. The substance of ivory is so elastic and flexible that

excellent riding-whips have been cut longitudinally from whole tusks.

The size to which tusks grow and are brought to market depends on race

rather than on size of elephants. The latter run largest in equatorial

Africa. Asiatic bull elephant tusks seldom exceed 50 lb. in weight,

though lengths of 9 ft. and up to 150 lb. weight are not entirely

unknown. Record lengths for African tusks are the one presented to

George V., when prince of Wales, on his marriage (1893), measuring 8 ft.

7½ in. and weighing 165 lb., and the pair of tusks which were brought to

the Zanzibar market by natives in 1898, weighing together over 450 lb.

One of the latter is new in the Natural History Museum at South

Kensington; the other is in Messrs Rodgers & Co.'s collection at

Sheffield. For length the longest known are those belonging to Messrs

Rowland Ward, Piccadilly, which measure 11 ft. and 11 ft. 5 in.

respectively, with a combined weight of 293 lb. Osteodentine, resulting

from the effects of injuries from spearheads or bullets, is sometimes

found in tusks. This formation, resembling stalactites, grows with the

tusk, the bullets or iron remaining embedded without trace of their

entry.

The most important commercial distinction of the qualities of ivory is

that of the _hard_ and _soft_ varieties. The terms are difficult to

define exactly. Generally speaking, hard or bright ivory is distinctly

harder to cut with the saw or other tools. It is, as it were, glassy and

transparent. Soft contains more moisture, stands differences of climate

and temperature better, and does not crack so easily. The expert is

guided by the shape of the tooth, by the colour and quality of the bark

or skin, and by the transparency when cut, or even before, as at the

point of the tooth. Roughly, a line might be drawn almost centrally down

the map of Africa, on the west of which the hard quality prevails, on the

east the soft. In choosing ivory for example for knife-handles--people

rather like to see a pretty grain, strongly marked; but the finest

quality in the hard variety, which is generally used for them, is the

closest and freest from grain. The curved or canine teeth of the

hippopotamus are valuable and come in considerable quantities to the

European markets. Owen describes this variety as "an extremely dense,

compact kind of dentine, partially defended on the outside by a thin

layer of enamel as hard as porcelain; so hard as to strike fire with

steel." By reason of this hardness it is not at all liked by the turner

and ivory workers, and before being touched by them the enamel has to be

removed by acid, or sometimes by heating and sudden cooling, when it can

be scaled off. The texture is slightly curdled, mottled or damasked.

Hippo ivory was at one time largely used for artificial teeth, but now

mostly for umbrella and stick-handles; whole (in their natural form) for

fancy door-handles and the like. In the trade the term is not

"riverhorse" but "seahorse teeth." Walrus ivory is less dense and coarser

than hippo, but of fine quality--what there is of it, for the oval centre

which has more the character of coarse bone unfortunately extends a long

way up. At one time a large supply came to the market, but of late years

there has been an increasing scarcity, the animals having been almost

exterminated by the ruthless persecution to which they have been

subjected in their principal haunts in the northern seas. It is little

esteemed now, though our ancestors thought highly of it. Comparatively

large slabs are to be found in medieval sculpture of the 11th and 12th

centuries, and the grips of most oriental swords, ancient and modern, are

made from it. The ivory from the single tusk or horn of the narwhal is

not of much commercial value except as an ornament or curiosity. Some

horns attain a length of 8 to 10 ft., 4 in. thick at the base. It is

dense in substance and of a fair colour, but owing to the central cavity

there is little of it fit for anything larger than napkin-rings.

_Ivory in Commerce, and its Industrial Applications._--Almost the whole

of the importation of ivory to Europe was until recent years confined to

London, the principal distributing mart of the world. But the opening up

of the Congo trade has placed the port of Antwerp in a position which

has equalled and, for a time, may surpass that of London. Other

important markets are Liverpool and Hamburg; and Germany, France and

Portugal have colonial possessions in Africa, from which it is imported.

America is a considerable importer for its own requirements. From the

German Cameroon alone, according to Schilling, there were exported

during the ten years ending 1905, 452,100 kilos of ivory. Mr Buxton

estimates the amount of ivory imported into the United Kingdom at about

500 tons. If we give the same to Antwerp we have from these two ports

alone no less than 1000 tons a year to be provided. Allowing a weight so

high as 30 lb. per pair of tusks (which is far too high, perhaps twice

too high) we should have here alone between thirty and forty thousand

elephants to account for. It is true that every pair of tusks that comes

to the market represents a dead elephant, but not necessarily by any

means a slain or even a recently killed one, as is popularly supposed

and unfortunately too often repeated. By far the greater proportion is

the result of stores accumulated by natives, a good part coming from

animals which have died a natural death. Not 20% is _live_ ivory or

recently killed; the remainder is known in the trade as _dead_ ivory.

In 1827 the principal London ivory importers imported 3000 cwt. in

1850, 8000 cwt. The highest price up to 1855 was £55 per cwt. At the

July sales in 1905 a record price was reached for billiard-ball teeth

of £167 per cwt. The total imports into the United Kingdom were,

according to Board of Trade returns, in 1890, 14,349 cwt.; in 1895,

10,911 cwt.; in 1900, 9889 cwt.; in 1904, 9045 cwt.

From Messrs Hale & Son's (ivory brokers, 10 Fenchurch Avenue) Ivory

Report of the second quarterly sales in London, April 1906, it appears

that the following were offered:--

Tons.

From Zanzibar, Bombay, Mozambique and Siam 17

Egyptian 19¼

West Coast African 11

Lisbon 1

Abyssinian 6¾

---

55

Sea horse (hippopotamus teeth) 1¾

Walrus ¼

Waste ivory 10¼

---

67¼

Hard ivory was scarce. West Coast African was principally of the Gabun

description, and some of very fine quality. There was very little

inquiry for walrus. The highest prices ranged as follows: Soft East

Coast tusks (Zanzibar, Mozambique, Bombay and Siam), 102 to 143 lb.

each £66, 10s. to £75, 10s. per cwt. Billiard-ball scrivelloes, £104

per cwt. Cut points for billiard-balls (3(1/8) in. to 2(3/8) to 3 in.)

£114 to £151 per cwt. Seahorse (for best), 3s. 6d. to 4s. 1d. per lb.

Boars' tusks, 6d. to 7d. per lb.

_Quantities of ivory offered to Public auction (from Messrs Hale &

Son's Reports)._

+--------------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+

| | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. |

+--------------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+

| | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. |

| Zanzibar, Bombay, Mozambique and Siam| 81 | 75 | 76 |

| Egyptian | 49¾ | 72¾ | 81¾ |

| Abyssinian | 22¾ | 9¾ | 23¼ |

| West Coast African | 46¾ | 39½ | 41½ |

| Lisbon | 3 | 3 | 1¾ |

| +-------+-------+-------+

| | 203¼ | 200 | 224¼ |

| Seahorse teeth and Boars' tusks | 7 | 9¾ | 7 |

| +-------+-------+-------+

| | 210¼ | 209¾ | 231½ |

+--------------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+

_Fluctuations in prices of ivory at the London Sale-Room (from Messrs

Hale & Son's Charts, which show the prices at each quarterly sale from

1870)._

+--------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

| |1870.|1880.|1890.|1900.|1905.|

| +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

| Billiard Ball pieces | £55 | £90 |£112 | £68 |£167 |

|Averages-- | | | | | |

| Hard Egyptian 36 to 50 lb. | 30 | 38 | 50 | 29 | 48 |

| Soft East Indian 50 to 70 lb. | 67 | 55 | 88 | 57 | 72 |

| West Coast African 50 to 70 lb.| 36 | 57 | 65 | 48 | 61 |

| Hard East African 50 to 70 lb. | 37 | 49 | 64 | 48 | 61 |

+--------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

In October 1889 soft East Indian fetched an average of £82 per cwt.,

but in several instances higher prices were realized, and one lot

reached £88 per cwt. At the Liverpool April sales 1906 about 7¼ tons

were offered from Gabun, Angola, and Cameroon (from the last 5¾ tons).

To the port of Antwerp the imports were 6830 cwt. in 1904 and 6570

cwt. in 1905; of which 5310 cwt. and 4890 cwt. respectively were from

the Congo State.

The leading London sales are held quarterly in Mincing Lane, a very

interesting and wonderful display of tusks and ivory of all kinds

being laid out previously for inspection in the great warehouses known

as the "Ivory Floor" in the London docks. The quarterly Liverpool

sales follow the London ones, with a short interval.

The important part which ivory plays in the industrial arts not only for

decorative, but also for domestic applications is hardly sufficiently

recognized. Nothing is wasted of this valuable product. Hundreds of

sacks full of cuttings and shavings, and scraps returned by

manufacturers after they have used what they require for their

particular trade, come to the mart. The dust is used for polishing, and

in the preparation of Indian ink, and even for food in the form of ivory

jelly. The scraps come in for inlaying and for the numberless purposes

in which ivory is used for small domestic and decorative objects. India,

which has been called the backbone of the trade, takes enormous

quantities of the rings left in the turning of billiard-balls, which

serve as women's bangles, or for making small toys and models, and in

other characteristic Indian work. Without endeavouring to enumerate all

the applications, a glance may be cast at the most important of those

which consume the largest quantity. Chief among these is the manufacture

of billiard-balls, of cutlery handles, of piano-keys and of brushware

and toilet articles. Billiard-balls demand the highest quality of ivory;

for the best balls the soft description is employed, though recently,

through the competition of bonzoline and similar substitutes, the hard

has been more used in order that the weight may be assimilated to that

of the artificial kind. Therefore the most valuable tusks of all are

those adapted for the billiard-ball trade. The term used is

"scrivelloes," and is applied to teeth proper for the purpose, weighing

not over about 7 lb. The division of the tusk into smaller pieces for

subsequent manufacture, in order to avoid waste, is a matter of

importance.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

The accompanying diagrams (figs. 1 and 2) show the method; the cuts

are made radiating from an imaginary centre of the curve of the tusk.

In after processes the various trades have their own particular

methods for making the most of the material. In making a billiard-ball

of the English size the first thing to be done is to rough out, from

the cylindrical section, a sphere about 2¼ in. in diameter, which will

eventually be 2(1/16) or sometimes for professional players a little

larger. One hemisphere--as shown in the diagrams (fig. 2)--is first

turned, and the resulting ring detached with a parting tool. The

diameter is accurately taken and the subsequent removals taken off in

other directions. The ball is then fixed in a wooden chuck, the half

cylinder reversed, and the operation repeated for the other

hemisphere. It is now left five years to season and then turned dead

true. The rounder and straighter the tusk selected for ball-making the

better. Evidently, if the tusk is oval and the ball the size of the

least diameter, its sides which come nearer to the bark or rind will

be coarser and of a different density from those portions further

removed from this outer skin. The matching of billiard-balls is

important, for extreme accuracy in weight is essential. It is usual to

bleach them, as the purchaser--or at any rate the distributing

intermediary--likes to have them of a dead white. But this is a

mistake, for bleaching with chemicals takes out the gelatine to some

extent, alters the quality and affects the density; it also makes them

more liable to crack, and they are not nearly so nice-looking.

Billiard-balls should be bought in summer time when the temperature is

most equable, and gently used till the winter season. On an average

three balls of fine quality are got out of a tooth. The stock of more

than one great manufacturer surpasses at times 30,000 in number. But

although ball teeth rose in 1905 to £167 a cwt., the price of

billiard-balls was the same in 1905 as it was in 1885. Roughly

speaking, there are about twelve different qualities and prices of

billiard-balls, and eight of pyramid- and pool-balls, the latter

ranging from half a guinea to two guineas each.

The ivory for piano-keys is delivered to the trade in the shape of what

are known as heads and tails, the former for the parts which come under

the fingers, the latter for that running up between the black keys. The

two are joined afterwards on the keyboard with extreme accuracy.

Piano-keys are bleached, but organists for some reason or other prefer

unbleached keys. The soft variety is mostly used for high-class work and

preferably of the Egyptian type.

The great centres of the ivory industry for the ordinary objects of

common domestic use are in England, for cutlery handles Sheffield, for

billiard-balls and piano-keys London. For cutlery a large firm such as

Rodgers & Sons uses an average of some twenty tons of ivory annually,

mostly of the hard variety. But for billiard-balls and piano-keys

America is now a large producer, and a considerable quantity is made in

France and Germany. Brush backs are almost wholly in English hands.

Dieppe has long been famous for the numberless little ornaments and

useful articles such as statuettes, crucifixes, little bookcovers,

paper-cutters, combs, serviette-rings and _articles de Paris_ generally.

And St Claude in the Jura, and Geislingen in Würtemberg, and Erbach in

Hesse, Germany, are amongst the most important centres of the industry.

India and China supply the multitude of toys, models, chess and

draughtsmen, puzzles, workbox fittings and other curiosities.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

_Vegetable Ivory, &c._--Some allusion may be made to vegetable ivory

and artificial substitutes. The plants yielding the vegetable ivory of

commerce represent two or more species of an anomalous genus of palms,

and are known to botanists as _Phytelephas_. They are natives of

tropical South America, occurring chiefly on the banks of the river

Magdalena, Colombia, always found in damp localities, not only,

however, on the lower coast region as in Darien, but also at a

considerable elevation above the sea. They are mostly found in

separate groves, not mixed with other trees or shrubs. The plant is

severally known as the "tagua" by the Indians on the banks of the

Magdalena, as the "anta" on the coast of Darien, and as the

"pulli-punta" and "homero" in Peru. It is stemless or short-stemmed,

and crowned with from twelve to twenty very long pinnatifid leaves.

The plants are dioecious, the males forming higher, more erect and

robust trunks than the females. The male inflorescence is in the form

of a simple fleshy cylindrical spadix covered with flowers; the female

flowers are also in a single spadix, which, however, is shorter than

in the male. The fruit consists of a conglomerated head composed of

six or seven drupes, each containing from six to nine seeds, and the

whole being enclosed in a walled woody covering forming altogether a

globular head as large as that of a man. A single plant sometimes

bears at the same time from six to eight of these large heads of

fruit, each weighing from 20 to 25 lb. In its very young state the

seed contains a clear insipid fluid, which travellers take advantage

of to allay thirst. As it gets older this fluid becomes milky and of a

sweet taste, and it gradually continues to change both in taste and

consistence until it becomes so hard as to make it valuable as a

substitute for animal ivory. In their young and fresh state the fruits

are eaten with avidity by bears, hogs and other animals. The seeds, or

nuts as they are usually called when fully ripe and hard, are used by

the American Indians for making small ornamental articles and toys.

They are imported into Britain in considerable quantities, frequently

under the name of "Corozo" nuts, a name by which the fruits of some

species of _Attalea_ (another palm with hard ivory-like seeds) are

known in Central America--their uses being chiefly for small articles

of turnery. Of vegetable ivory Great Britain imported in 1904 1200

tons, of which about 400 tons were re-exported, principally to

Germany. It is mainly and largely used for coat buttons.