abundant provisions not only for that particular crisis, but for all
succeeding time. Practically all food used by the Romans was imported,
and yet the region near the mouth of the Tiber had no safe landing-places
nor suitable harbors, so that their mastery of the sea was rendered
useless. Save for such staples as were brought in during their season
and stored in warehouses nothing from abroad could be had in the winter
season; and if any one risked a voyage, he was almost sure to meet with
disaster. Being cognizant of these facts Claudius undertook to build
a harbor and would not be turned aside, though the architects on his
enquiring how great the expense would be replied: "You don't want to do
this." So sure were they that the great disbursements necessary would
cause him to rein in his ambition if he should learn beforehand the exact
amount. He, however, desired a work worthy of the dignity and greatness
of Rome, and he brought it to a successful conclusion. In the first place
he excavated a very considerable piece of land, constructed quays on all
sides of it, and let the sea into it. Next in the sea itself he heaped
huge mounds on both sides of the entrance to this place,--mounds that
enclosed a large body of water. Between these breakwaters he reared an
island and planted on it a tower with a beacon light.--This harbor, then,
still so called in local parlance, was created by him at this period. He
had another project to make an outlet into the Liris from Lake Fucina, in
the Marsian country, to the end that the land around it might be tilled
and the river be rendered more navigable. But the expenditure was all to
no purpose.
He made a number of laws, most of which I have no need to mention; but
here are some of the regulations that he introduced. He had the governors
who were chosen by lot set out before the first day of April; for it was
their habit to delay a long time in the City. And he would not
permit those chosen by election to express any thanks to him in the
senate,--this had been a kind of custom with them,--but he said: "These
persons ought not to thank me, as if they were so eager for office, but I
them, because they cheerfully help me bear the burden of government:
and if they acquit themselves well in office, I shall praise them still
more." Such men as by reason of insufficient means were not able to be
senators he allowed to ask permission to retire, and he admitted some
of the knights to tribuneships: the rest of them, without exception, he
forced to attend the senate as often as notice was sent them. He was
so severe upon those who were remiss in this matter that some killed
themselves.
[-12-] In other respects he was sociable and considerate in his dealings
with them. He would visit them when sick and be a partner in their
merrymakings. A certain tribune beat a slave of his in public, but
Claudius did the offender himself no harm, only depriving him of his
assistants, and these he restored not long afterward. Another of his
slaves was sent to the Forum and severely scourged, because he had
insulted a prominent man. In the senate the emperor would himself
regularly rise in case the rest had been standing for a long time. On
account of his ill health, as I related, he frequently remained seated
and read his advice, if asked for it. He allowed Lucius Sulla to sit on
the prætors' bench because this man, being unable by reason of age to
hear anything from his own seat, had stood up. The day on which a year
previous he had been declared emperor he did nothing unusual, except to
give the Pretorians twenty-five denarii, and this he continued to do
every year thereafter. Some of the prætors, however, of their own free
will and not by any decree publicly celebrated that day and also the
birthday of Messalina. Not all of them did this, but as many as chose.
This shows what freedom they had. You may see how really moderate
Claudius was in all such matters from the fact that when a son was born
to him,--called at that time Claudius Tiberius Germanicus but later also
_Britannicus_,--he did not make the occasion in any way conspicuous and
would not allow him to be named Augustus nor Messalina Augusta.
[-13-]He was constantly arranging gladiatorial games, taking a degree of
pleasure in them that aroused criticism. Very few beasts were destroyed,
but a great many human beings, some of whom fought with one another
whereas others were devoured by animals. The emperor hated vehemently
the freed slaves who in the reigns of Tiberius and Gaius had conspired
against their masters, as well as those who extorted blackmail from
people or had borne false witness against any persons. The majority of
these he got rid of in the manner mentioned, though some of them he
punished by other methods. A great many he delivered up to the vengeance
of their masters. So great did the number become of those who died a
public death that the statue of Augustus, erected on the scene, was
turned to face in another direction, both to prevent its being thought
that _he_ was viewing the slaughter and to avoid having the statue
always covered up. For this act Claudius was well laughed at when people
reflected how he sated himself with the sights that he did not think
proper for even the inanimate bronze to behold. It might be noted
particularly that he used to delight greatly even at lunch time in
watching those who were incidentally cut down in the middle of the
spectacle. Yet a lion that had been trained to eat men and on this
account greatly pleased the crowd he ordered killed on the principle
that it was not fitting for Romans to gaze on such a sight. He received
abundant praise, however, for appearing in the people's midst at the
spectacle, for giving them all they wanted, and for his employing a
herald so very little and announcing most events by notices written on
boards.
[-14-] After he had become accustomed, then, to feast his fill on blood
and slaughter, he had recourse more readily to other kinds of killings.
The Cæsarians and Messalina were really responsible for this. Whenever
they desired to obtain any one's death, they would terrify him, with the
result that they would be allowed to do everything they chose. Often,
when in a moment of sudden alarm his momentary terror had led him to
order some one's death, afterward, when he recovered and came to his
senses, he would search for the man and on learning what had happened
would be grieved and repent. He began this series of slaughters with
Gaius Appius Silanus. This man, who was of very noble family and at the
time was governor of Spain, he had sent for, pretending that he wanted to
see him about something, had married him to Messalina's mother, and had
for some time held him in honor among his dearest and closest friends.
Then he suddenly killed him. The reason was that Silanus had offended
Messalina, the most abandoned and lustful of women, in refusing to lie
with her, and by the slight shown the empress had alienated Narcissus,
the emperor's freedman. As they had no true charge to bring against him,
nor even one that would be believed, Narcissus invented a dream in which
he declared he had seen Claudius murdered by the hand of Silanus. So just
before dawn, while the emperor was still in bed, he came all of a tremble
to tell him the dream, and Messalina by expatiating on it made it worse.
Thus Silanus perished just because of a vision.
[-15-] After the latter's death the Romans at once lost confidence in
Claudius, and Annius Vinicianus with some others formed a plot against
him. The chief conspirator had been one of those proposed at the death of
Gaius for the imperial office, and it was partly fear inspired by this
fact that caused him to rebel. As he possessed no considerable force,
however, he sent to Furius Camillus Scribonianus, governor of Dalmatia,
who had a large body of native and foreign troops. Camillus, who was
inclined to the project of his own accord, was induced to revolt at the
same time, particularly because he had been spoken of for emperor. When
so much had been accomplished, many senators and knights joined the ranks
of Annius. They did him no good, however,[5] for the soldiers, because
Camillus proffered them the name of _populus_ and promised that he would
restore to them their ancient freedom, suspected that they should have
troubles and changes of government again and would therefore no longer
obey him. Then in terror he fled from them, and coming to the island Issa
he there met a voluntary death. Claudius for a time was quite cowed
with fear and was ready at a demand from Camillus to withdraw from his
sovereignty voluntarily. Later he recovered courage and rewarded his
soldiers among other methods by having the citizen legions (the seventh
and the eleventh) named the Claudian, and the Faithful, and the Pious,
by the senate itself. Then he made reprisals upon those who had plotted
against him and on this charge put many to death, among them a prætor,
who first had to resign his office. Numbers, of whom Vinicianus was one,
committed suicide, for Messalina and Narcissus and all the latter's
fellow freedmen seized this opportunity to wreak their direst vengeance.
They employed slaves and liberti, for instance, and informers against
their own masters. These masters and others of undoubted nobility,
foreigners and citizens alike, not only plebeians, but some of the
knights and senators, were put to the torture in spite of the fact that
Claudius at the very beginning of his reign had sworn not to torture any
free citizen.
[-16-] Many men therefore at this time and many women incurred
punishment. Some of the latter met their fate right in the prison, and
when they were to die were actually led in chains upon a scaffold, like
captives, and their bodies like those of others were thrown down the
Scalæ Gemoniæ. Of those who were executed outside the prison only
the heads were exhibited in that place. Some of the most guilty,
nevertheless, either through favoritism or by the use of money saved
their necks with the help of Messalina and of the Cæsarians following
Narcissus. All the children of those who perished were granted immunity
and some received money. Trials were held in the senate-house in the
presence of Claudius, his prefects, and his freedmen. With a consul on
each side he made his report to the senators while seated upon a chair
of state or on a bench. Next he himself went to his accustomed seat and
chairs were set for his escort. This same program was followed also at
the other most important functions.
It was at this time that a certain Galæsus, a freedman of Camillus, was
brought into the senate and talked with the utmost frankness on a variety
of subjects. The following remark of his is worth instancing. Narcissus
had taken the floor and said to him: "What would you have done, Galæsus,
if Camillus had become monarch?" He replied: "I should have stood behind
him and said nothing." So he became famous for this speech, and Arria
for something quite different. The latter, who was wife of Cæcina Pætus,
refused to live after he had been put to death, although, being on very
intimate terms with Messalina, she might have occupied a position of some
honor. Moreover, when her husband showed cowardice, she strengthened his
resolution. She took the sword and gave herself a wound, then handed it
to him, saying: "See, Pætus, I feel no pain."--These two persons, then,
were accorded praise, for by reason of the long succession of woes
matters had now come to such a pass that excellence no longer meant
anything else than dying nobly.
The attitude of Claudius in bringing destruction upon them and others is
indicated by his forever giving to the soldiers as a watchword this verse
about its being necessary "In one's first anger to ward off the foe." [6]
He kept throwing out many other hints of that sort in Greek both to them
and to the senate, with the result that those who could understand any
of them laughed at him. These were some of the happenings of that
period.--And the tribunes at the death of one of their number themselves
convened the senate for the purpose of appointing a tribune to succeed
him,--this in spite of the fact that the consuls were accessible.
[A.D. 43 (_a. u._ 796)]
[-17-] When Claudius now became consul again,--it was the third time,--he
put an end to many sacrifices and many feast days. For, as the greater
part of the year was given up to them, no small damage was done to public
business. Beside curtailing the number of these he retrenched in all the
other ways that he could. What had been given away by Gaius without any
justice or reason he demanded back from the recipients; but he gave back
to the road commissioners all that his predecessor had exacted in fines
on account of Corbulo. Moreover, he gave notice to magistrates chosen by
lot, since they were even now slow about leaving the City, that they must
commence their journey before the middle of April came. He reduced to
servitude the Lycians, who rising in revolt had slain some Romans, and
merged them in the prefecture of Pamphylia. During the investigation,
which was conducted in the senate-house, he put a question in the Latin
tongue to one of the envoys who had originally been a Lycian but had been
made a Roman. As the man did not understand what was said, he took away
his citizenship, saying that it was not proper for a person to be a Roman
who had no knowledge of Roman speech. A great many other persons unworthy
of citizenship were excluded from its privileges, whereas he granted it
to some quite without restrictions, either individuals or large bodies of
men. And inasmuch as practically everywhere Romans were esteemed above
foreigners, many sought the franchise by personal application to the
emperor and many bought it from Messalina and the Cæsarians. For this
reason, though the right was at first bartered only for great sums, it
later was so cheapened by the facility with which it could be obtained
that it came to be said that if a person only gave a man some broken
glassware he might become a citizen.
This behavior, then, subjected the emperor to no end of jests, but he
received praise for such actions as the following. Many persons were all
the time becoming objects of blackmail, some because they did not use
Claudius's proper title and others because they were going to leave him
nothing when they died,--the blackmailers asserting that it was necessary
for those who obtained citizenship from him to do both of these things.
The emperor now stepped in and forbade that any one should be called
to account for such negligence.--Now Messalina and his freedmen kept
offering for sale and peddling out not merely the franchise, and military
posts, and positions as procurator, and governmental offices, but
everything in general to such an extent that all necessaries grew
scarce[7]; and Claudius was forced to muster the populace on the Campus
Martius and there from a platform to ordain what the prices of wares
should be.
Claudius himself wearing a chlamys gave a contest of armed men at the
camp. His son's birthday was observed voluntarily by the prætors with
a kind of spectacle that they produced and with dinners. This was once
afterward repeated, too,--at least by all of them that chose.
[-18-] Meanwhile Messalina was exhibiting her own licentious tendencies
and was forcing the other women of her circle to show themselves equally
unchaste. Many of them she caused to commit adultery in the very palace,
while their husbands were present and observed what took place. Such men
she loved and cherished, and crowned with honors and offices: but others,
who would not submit to this humiliation, she hated and brought to
destruction in every possible way. These deeds, however, though of such
a character and carried on so openly, for a long while never came to the
notice of Claudius. Messalina gave him some attractive housemaids
for bedfellows and intercepted those who were able to afford him any
information,--some by kindness and some by punishments. Thus, at this
period, she succeeded in putting out of the way Catonius Justus, captain
of the pretorian guard, before he could carry out his intention of
telling the emperor something about these doings. And becoming jealous
of Julia, daughter of Drusus son of Tiberius, and later wife of Nero
Germanicus, just as she had been of the other Julia, she compassed her
death.--It was about then, also, that one of the knights on the charge of
having conspired against Claudius was hurled down, the Capitoline by the
tribunes and the consuls.
[-19-] At the same time that these events were happening in the City
Aulus Plautius, a senator of great renown, made a campaign against
Britain. The cause was that a certain Bericus, who had been ejected from
the island during a revolution, had persuaded Claudius to send a body of
troops there. This Plautius after he was made general had difficulty in
leading his army beyond Gaul. The soldiers objected, on the ground that
their operations were to take place outside the limits of the known
world, and would not yield him obedience until the arrival of Narcissus,
sent by Claudius, who mounted the tribunal of Plautius and tried to
address them. This made them more irritated than ever and they would not
allow the newcomer to say a word, but all suddenly shouted together the
well-known phrase: "Ho! Ho! the Saturnalia!" (For at the festival of
Saturn slaves celebrate the occasion by donning their masters' dress.)
After this they at once followed Plautius voluntarily, but their delay
had brought the expedition late in the season. Three divisions were made,
in order that they might not be hindered in advancing (as might happen
to a single force), and some of them in their voyage across became
discouraged because they were buffeted into a backward course, whereas
others acquired confidence from the fact that a flash of light starting
from the east shot across to the west, the direction in which they were
sailing. So they came to anchor on the shore of the island and found no
one to oppose them. The Britons as a result of their inquiries had not
expected that they would come and had therefore not assembled beforehand.
Nor even at this time would they come into closer conflict with the
invaders, but took refuge in the swamps and in the forests, hoping to
exhaust their opponents in some other way, so that the latter as in
the days of Julius Cæsar would sail back empty-handed. [-20-] Plautius
accordingly had considerable trouble in searching for them.--They were
not free and independent but were parceled out among various kings.--When
at last he did find them, he conquered first Caratacus and next
Togodumnus, children of Cynobelinus, who was dead. After the flight of
those kings he attached by treaty a portion of the Bodunni, ruled by a
nation of the Catuellani. Leaving a garrison there he advanced farther.
On reaching a certain river, which the barbarians thought the Romans
would not be able to cross without a bridge,--a conviction which led them
to encamp in rather careless fashion on the opposite bank,--he sent ahead
Celtæ who were accustomed to swim easily in full armor across the most
turbulent streams. These fell unexpectedly upon the enemy, but instead
of shooting at any of the men confined themselves to wounding the horses
that drew their chariots and consequently in the confusion not even the
mounted warriors could save themselves. Plautius sent across also Fiavius
Vespasian, who afterward obtained the imperial office, and his brother
Sabinus, a lieutenant of his. So they likewise got over the river in some
way and killed numbers of the foe, who were not aware of their approach.
The survivors, however, did not take to flight, and on the next day
joined issue with them again. The two forces were rather evenly matched
until Gnæus Hosidius Geta, at the risk of being captured, managed to
conquer the barbarians in such a way that he received triumphal honors
without having ever been consul.
Thence the Britons retired to the river Thames at a point near where it
empties into the ocean and the latter's flood-tide forms a lake. This
they crossed easily because they knew where the firm ground in this
locality and the easy passages were; but the Romans in following them up
came to grief at this spot. However, when the Celtæ swam across again and
some others had traversed a bridge a little way up stream, they assailed
the barbarians from many sides at once and cut down large numbers of
them. In pursuing the remainder incautiously they got into swamps from
which it was not easy to make one's way out, and in this way lost many
men.
[-21-] Shortly after Togodumnus perished, but the Britons so far from
yielding stood together all the more closely to avenge his death. Because
of this fact and his previous mishap Plautius became alarmed, and instead
of advancing farther proceeded to guard what he had already gained and
sent for Claudius. He had been notified to do this in case he met with
any particularly stubborn resistance, and a large reinforcement for the
army, consisting partly of elephants, had been assembled in advance.
When the message reached him, Claudius entrusted domestic affairs
(including the management of the soldiers) to his colleague Vitellius,
whom he had caused to become consul like himself for the entire six
months' period, and started himself on the expedition. He sailed down the
river to Ostia, and from there followed the coast to Massilia. Thence
advancing partly by land and partly along the water courses he came to
the ocean and crossed over to Britain, where he joined the legions that
were waiting for him near the Thames. Taking charge of these he crossed
the stream, and encountering the barbarians, who had gathered at his
approach, he defeated them in a pitched battle and captured Camulodunum,
the capital of Cynobelinus. Next he extended his authority over numerous
tribes, in some cases by treaty, in others by force, and was frequently,
contrary to precedent, saluted as imperator. The usual practice is that
no single person may receive this title more than once from one and the
same war. He deprived those he conquered of their arms and assigned them
to the attention of Plautius, bidding him to subjugate the regions that
were left. Claudius himself now hastened back to Rome, sending ahead the
news of the victory by his sons-in-law, Magnus and Silanus.
[-22-] The senate on learning of his achievement gave him the title of
Britannicus and allowed him to celebrate a triumph.
[A.D. 44 (_a. u._ 796)]
They voted also that there should be an animal festival commemorating the
event and that an arch bearing a trophy should be erected in the City and
a second in Gaul, because it was from that district that he had set sail
in crossing over to Britain. They bestowed on his son the same honorific
title as upon him, so that Claudius was known in a way as Britannicus
Proper. Messalina was granted the same privilege of front seats as Livia
had enjoyed and also the use of the carpentum. These were the honors
bestowed upon the imperial family.
The memory of Gaius disgusted the senators so much that they resolved
that all the bronze coinage which had his image stamped upon it should
be melted down. Though this was done, yet the bronze was converted to no
better use, for Messalina made statues of Mnester the dancer out of it.
Inasmuch as the latter had once been on intimate terms with Gaius,
she made this offering as a mark of gratitude for his consenting to a
_liaison_ with her. She had been madly enamored of him, and when she
found herself unable in any way either by promises or by frightening him
to persuade him to have intercourse with her, she had a talk with
her husband and asked him that the man might be forced to obey her,
pretending that she wanted his help for some different purpose. Claudius
accordingly told him to do whatsoever he should be ordered by Messalina.
On these terms he agreed to enjoy her, alleging that he had been
commanded to do so by her husband. Messalina adopted this same method
with numerous other men, and committed adultery feigning that Claudius
knew what was taking place and countenanced her unchastity.