The way to mellow your soil is certainly to use stable manure or to plow

under green stuff, as you propose. This increases the humus which the

soil needs and imparts all the desirable characters and qualities which

humus carries. You ought to get a good growth of Canadian field peas or

common California field peas or the common Oregon vetch by sowing in the

fall, as soon as the ground can be moistened by rain or irrigation, and,

if the season is favorable, secure enough growth for plowing under in

February to make it worth while. Be careful, however, not to defer

planting trees and vines too late in order to let the green stuff grow,

because this would hazard the success of your planting by the reduction

of the moisture supply during the following summer by the amount which

might be required to keep the covered-in stuff decaying, plus loss of

moisture from the fact that the covered stuff prevented you from getting

thorough surface cultivation during the dry season. For these reasons

one is to be careful about planting on covered-in stuff which has not

had a chance to decay. This consideration, of course, becomes negligible

if you have water for summer irrigation, but if you expect to get the

growth of your trees and vines with the rainfall of the previous winter,

be careful not to waste it in either of the ways which have been

indicated, and above all, do not plant trees and vines too late.

Theoretically, your position is perfect. The application of it, however,

requires some care and judgment. Rather than plant too late, you had

better grow the green stuff the winter after the trees have been

planted.

Needs Organic Matter.

I have what I believe to be decomposed sandstone. Many rocks are still

projecting out of land which I blast and break up. The soil works freely

when moist or wet, but when dry it takes a pick-axe to dig it up; a plow

won't touch it. Among my young fruit trees I tried to grow peas, beans,

carrots and beets, and although I freely irrigated them during the

summer and fall, and although I planted at different times, my peas and

beans have been a total failure, and the beets, carrots and onions

nearly so. For years the land has grown nothing but weeds.

Your soil needs organic matter which would make it more easy of

cultivation, more retentive of moisture, and in every way better suited

to the growth of plants. Liberal applications of stable manure would

produce best effects. No commercial fertilizer would begin to be so

desirable. If you can dig into the soil large amounts of weeds or other

vegetable waste material, you would be proceeding along the same line,

but stable manure is better on account of its greater fertilizing

content. You ought to be thankful that the soil has spunk enough to grow

weeds. The Immanent Creator is still doing the best he can to help you

out; take a hand yourself on the same line.

Two Legumes in a Year.

I have land on which I wish to plant to fruits, and I wish to build up

the soil all I can, by planting cover crops and plowing under. What

would be the best to plant this fall, to be plowed under next spring,

and to plant again next spring to plow under in the fall? I will not be

able to plant any trees before next fall or the following spring.

Get in vetches as soon as the ground is in shape in the fall. Plow them

under early in the spring and close the covering and compact the green

stuff by running a straight disk over the ground after plowing. This

will help decay and save moisture. Follow with cow peas as soon as you

are out of the frost, disking in the seed so as not to disturb the stuff

previously covered in. Do not wait to put under the winter growth until

it is safe to put on the cowpeas, for, if you do, you will lose so much

moisture that the cowpeas will not amount to much.

Handling Orchard Soil.

We average about 35 inches of rainfall. With this heavy rainfall, is

there any advantage to be gained by early plowing and clean cultivation

right through the winter? Would such plowing and cultivation result in

any serious loss of plant food? Would you advise an early or late

application of nitrogen, such as nitrate or guano? If there is any loss

from an early application, can it be determined by any means?

The old policy of clean winter cultivation has been largely abandoned.

Nearly everyone is trying to grow something green during the rainy

season to plow under toward the end of it. Even those who do not sow

legumes for this purpose are plowing under as good a weed cover as they

can get. This improves the soil both in plant food and in friability,

which promotes summer pulverization and saves moisture from summer

evaporation. Much less early plowing is done than formerly unless it be

shallow to get in the seed for the cover crop; the deeper plowing being

done to put it under. Guano can be applied earlier in the winter than

nitrate, which can be turned in with the cover crop, while the former

may be sown with the seed to promote the winter growth. Whether you are

losing your nitrate or not the chemist might determine for you by

before-and-after analyses. If you are a good observer you may detect

loss by absence of the effects you desire to secure.

Soaking Seeds.

Do you think it a good practice to soak seeds before planting?

It is more desirable with some seeds than others and when the ground is

rather dry or the sowing time rather late, than when sowing in moister

ground or earlier in the rainy season, when heavy rains are to be

expected. Soaking is simply a way to be sure that the seed covering has

ample moisture for softening and the kernel has what it requires for

awakening it germ and meeting its needs. The soil may not always have

enough to spare for these purposes and germination may be delayed or

started and arrested. Ordinarily seeds can be helped by soaking a few

hours in water at ordinary temperatures. Some very hard seeds like those

of acacia trees, etc., are helped by hot water - even near the boiling

point.

Irrigating Palms.

My palms are quite small, but they do not seem to grow; they seem to be

drying up.

The growth of palms is proportional to the amount of soil moisture

available, providing it is not in excess and not too alkaline. Some

palms are quite drouth-resisting, but it is a mistake to think of a palm

as a desert plant and try to make a desert for it. A young palm,

especially, needs regular and ample water supply until it gets well

established. Your plants may be drying up, or they may have had too much

frost or too much alkali. If they are not too far gone, they will come

out later if you give them regular moisture and cultivation.

Water from Wells or Streams.

One of our neighbors insists that water from a well is, in the long run,

very hard on the land, and that irrigation water is much to be

preferred.

There is no characteristic and permanent difference between waters from

wells and waters from streams so far as irrigation is concerned. The

character depends upon the sources from which both are derived. Some

wells may carry too much mineral matter in the form of salt, alkali,

etc., and some stream waters sometimes carry considerable alkali. For

this reason some wells may be better than streams and some streams

better than wells. There is no general rule in the matter. Your neighbor

may be right as applied to your location, and may know from his

experience that the well water carries too much undesirable material.

That could only be determined by analysis, and the analysis must be made

when the water is rather low, because during the rainy season, or soon

after it, the water may have less mineral impurity than later in the

season when it may be more concentrated.

Shall He Irrigate or Cultivate?

Our soil is of an excellent quality, and I feel if the moisture were

properly conserved by suitable methods it could be made to produce

fruits or some other very much more profitable than from hay and grain

crops.

Whether you can grow deciduous fruits successfully without irrigation

depends not only upon how well you conserve the moisture by cultivation,

but also whether the total rainfall conveys water enough, even if as

much as possible of it is conserved. Again, you might find that thorough

cultivation will give you satisfactory young trees, but would not

conserve moisture enough for the same trees when they come into bearing.

This proposition should be studied locally. If you can find trees in the

vicinity which do give satisfactory fruit under the rainfall, you would

have a practical demonstration which would be more trustworthy than any

forecast which could be prepared upon theoretical grounds.

Condensation for Irrigation.

If a circular funnel of waterproofed building paper, or some better

cheap device, were fastened about the base of the tree in such a manner

as to catch and concentrate most of the drippings from the leaves, and

that water made to run down through a tube leading a suitable depth into

the earth, it seems to me that the number of foggy nights that occur in

many localities during the season might thus supply ample water for a

tree's needs.

The probability is that water would not be secured in sufficient

quantities to serve any notable irrigation purposes, or if the fogs were

so thick as to yield water enough, the sunshine would be too scant for

the success of the plant. Put your idea to the test and see how much

water you could get from a tree of definite leaf area, which could be

readily estimated.

Winter Irrigation.

Last May I irrigated my prune trees for the first time, again during the

first two weeks of last December. If no rain should come within the next

two weeks, would you advise me to irrigate then? Should I plow before

irrigating, or should irrigation be done before the buds swell?

Unless your ground is deeply wet down by the rains which are now coming,

irrigate it once, and do not plow before irrigating. The point is to get

as much water into the ground and as much grass growth on top as you can

before the spring plowing. Never mind about the swelling of the buds.

The trees will not be affected injuriously by getting a good supply of

winter water into the soil. There might be some danger with trees which

bloom late in the spring, like citrus trees or olives, because by that

time the ground has become warm and the roots very active. At the

blooming time of deciduous trees less danger would threaten, because

there is less difference between the temperature of the ground and the

water which you were then applying from a running stream. If you

irrigated in furrows and, therefore, did not collect the water in mass,

its temperature would rise by contact with air, which would be another

reason for not apprehending trouble from it.

How Much Water for Oranges?

How much water would you consider absolutely necessary to carry to

full-bearing citrus trees an clay loam-that is, how many acres to a

miner's inch, figuring nine gallons per minute to the inch?

It would, of course, depend upon the age of the trees, as old bearing

trees may require twice as much as young trees. We would estimate for

bearing trees, on such retentive soil, 30-acre inches per year applied

in the way best for the soil.

Damping-off.

My orange seed-bed stack has "damp-off." Same say "too much water;" "not

enough water;" "put on lime;" etc. I use a medium amount of water and

more of my stack is affected than that of any other grower. One man has

kept his well soaked since planting, and only about six plants were

affected. Another has used but little water, keeping them very dry; he

has lost none.

Damping-off is due to a fungus which attacks the tender growth when

there is too much surface moisture. It may be produced by rather a small

amount of water, providing the soil is heavy and the water is not

rapidly absorbed and distributed. On the other hand, a lighter soil

taking water more easily may grow plants without damping-off, even

though a great deal more water has been used than on the heavier soil.

Too much shade, which prevents the sun from drying the surface soil, is

also likely to produce damping-off, therefore, one has to provide just

the right amount of shade and the right amount of ventilation through

circulation of the air, etc. The use of sand on the surface of a heavier

soil may save plants from damping-off, because the sand passes the water

quickly and dries, while a heavier surface soil would remain soggy. Lime

may be of advantage if not used in too great quantities because it

disintegrates the surface of the soil and helps to produce a dryness

which is desirable. Keeping the surface dry enough and yet providing the

seedlings with moisture for a free and satisfactory growth is a matter

which must be determined by experience and good judgment.

Irrigated or Non-Irrigated Trees.

Is there any difference between the same kind of fruit trees grown

without irrigation and with it?

It does not make a particle of difference, if the trees are grown well

and matured well. Overirrigated trees or trees growing on land naturally

moist may be equally bad. Excessively large trees and stunted trees are

both bad; with irrigation you may be more likely to get the first kind;

without it you are more likely to get the latter. There is, however, a

difference between a stunted tree and a wellgrown small tree, and as a

rule medium-sized trees are most desirable than overgrown trees. The

mere fact of irrigation does not make either good trees or bad trees: it

is the man at the ditch.

Too Little Rather Than Too Much Water.

Looking through an orchard of 18-year-old prune trees on riverbottom

land, I found a number of the trees had died. A well bored in the

orchard strikes water at about 15 feet. I find no apparent reason far

the death of these trees unless it is that the tap roots reach this body

of water and are injuriously affected thereby.

We do not believe that water at 15 feet depth could possibly kill a

prune tree. It is more likely that owing to spotted condition of the

soil, gravel should occur in different places, and with gravel three or

four feet below the surface a tree might actually die although there was

plenty of water at a depth of 15 feet. There is more danger that the

trees died from lack of water than from an oversupply of it, and it is

quite likely also that you could pump and irrigate to advantage large

trees which did not seem to be up to the standard of the whole place, as

manifested by lack of bearing, smallness of leaves, which would be apt

to turn yellow too early in the season.

Possibly Too Much Water.

My trees are four years old and are as follows: Peach, fig, loquat,

apple, apricot and plum. Last year they had plenty of blossoms, but I

got no fruit. I always watered them twice a week in summer.

You are watering your trees too much; stimulating their growth too much,

and this, while a tree is young, is apt to postpone its fruit bearing.

Give the soil a good soaking about once a mouth, unless you are situated

in a sandy or gravelly soil, in which more frequent applications may be

necessary.

Too Little Water After Dynamiting.

In planting almonds on a dry hard soil I dynamited the holes and ran

about 200 gallons of water into each hole before planting. About 95 per

cent of the trees started growth, but seem now to be in a somewhat

dormant state, the leaves of some being slightly wilted. All the trees

were watered since planting. I have been told I made a mistake by

throwing water in the dynamited holes. When the holes were watered the

ground was very dry and the water disappeared in a few minutes.

You have used too little water rather than too much. Dry soil of fine

texture can suck up an awful lot of moisture, which can be drawn off so

far, or so widely distributed, that there will not be enough for the

immediate vicinity of the roots. The dynamiting tended to deep drying

and necessitated much more irrigation.

Irrigating Young Trees.

We have just put out 50 acres to walnuts. The party who put them out

wants me to have some boxes or troughs made 15 inches long with a 3-inch

opening, and put in on the slant so as to have the water hit the roots.

Many such arrangements of boxes, perforated cans, pieces of tile, etc.,

have been proposed during the last fifty years in California for

accomplishing the purposes which are mentioned in your letter, and all

such devices have been abandoned as undesirable. They may bring the

water to bear upon a lower level as intended, but the free access of air

and the fact that, with their use, proper stirring of the soil is

neglected renders them undesirable. The best way to water young trees

singly is to make a trench around tree, but not allowing the water to

touch the bark, applying the water and then thoroughly hoe when the

surface soil comes into proper condition. Young trees treated in this

way, with the surface always in good condition, do not require much

water. The amount depends, of course, upon whether the soil is naturally

porous or retentive.

Underground Irrigation.

How extensively used and with what results is the underground tile

system for irrigation used, and what especial character of soil is it

best suited for?

Not extensively at all; in fact, if there is an acre of it which has

been for three years in continuous and successful operation, it has

escaped us. After forty years of trial of different systems, none has

demonstrated value enough to warrant its use. Theoretically, they are

excellent; in practice they are defective. Surface application in

different ways, according to the nature of the soil, accompanied with

thorough cultivation, is the only thing that at the present time

promises satisfactory results, except that where the land suits it,

irrigation by underflow from ditches on higher elevations is being

successfully used on small areas in the foothills. For gardens the most

promising arrangement seems to be a laying of drain tiles rather near

the surface, which shall be taken up each year, cleaned of silt and

plant roots, and relaid along the rows before planting; but this calls

for too much labor, except perhaps for amateur gardeners. The kind of

soil best suited to such a system is a medium loam which will distribute

water sufficiently to avoid saturation and air-exclusion. Both a heavy

soil which does this, and a coarse sandy loam which takes water down out

of reach of shallow-rooting plants too rapidly and lacks capillarity to

draw it up again, are ill adapted to underground distribution.

Irrigation of Potatoes.

Will you kindly tell me when is the proper time to irrigate potatoes,

before they bloom or after they bloom, and do they require much water?

It should seldom be necessary to irrigate potatoes after the bloom

appears. Potatoes do not need much water, and there is danger of giving

them too much. It is absolutely essential to see that there is no check

in the growth of the plant, for once the growth is at all checked by

drought, and irrigation is done, a new lot of potatoes start and new and

old growth of tubers are worthless. Give what irrigation is needed and

make cultivation do the rest. The secret of success is keeping the soil

continually at the right moisture, so that the first growth of the plant

may continue regularly until the tubers are brought to maturity.

Irrigated or Non-Irrigated Apples.

Where soil and climatic conditions are favorable to the raising of

apples, what effect has irrigation an them?

The commercial product of California apples is chiefly made upon deep

soils in districts of ample rainfall so that the fruit can be perfected

and the trees maintained in thrift by thorough cultivation and without

irrigation. In the foothill and mountain regions, however, apple trees

are irrigated and first-class fruit produced by the process. There is no

particular virtue in the absence of irrigation nor in the presence of

it. All that the tree requires is that the moisture supply should be

adequate and timely. There are undoubtedly many apple orchards grown

without irrigation where a little water during the latter part of the

summer would be a great advantage for the perfection of winter

varieties.

Irrigating Walnuts-Checks or Furrows.

Which is the best method to irrigate a tract of 25 acres of sandy

sediment sail, nearly level, preparatory to planting walnuts?

By all means use the furrow system of irrigation unless your land should

be so light that the water would sink in the furrows and distribution

would be very unequal without covering the whole surface as is done by

filling checks. When the land cannot be covered well by the furrow

system, checking is resorted to, but not otherwise.

Summer and Fall Irrigation.

Is it desirable to irrigate peach trees in the fall after the crop is

gathered?

The popularity of autumn irrigation for peaches in the San Joaquin

valley is based upon the experience of the last few years where trees

that have been allowed to become dormant too early in the season and

have been weakened by a long period of soil-drought during the autumn,

have cast their blossoms or manifested other indications of weakness

during the following year. It is thoroughly rational to apply irrigation

to hold the leaves and secure their service in the strengthening of

bloom buds for the following year by irrigation. Such irrigation should

be applied immediately after the fruit is gathered or even before that,

if the yellowing of the leaves indicates lack of strength in the tree

and the frequency and amount of irrigation during the autumn depends

upon whether the soil will hold moisture enough to carry the tree to its

proper period of dormancy. This may be determined by the aspect of the

trees and by digging down two or three feet to see whether the soil

carries moisture which is likely to be sufficient until the coming of

the rains. Whether late irrigation will be necessary is also

determinable by the character of the soil; on close retentive soil it

may not be necessary, while on loose, sandy or gravelly soil it may be

essential to the life of the tree. One has to settle all these matters

by judgment and not by recipe.

Fertilizers in Irrigation Water.

Do you recommend putting fertilizers in irrigating water? I am about to

water the orchard and am thinking of putting some nitrate in the water.

You can distribute any soluble fertilizer by dissolving it in irrigation

water, but few have ever done it because of the difficulties of getting

equal strength in running water. It is much easier to distribute on land

before irrigation.

Irrigating Alfalfa on Heavy Soils.

How does alfalfa succeed on adobe and soils slightly modified from it?

Does irrigation work well an adobe planted to alfalfa?

If you get the irrigation adjusted so that the soil shall not be

water-logged and so that the water does not stand on the surface when

the sun is hot, you can get plenty of good alfalfa on a heavy soil.

Irrigation on adobe soils must be done more frequently and a less amount

at each application to guard against the dangers named above.

How Much Water for Crops?

Same of my land is heavy but the most of it is light soil. I want

alfalfa mostly, same potatoes and grain, and later oranges, olives and

other fruit. How much water in inches or acre feet is required per acre

per year far the irrigation of it?

The amount of water required to grow different crops depends upon the

crop itself, upon the time of the year in which it grows, the character

of the soil, etc. There is no such thing as stating how much water would

be used for all crops on all soils, and at all times of the year. The

range would be from, say, ten acre inches for irrigation of deciduous

fruits, which need moisture supplementary to rainfall; twice or thrice

as much for citrus fruit trees; four or five times as much for alfalfa

where a full number of cuttings are required. These are, of course, only

rough estimates which would have to be modified according to local

rainfall and soil character. Water should be applied frequently enough

to keep the lower soil amply moist. A color of moisture is not enough

and a muddy condition results from too much water. One has to learn to

judge when there is moisture enough, and a good test of this to take up

a handful of soil, squeeze it and open the hand. If the ball retains its

shape it is probably moist enough. If it has a tendency to crack upon

opening the hand, it is too dry. This test, of course, is somewhat

affected by the character of the soil, but one has to form the best

judgment possible how far allowance has to be made for that.

Sewage Irrigation.

What is the usefulness or harmfulness of the outflow from septic tanks

for use an fruits and vegetables?

There is no question as to the suitability of the affluent from a septic

tank for irrigation purposes. Waste waters are sometimes injurious when

they are loaded with antiseptics, but the septic tank will not work

unless it has a chance for free fermentation in the absence of

antiseptics, therefore, this objection against waste water does not hold

with the out-flow from septic tanks. It has the advantage over straight

sewage irrigation because fermentation in the septic tank is believed to

free the water from many dangerous germs, though not all of them.

Creamery Wastes for Irrigation.

Will the waste water from a creamery, pumped into a ditch and used for

irrigating sandy loam orchard land, or nursery stack, in any way be

injurious to the land or the trees?

It will depend upon the amounts of salt and alkaline washing materials

which it carries. This would be governed, of course, by the amount of

fresh water used for dilution in the irrigation ditch. There are two

ways to determine the question. One would be to make an analysis of a

sample of the water taken when it contains the largest amount of these

materials after the dilution with ditch water. Another way would be to

plant some corn, squashes, barley and other plants, so that they would

be freely irrigated by the water during one growing season. This would

be rather better than an analysis, because everybody could see whether

the plants grew well or not, and would be apt to be better convinced by

what they see than by an opinion which a chemist might give on the basis

of an analysis. The use of this water on a sandy loam would obviously be

less injurious than upon a heavy retentive soil.

House Waste Water.

Is it feasible to use wash water, etc., for watering fruit trees and

vegetables?

Kitchen sink water is not desirable because of its great content of

grease, but wash-tub and bathtub water are good. Strong soapsuds should

be mixed with considerable rinsing water to escape excessive content of

alkali. Run the water in hoe-ditches, along the rows of vegetables,

hoeing thoroughly as soon as the land hoes well, changing the runs of

water so that the soil does not become compacted but is kept friable and

lively.

Draining a Wet Spot.

I have a spot of about an acre that in a wet winter becomes very miry

and as a rule is wet up to July. Can I put in a ditch two and one-half

feet deep and fill in with small stones for a foot or a foot and a half,

until I can afford to buy tiles?

Drains made of small stones are often quickly filled with soil and stop

running. However, it will work for a time, and such drains were formerly

largely employed in Eastern situations when cash was scant and stones

abundant. Dig the ditch bottom to a depth of not less than 3 or 3 1/2

feet, then put in the stones deep enough not to be interfered with by

plowing. If you have flat stones you can make quite a water-way with

them and fill in with small stones above it.

Part V. Live Stock and Dairy

Legal Milk House.

What is a legal milk house in California?

The State dairy law says little concerning the construction or equipment

of the milk house. It says that the house, or room, shall be properly

screened to exclude flies and insects, and is to be used for the purpose

of cooling, mixing, canning and keeping the milk. The milk room shall

not be used for any other purpose than milk handling and storing, and

must be 100 feet or more distant from hogpen, horse stable, cesspool or

similar accumulation of filth, and must be over 50 feet from cow stalls

or places where milking is done. In regard to the size of the milk room

and equipment, nothing is said provided it is large enough for the milk

to be handled conveniently. Concrete milk houses, however, had best have

smooth-finished floors and walls. The interior of the milk house is also

to be whitewashed once in two years or oftener. If milk from the dairy

is to go to a city, the requirements will be more severe than provided

in the State law, and must conform to the ordinances of the city to

which the milk is to be sent.

Cure for a Self-Milker.

What shall I do for a young cow that milks herself?

Fit a harness consisting of two light side slats and a girth and neck

strap in such a way that the cow cannot reach her udder. Unless she is

particularly valuable for milk, it will save you a lot of worry to fix

her up for beef.

Strong Milk.

How can I overcome strong milk in a three-quarter Jersey cow? I had been

feeding alfalfa hay with two quarts alfalfa meal and one quart middlings

twice a day. Thinking the strong milk came from the feed I changed to

oat hay and alfalfa with a soft feed of bran and middlings.

There is nothing in either ration that could cause strong milk, nor will

a change of feed likely benefit the trouble. If the cow is in good

physical condition the trouble probably comes from the entrance of

bacteria during or after milking. Thoroughly clean up around the milking

stable, followed by a disinfection of the premises. Have the flanks,

udder and teats of the cow thoroughly cleaned before milking and scald

all utensils used for the milk. Harmful bacteria may have gotten well

established on the premises and the entrance of a few is enough to

seriously affect the flavor of the milk. Once the trouble is checked it

can be kept down with the usual sanitary methods.

Separator as Milk Purifier.

I have a neighbor who contends that a cream separator purifies the milk

that passes through it. I say that it does not purify the milk. I agree

that it does take out some of the heavy particles of dirt and filth, but

that it cannot take out what is already in solution with the milk.

The purification naturally cannot be very great, and if milk is produced

in unsanitary fashion, running through the separator will do little, if

any, good. Nevertheless, the separator does remove more than just the

solid particles of dirt. The purifying comes by leaving behind the

separator slime, so called, the slimy material left behind after a good

deal of milk has been run through. In fact, some creameries separate

milk, only to mix milk and cream again, largely for the purpose of

removing the impurities found in the slime. In this slime are not only

the impurities that fall into the milk, but also some of the fibrous

matter that is part of the milk, and this gathers, being pulled out by

gravity as are the fat particles, it seems to gather with it a few more

bacteria than remain in the milk itself. Material in real solution, as

sugar is in solution in water, naturally is practically unaffected by

separation. You are, therefore, right to the extent that you cannot

produce unsanitary milk and clean it with the separator, but your

neighbor is right to the extent that the separator does remove some

impurities and is used just for that purpose. There is also in the dairy

trade a centrifugal milk clarifier which is constructed in somewhat

similar manner to a cream separator, but acts differently on the milk in

not interfering with cream rising by gravity when separated cream and

milk are mixed after cleaning.

Butter Going White.

I bought some butter and during the warm weather it melted. About 40 or

50 per cent was white, while the balance was yellow and went to the top.

When the butter remelted, the yellow portion melted, leaving the white

portion retaining its shape. The white portion did not taste like

ordinary butter. The butter made from our cows' cream melted at a higher

temperature, but did not have a white portion. Why did our butter not

act like the creamery butter?

Samples of butter have occasionally been sent to this office that have

turned white on the outside, and since the white part has a very

disagreeable, tallowy flavor, people think that tallow or oleomargarine

has been mixed with it, but we have never been able to find any foreign

substance in any of the samples. We have found that some of the best

brands of butter will turn white first on the outside and the white

color will gradually go deeper if the butter is exposed to a current of

air or if left in the sun a short time - F. W. Andreason, State Dairy

Bureau.

What Is "Butter-fat?"

I would like to know what "butter-fat" means. I have asked farmers this

question and no one seems to know. I suppose all parties dealing with

creameries understand what the standard of measure or weight of

butter-fat is, but it is my guess that there are thousands of farmers

whom, if they were asked this question, would not know. We, of course,

know that butter is sold by the pound and cream by the pint, quart or

gallon, but what is butter-fat sold by?

Butter-fat is the yellow substance which forms the larger part of

butter. Besides, this fat butter is composed of 16 per cent or less of

water and small amounts of salt, and other substances of which milk is

composed. From 80 to 85 per cent or so of ordinary butter is the fat

itself. It is sold by weight. The cream from which butter is made is

taken to the creamery and weighed, not measured. A small sample is

tested by the so-called Babcock test to determine the exact percentage

of fat, and payment mode on this basis. For instance, if 1,00 pounds of

cream is one-third butter-fat, the dairyman receives pay for 33 1/3

pounds of this substance. If it is only one-quarter fat, he receives pay

for 25 pounds. Ordinary cream varies within these limits, but may be

much richer or thinner. Cream after the butterfat is removed is much

like skimmed milk, although it has less water in it.

Why Would Not Butter Come?

What is the trouble with cream that you churn on from Monday until

Saturday, then have to give up in despair and turn it out to the hogs?

We warmed it, and we cooled it, and used a dairy thermometer, but

nothing would do.

If the cream was in churnable condition otherwise, the probability is

that it was too cool when you started churning. It should be about 62°

Fahrenheit.

Drying a Persistent Milker.

My cow is to come fresh about the middle of next mouth, and in the last

two weeks her milk has changed in some way so that the cream makes very

yellow butter and comes to butter nearly as quick as when the cow was

fresh. Would it best for her to go entirely dry before coming fresh, or

will it be all right if she does not entirely dry up?

If your cow has been able to pick up any special amount of grass since

the rains came it might add to the color of the butter. A cow's milk

also gets richer toward the end of her lactation period, which may make

a richer cream and make the butter come quickly There does not seem to

be anything to worry about. The cow would probably do better if she

could become entirely dry before calving, but unless you can easily dry

her up it would be dangerous to try to force her to do so.

Butter-fat in Sweet and Sour Cream.

The creamery wagon takes our cream every other day. Without ice it is

almost impossible to keep the cream sweet during the hot weather. By the

time the wagon gets here, several hours after the fourth milking, the

cream is quite sour. Does sour cream test lower than sweet cream! Is any

butter-fat lost due to evaporation in dry weather?

The test of sour cream will be as accurate as of sweet cream, if

properly made, but it is rather more difficult to make; or rather, to

get the material into condition to work well. There is no fat lost by

evaporation.

Cream That Won't Whip.

When I sell my cream from the separator they say they cannot whip it.

Can you tell me if there is any way that I can make the cream whip?

There appears to be no good reason for blaming the separator for your

difficulty with the cream. Possibly the cream may be too thin, as thin

cream is sometimes difficult to whip. There is also the possibility that

the fat globules in the cream may be rather small, but that will be the

fault of the cows, not of the separator. Another reason why the cream

may not whip well may be that it is used too quickly. If the milk is all

right, the cream not too thin and it is permitted to stand for 12 hours

or so there should be no trouble with it. Occasionally when cream is

pasteurized it will not whip well. In these cases, or any other that may

develop, the application of lime water to the cream at the rate of 1

gallon to 60 will remove the difficulty.

What Is Certified Milk?

What process has milk to go through to be called "certified," and what

demand is there for it?

Certified milk is simply milk that is produced and marketed under

prescribed sanitary conditions. The dairies are inspected periodically

by representatives of some medical society or other organization to see

that all regulations are observed, who certify that this is done; hence

the name. Milk from other dairies is prohibited by law from being sold

under the name "certified milk." Among the requirements in its

production are that the cows must be free from tuberculosis and

otherwise perfectly healthy, the stable to have a concrete floor which

is washed out after each milking, the milkers to have special clothes

for milking, etc. The milk is cooled and bottled immediately after

milking, and kept at a low temperature until it reaches the consumer, to

prevent the entrance of dirt of any kind or the development of the few

bacteria that must gain entrance before it is bottled. To produce such

milk requires much expensive apparatus and much more labor than to

produce ordinary milk, and as a result it sells for a much higher price,

both to distributor and consumer, so that the market for it is rather

limited.

Jersey Shorthorn Cross.

If I cross Registered Shorthorns with a Jersey bull, what dairying value

will the progeny have?

This makes an excellent cross. Even beef-strain Shorthorns have lots of

milking power if it is developed and the Jersey cross will bring it out

in the progeny. The cows have excellent milking qualities and give very

rich milk. They also have a big frame and fine constitution. About the

finest cows in Humboldt county were of this cross although Jersey bulls

have been used so long that the Shorthorn blood is almost eliminated.

The first "improved" cattle in California and the first cross made for

dairy purposes was Jersey bulls upon grade Shorthorn cows. Later the

Holstein Friesians became popular and they and their grades are now most

abundant.

A Free Martin.

I have a Jersey cow who has just had twin calves, a heifer and a bull.

The heifer was born about five minutes before the bull and seems to be

the stronger. My neighbors tell me to fatten both for the butcher, for

they say the heifer will be barren. The mother is a young cow, as this

is her second calf. Kindly inform if this is one of nature's laws or if

there is a possibility of the heifer turning out all right?

The probability is that it will be better to veal the heifer than to

raise her, as most heifer calves twinned with a bull are free martins,

or animals of mixed sex and no good for breeding purposes or for

profitable milk production. If the bull is a good animal, he probably

will be all right, as this twinning does not seem to affect a bull calf,

though it does the heifer. It does not always happen that the heifer is

worthless for breeding, but the probability is so great that you had

better have her killed and be done with it.

What Is a "Grade"?

Does the term "grade" mean an animal whose sire is a thoroughbred and

whose dam is a scrub, or just one who is selected from others because of

her good points or those of her mother?

Roughly speaking, a grade animal is one having more or less pure-bred

blood, but not enough, or otherwise too irregular, for registry under

the rules of the association of the breed to which it has affiliation.

It does not refer to selection without use of a pure-blood sire at some

point in the ancestry, but this is not a distinction of much moment, for

it is hard to find animals which have not borrowed something from some

cross with pure blood, though remote. The terms high and low grade are

sometimes used to signify amount of pure blood recognizable by form and

other characters or remembered by owners or their neighbors. Generally

speaking, a grade is anything not entitled to registry, though

ordinarily it refers to the offspring of a pure-bred sire and a cow of

another or of no breed. The offspring of a pure-bred cow and a scrub

bull would also be a grade.

Breeding a Young Mare.

I have a beautiful colt 22 months old that will weigh 1200 or 1300

pounds; very compactly built, and has extra health, life and vigor. I

want this colt for a broodmare. Would you advise breeding at two or

three years old?

Authorities agree at placing the age from two to three years, according

to the development of the animal and other circumstances.

"To Breed in the Purple."

What is meant by breeding a sow in the purple? I have seen this

statement used many times by breeders who advertised "sows safe in pig

bred in the purple."

To be "bred in the purple" means to be of royal or princely parentage.

It originally was used in reference to the nobility of Europe, as purple

was the insignia of royal blood, due to the fact that purple was the

rarest and most costly color and only the rich and noble could buy it.

When used in referring to live stock, it signifies that the animal in

question has a long line of blooded ancestry.

Cows for Hill Country.

What breed of dairy cows do you think would be preferable to keep for

butter, at an altitude of about 1800 feet, in Nevada county - Jerseys,

Guernseys or Ayrshires? I do not mean to have them to rustle for their

own living, but to feed them well, house and care for them in all

weather, particularly in stormy weather.

The best breed for a man is the one he likes best, providing it has been

bred for the purposes he desires to attain. All the breeds you mention

are suited to the scheme you outline.

Foothill Dairying.

Is there any risk to run in taking cows to an altitude of 2000 from a

much lower one?

There is no quarrel between a cow and a mountain. Ever since the

settlement of the State cows have been driven directly from the valley

up to the mountain meadow pastures, both for butter and for beef-making,

in the summer time. The foothill elevation you mention is only a

starting to elevations of 6000 feet and more to which cattle are driven

every season.

Bad-Tempered Jerseys.

Jersey bulls are apt to become vicious after a time; is it so to the

same extent with bulls of the other named breeds?

The Jersey bull is conceded to be crosser and more dangerous than other

bulls, but no bull should ever be allowed to have a chance at a man.

Never consider a bull gentle and you will be safe with him.

Breeding in Line.

Is it right and proper to breed a pedigreed registered bull to his

daughter, who is the offspring of a grade cow? If it is not right,

explain why. If it can be done, will the offspring be physically perfect

and an improvement, or will it have poorer qualities than its sire and

mother? If this inbreeding can be done successfully, how long can it be

carried on, or, in other words, how long could one bull be bred back

into his own offspring? Can a herd be perfected in this way?

It is right and proper to breed a registered sire to his daughter, who

is the offspring of a grade cow. The first cross is all right and the

offspring ought to be physically perfect. This is a first step in what

we call line breeding, but in line breeding proper, both animals must be

pure bloods and registered, having ancestors on both sides which have a

long line of good individuals with strong constitutions and true to

type. To do this, one must have a perfect ideal in mind. This line

breeding is what has developed the breeds today up to the high standard

of perfection. Breeding sire to daughter, if followed along these lines,

will be all right; at least, it was so in the case of Amos Cruickshank,

the great shorthorn breeder. You cannot successfully breed back on the

daughter's offspring, but if you use a straight out-cross on the

daughter's offspring you can again use this sire on her produce with

marked success. In the case of a grade cow and registered sire, there

are two things which will make you either lose or win with one cross,

and that is regarding the breeding of your sire. If he is just an

ordinary-bred fellow it will be a hit-and-miss game, but if he is from a

long line of good ancestors on his dam's side, you can very materially

improve the, herd, because always keep in mind the female produce from

the sire's dam will grow with age toward the sire's dam. So if your

first cross from your first sire is all right, use a straight out-cross

bull, but be sure he is what he ought to be, and then you can use your

old bull back on his heifers. Of course, a man practicing this breeding

ought to be a thorough stockman and a first-class judge of live stock. -

W. M. Carruthers.

Whitewashes for Stock Buildings.

I desire whitewash recipes which have given durable results on

outbuildings.

It is so desirable to make outbuildings neat and clean, and so important

to keep trees from sunburning, etc., that a durable whitewash as cheaply

and easily made as possible is very important. The following are

commended: No. 1 - To half a bucketful of unslaked lime add 2 handfuls

of common salt, and soft soap at the rate of 1 pound to 15 gallons of

the wash. Slake slowly, stirring all the time. This quantity makes 2

bucketfuls of very adhesive wash, which is not affected by rain. No. 2 -

Whitewash requires some kind of grease in it to make it most durable.

Any kind of grease, even though it be old and partly spoiled, will

answer all right, though tallow is best. The grease imparts to the

whitewash an oil property the same as in good paint. Tallow will stay

right on the job for years, and the cheapest of it will do. In order to

prepare this grease and get it properly incorporated into the white

wash, it is necessary to put the grease in a vessel on the stove, and

boil it into a part of the whitewash so as to emulsify it and get it

into such condition that it can be properly incorporated with the

whitewash mixture. No. 3 - For every barrel of fresh lime, add 16 pounds

of tallow, 16 pounds of salt and 4 pounds of glue, dissolved. Mix all

together and slack; keep covered, and let stand a few days before using.

Add water to bring the right consistency to spread readily. For nice

inside work strain it. When less than a barrel of lime is used, the

quality of the wash does not seem so good. It is better to apply hot,

but it does well cold.

Government Whitewash.

What is the government recipe for whitewash?

"Take a half bushel of well-burned, unslaked lime, slake it with boiling

water, cover during the process to keep in steam, strain the liquid

through a fine sieve or strainer, and add to it 7 pounds of salt,

previously dissolved in warm water; 3 pounds of ground rice boiled to a

thin paste and stirred in while hot; half a pound of Spanish whiting and

1 pound of glue, previously dissolved by soaking in cold water, and then

hanging over in a small pot hung in a larger one filled with water. Add

5 gallons of hot water to the mixture, stir well and let it stand for a

few days, covered from dirt. It should be applied hot, for which purpose

it can be kept in a portable furnace. A pint of this mixture, if

properly applied, will cover a square yard."

Whitewash for Spray Pump.

Can you give a recipe for a durable whitewash which can be prepared

simply and in large quantities? The whitewash will be applied with a

spray pump.

To 25 pounds of lime, whole, slacking with 6 gallons of water, add 6

pounds of common salt and 1 1/2 pounds of brown sugar. Stir and mix well

and allow to cool. When cool stir in 1 ounce of ultramarine blue. Then

add 2 gallons of water, and sprinkle and stir in 2 pounds of Portland

cement. If two coats are to be applied, add 1 more gallon of water.

Strain for work on smooth surface.

Buttermilk Paint

How is paint made with buttermilk for farm buildings?

One gallon buttermilk, 3 pounds of Portland cement, and sufficient

coloring matter to give the desired shade. Apply as soon as made, and

stir a great deal while being applied. It is said to dry in about 6

hours and to be a good preservative for fences, barns and other

outbuildings.

Trespassing Live Stock.

Is there a fence law in this State? In other words, do I have to fence

against my neighbors' stock, or does the law require him to care for his

stock and keep it off my property?

The old "no-fence law" which was enacted during the troubles between

wheat growers and stock rangers has been put out of commission by more

recent legislation. The trespassing live stock is liable for damage, but

just how to proceed to protect yourself you should learn from a local

lawyer who knows statutes and your county ordinances also.

Rat-Proof Granary.

How can I make a rat-proof granary for alfalfa meal and barley?

Omit all boarding of the sides below the floor level and place a heavy

inverted pan, milk pan, between the top of each of the supporting posts

and the floor beams. Care should be taken that the diagonal bracing of

the underpinning or posts does not allow a rat to secure a foot hold

near enough the floor to permit of gnawing through.

Concrete Stable Floor.

Is a concrete floor good for a horse stable?

Concrete floors are satisfactorily used for horse stables, provided the

floor is ribbed or otherwise roughened in a way to reduce the danger of

slipping. Some stablemen have stall floors made that way. Some use a

wooden grating over the concrete in places where the horses have to

stand for any length of time. Others soften the standing by free use of

bedding.

Silo-Heating Not Dangerous.

Is there any danger of a barn burning from spontaneous combustion due to

a silo being built in the barn?

There is no danger of the silo overheating and setting fire to a barn.

When the ensilage is curing, it often gets warm, but never anywhere near

the point of combustion.

To Make Shingles Durable.

What is the best material with which to coat the shingles on my barn

roof?

The best coating is a wood preservative, the principal ingredient of

which is creosote. There are several reliable brands of preservatives

and stains that may be had at a cost of about half that of paint. We

must remark also the natural durability of redwood shingles in this

climate if the roof has a good pitch. We reshingled our house roof after

20 years of use and found the shingles so sound that we turned them and

shingled the sides and roof of a shed with them where they promise to be

good for another score of years.

Best Breed of Hogs.

What is the best breed of hogs for pen feeding, shutting them up in

small pens from the time they are little pigs and feeding them mostly on

skim milk and slops?

There is no best breed. It is a matter of personal preference. Any of

the breeds are all right to pen up and feed. The principal thing is to

see that the hogs are all pure bred and have not been crossed too often

to cause deterioration. Choose one breed of hogs and keep them as pure

as possible and you will have no trouble in raising them. All the breeds

are good; but some are fancied more than others. Dark-colored hogs are

preferred in California because less liable to sunburn.

Part VI. Feeding Farm Animals

Feed for Plow-Horses.

While doing heavy plowing, how many pounds of rolled barley per day

should I feed to keep 1300-pound horses in good condition? If I feed

part oat hay and part alfalfa hay, together with rolled barley, what

ration would be ample?

A ration used by the California Experiment Station was 12 pounds of

alfalfa hay, 11 pounds of wheat hay and 7 pounds of crushed barley for

1000 pounds of horse at hard work. The larger the horse the less food

for the amount of work he does in proportion to his size, so multiplying

these figures by 1.2 would bring a person somewhere near the ration for

a 1300-pound horse, and an approximation is as close as one can come to

any general ration. Probably more alfalfa and less of the other feeds

could well be given, since many farmers are succeeding in feeding

alfalfa exclusively.

Vetch for Horses.

Does vetch make good feed for horses? Will vetch produce a heavier crop

than grain? When is the best time to sow vetch for hay, and what is the

best variety?

Vetch makes excellent stock feed whether used as hay or as pasturage.

Vetch falls to the ground so badly that it is very difficult to cut hay

from it unless some grain is planted to hold it up. Oats make an

excellent hold-up crop and is more generally used. A half a bushel of

vetch seed is mixed with a bushel of oats and this is enough to plant an

acre. Some growers, however, prefer a bushel of vetch as that makes the

stand much heavier.

Sorghum Feeding.

Can I allow milk cows to pasture on growing Kaffir and Egyptian corn

during the summer? Which one is the best for pasture and milk?

There is no difference between Kaffir corn and Egyptian corn so far as

feeding goes. They are both sorghums. There is a danger in pasturing on

young sorghums, because stock is often killed from overeating it, and

they are quite apt to do this when they come upon it from dry feed. If

you cut and wilt the young sorghum, or if it is fed sparingly with hay,

etc., it becomes innocent of injury. After the sorghum has obtained

considerable growth, it also loses its dangerous character.

Salting Hay.

What kind of salt is used for salting hay, how much to use and how to

apply it?

Any good commercial salt such as is used for pork or beef packing is

satisfactory for salting hay. A good handful to the ton, scattering it

as the hay is stocked is as good a formula as can be had.

Stover.

What is stover? How is it cut and handled?

Stover is corn fodder after the ears are taken off. The best time to cut

the corn for stover is immediately after the kernel becomes dented and

the leaves or blades commence to dry. Immediately after the ears are

taken off, the stalks should be cut and stacked. The size of the shock

depends upon the climate. If it is a foggly climate and stalks are

green, it is better to make a smaller shock, but in the interior valley

where the weather is warm it is best to make large shocks, so that the

stacks will not dry up very rapidly.

Feed for Cows.

What shall I feed cows when they are fresh and when they are dry!

When they commence to freshen, give some green feed, such as alfalfa or

corn; if possible, also give, say, two or three pounds of barley or

bran, and gradually increase this for two or three weeks until six or

seven pounds of bran or barley is being fed. Also give a small amount of

hay. Bran may be rather expensive feeding and a substitute is being

used. Take four parts of barley to one of bran and mix. With barley at

its low price, this makes rather inexpensive feeding. Another substitute

is to take the chopped alfalfa hay and barley. These are mixed

thoroughly together and moistened. After the cow freshens and gives her

full flow of milk, let her eat all the alfalfa hay she wants. A good

ration is about 15 to 20 pounds of hay, 6 or 7 pounds of barley or bran

and about 10 pounds of roots such as beets or mangels. When the cow is

dry, pasture is the best food, supplemented with some green food.

Sorghum Silage.

Will Egyptian corn make good ensilage and at what time should it be cut

to make the best feed for dairy cows?

Sorghum makes good silage. It must be cut while surely juicy enough, for

it is a little more apt to dry out than Indian corn.

Barley for Hay Feeding.

Should the barley for hog feeding be rolled, ground or fed whole, dry or

wet? Also, how much should be fed and how often to get best results?

To obtain the best results, the barley should be ground into a meal (not

too fine) and have the hulls screened or floated out. This is best fed

when made into a thick slop. Some good feeders believe in letting it

stand until fermentation sets up, that is, gets a little sour. We prefer

a sweet to a sour feed. However, hogs will do well on either, provided

there is no change from sour to sweet. The change is the bad part. Hogs

should be fed just the amount that they will clean up well, and no more.

A hog should always be ready for his feed at feeding time. We would not

feed oftener than twice a day: night and morning. - Chas. Goodman.

Sugar Beets and Silage.

Will sugar beets keep in a silo and how sugar beets rank as a hog feed?

Sugar beets would probably keep all right if stored in a silo just as

they might if kept in any other receptacle, but it is not necessary to

store beets for stock-feeding in this State. They can be taken from the

field, or from piles made under open sheds in which the beets may be put

because more convenient for feeding than to take them from the field in

the rainy season. Beets put whole into a silo would not make silage. For

that purpose they would need to be reduced to a pulp, but there is no

object in going to the expense of that operation where beets will keep

so well in their natural condition and where there is no hard freezing

to injure them. Beet pulp silage is made from beets which are put

through a pulping process for the purpose of extraction of the sugar

and, therefore, best pulp silage is only made in connection with

beet-sugar factories and is a by-product thereof which is proving of

large value for feeding purposes.

Feeding Value of Spelt.

What is the food value of spelt? It is a Russian variety of wheat, and

yet, I am informed, it has about the same value as a stock food that

barley has.

We have no analysis of spelt at hand. It is presumably like that of

barley, as you suggest, because the spelt has an adhering chaff as

barley has. This fact makes it better for feeding than wheat, not in

nutritive content, but because the chaff tends to distribute the starchy

material, making it more easily digestible; just as barley and oats are

better than ordinary wheat for stock feeding.

Concentrates and Corn Stalks.

Is it necessary to feed mulch cows any hay or concentrated feed in

addition to green corn stalks?

It is necessary. Green corn is an excellent thing for milch cows, but it

is a very unbalanced ration and needs alfalfa or something else to

balance it up. Green corn, for example, contains only about one per cent

of digestible protein and 11.5 per cent of digestible carbohydrates and

0.4 per cent fat, or a nutritive ratio of about 1 to 12 1/2. A proper

ration would be about 1 to 6 or 7, or less. To balance this up alfalfa

can be fed better than anything else in California, for that is very

rich in protein and the cheapest supply of protein that there is. If you

give the cows a good supply of alfalfa hay with the green corn, you will

have an ideal combination.

Dry Sorghum Fodder.

Is Egyptian corn fodder good for cows? I have been told it would dry up

the milk. I have several acres and would like to feed it if it is not

harmful.

Dry sorghum fodder is counted about the poorest roughage that one would

think of harvesting. It is much less valuable than Indian corn fodder.

Egyptian corn is one of the non-saccharine sorghums which are valuable

both for grain or for green feeding. We never heard of direct

milk-drying effect, though such a result might be expected from feeding

such innutritive material, which is also difficult of digestion. If fed

for roughness it should be in connection with concentrated foods like

bran or oil meal or with green alfalfa. No cow can give much milk when

the feed is hardly nutritive enough to keep her alive.

There seems to be, however, much difference in the dry fodders from

different varieties of sorghum. One grower writes: "Kaffir corn is the

only variety within our knowledge of which the fodder is of much value.

We consider the fodder much more preferable than that of the ordinary

Indian corn, and our stock eat it much more readily than the sweet

sorghum. However, it requires a much longer season in which to ripen

than does any of the other varieties, for which reason it is less

desirable to plant in midsummer."

Steers on Alfalfa.

How much alfalfa hay will a two or three-year-old steer eat per day, and

about what is the gain in weight per day?

A steer will clean up about 33 pounds per day. Steers will make about 1

1/2 pounds gain in weight per day.

Concentrates with Alfalfa.

I have a good supply of alfalfa hay and have been feeding this as a

straight feed for my dairy cows. They are not, however, doing as well as

they should and I am looking for some good feed to go with it.

You could probably get better returns by feeding about a pound of

cocoanut meal and three of dried beet pulp than by any other combination

of concentrates with straight alfalfa. If you are producing market milk

or butter prices justify it, more concentrates could profitably be fed.

It is an expensive proposition to build up a properly balanced ration

with alfalfa and concentrates alone, and unless market milk is being

sold, it usually does not pay. The cheapest way to provide a balanced

ration is not by concentrates, but by wheat or other grain straw, and

let the cows eat all they care for. This is very cheap and helps to

balance a ration with green or dry alfalfa hay, is usually cheap, and is

fine for cows. Both are much less expensive than concentrates.

Chopping Hay for Horses.

What saving may be made by chopping all oat hay when fed to horses?

There is no particular saving in chopping hay unless the horses are

worked very hard and for very long hours, as is often the case with

express horses in the cities, or unless the power for cutting is very

cheap and feed high. The idea is that, except in unusual cases as above

mentioned, the horses can do their own grinding cheaper than it can be

done by power. Somewhat less hay is wasted when fed cut than when fed

long, but if they are not fed too much long hay they will waste very

little.

Grain for Horses.

What is the best formula for feeding work horses with oat hay, alfalfa,

barley (crushed) and corn as rations?

Feed one-half oat hay and one-half alfalfa hay, about 1 to 1 1/2 pounds

per day for each 100 pounds live weight of the horse. Add to this from

3/4 to 1 pound of rolled barley or corn for each 100 pounds live weight.

If the corn is on the cob, four-fifths of its weight is corn; that is to

say, 5 pounds of corn on the cob has 4 pounds of grain.

Feeding Cut Alfalfa Hay.

Would alfalfa hay, cut, say, from one-half to three inches in length be

better than whole hay for hogs, cattle and horses, and if it is better,

should it be fed wet or dry?

Cattle and horses do much better when fed chopped alfalfa hay than when

fed whole hay. They can eat the required amount in much less time and

with less exertion. For cattle and horses the hay should be cut about

one inch long and fed dry. There is no advantage in chopping alfalfa hay

for hogs unless it is mixed with ground grain and made into slop. - L.

P. Denny.

Storing Cut Alfalfa Hay.

We are planning on cutting our next season's crop of alfalfa with a feed

cutter and storing it in a barn for winter feeding.

The hay must, of course, be thoroughly cured, because of the great

danger of heating in a tight mass. A. Balfour says: "I have been cutting

alfalfa into a barn for wo seasons. It is absolutely necessary to have

the sides and floor tight, and it is easier to feed it if it is in a

loft. The hay is best stacked first, and must be thoroughly cured."

Alfalfa Grinding.

Is the curing of alfalfa for grinding different from ordinary; has it to

be chopped before grinding, and what is the cost of grinding?

Alfalfa hay should be cut when the very first blossoms commence to

appear. At this point the plant contains the greatest amount of protein;

from that time on until seed time, the protein diminishes and fiber

increases. To make meal, hay should be well cured, have gone through the

sweat, and should be dry, or as near dry as possible. It mills easier

when dry and makes a finer product. It should be cured so as to retain

the green color. To grind it, it is not necessary to cut it before

grinding, it mills better if ground just as it comes from the stack. The

cost of milling hay varies with the size of the machine, condition of

hay, whether dry or damp, or whether tough or tender. With larger plants

of a capacity of four to five tons per hour, it costs about 45 cents a

ton to put it in the sack, exclusive of the cost of sacks; and with

smaller, it runs from that on up to $1 to $2 per ton.

Feeding Calves.

How soon can calves be weaned and not hinder their growth? After

weaning, what would you advise to feed them?

After the calf has once nursed, it should be taken away from its mother,

but fed its mother's milk for a few days, depending on the vigor of the

calf. Commence to add skim-milk after a week or ten days, adding a small

amount at first and increasing it daily until the calf is on an entirely

skim-milk diet. The milk must be sweet, it must be as warm as its

mother's milk and the calf must not have too much of it. Four quarts at

a feed twice a day is sufficient for the average sized calf for the

first month, then increase it accordingly. Add a spoonful of ground

flaxseed to each feed and teach the calf to eat a little grain as soon

as possible. Ground barley is the most economical feed to balance a

ration containing so much skim-milk. If calves show a tendency to

looseness of the bowels, feed less milk, and when this does not remedy

the trouble, heat some skim-milk to boiling and when it is cooled to a

proper temperature feed this to the calf. A good grain ration to feed

calves along with skim-milk is ground barley with green alfalfa hay.

When the milk is cut off, feed barley and bran soaked with molasses

water. Put a pint of molasses in a pail of water and dampen feed with

it. This amount will dampen three bushels of feed. - W. M. Carruthers.

Winter Feed for Sheep.

What would be the best to sow for sheep pasture - barley, oats, rye, vetch

or rape?

Of the grains, rye is usually found to be best for quick winter growth,

and rye and vetches sown together are very satisfactory, because the rye

holds the vetches up so that the whole growth can be more successfully

handled with the mower, and if grown that way and fed green in a corral,

a very large amount of good feed can be secured. Sufficient experiments

have not yet been made with rape to fully demonstrate its value. Even if

it grew well, it would be inferior in nutritive value to vetches and

rye.

Balanced Rations.

What is a balanced ration for milk cows and brood sows?

When plenty of alfalfa is available many dairymen feed that alone. It is

better to feed a little corn, grain hay, beet pulp or the beets

themselves to balance up the ration. Some of the best concentrates to

feed to offset alfalfa hay are ground barley and dried beet pulp. The

same thing can be said about the sows. They will consume about 10 pounds

of chopped alfalfa per day and all the skim-milk that is likely to be

given them. Not more than eight pounds of concentrates need be fed, of

which one-fifth may be bran, the same amount, or more, of cocoanut oil

cake, and the rest corn or barley. With plenty of skim-milk and alfalfa,

but little grain or other concentrates will be needed. A few beets will

also go well with alfalfa.

Pasture and Cover Crop.

I am thinking of sowing burr clover with rye to be plowed under in the

spring. Is it good policy to sow rye with clover?

Burr clover and rye would be very satisfactory for sowing, after the

rains, to secure a winter growth for plowing under in March or April, or

earlier if the growth should be large enough to warrant. Such a cover

crop can be pastured lightly to advantage.

Cutting Corn for Silage.

What is the best time to cut corn for the silo? What length is it cut?

Is water put on it when it is put in the silo?

The best time to cut corn for the silo is just as the kernels are

beginning to glaze. It is cut with a proper ensilage cutter into half or

three-quarter inch lengths. No water is used, unless the corn should be

unusually dry, with shriveled leaves; in that case, the use of water to

compensate for the loss of moisture in the stalks and leaves is

desirable.

Fall and Winter Pasturage.

What do you advise for planting in the fall for winter pasture in the

Sacramento valley? Are field peas suitable?

The common California field pea, called Niles pea, the Canadian pea, the

common vetch (which is sometimes called the Oregon vetch because the

seed is largely grown in that State) are all suitable for fall planting

and winter growth because they are not injured by ordinary valley

frosts. Aside from legumes, you can get winter feed from fall-sown rye,

Essex rape or kale.

Summer Pasture for Hogs.

I want to pasture hogs in the San Joaquin valley this spring and summer.

Have water for irrigation, but will not have time to get alfalfa started

sufficient to pasture.

Sorghum can be planted with pumpkins or some root crop between the rows.

The root crop or the pumpkins could be used in the later summer, while

the sorghums could come between the natural grasses of the early spring

and the root crops. A strictly pasturage scheme is to sow wheat or

barley and turn the hogs on this, so that they will eat within certain

prescribed limits. In order to do this, the field needs a shifting

fence, so that the hogs can be driven from one section to another -

never letting the hogs eat too closely, as they will kill off the stand.

Size of a Silo.

I am planning to build a silo 8 feet high and 10 feet across. Will

ensilage (corn, oats) keep well in a silo of those dimensions?

The silo you are intending to build is too shallow, and would hold only

a very small amount of silage. There would be several inches loss of

silage before you could start feeding, and you would have to feed at

least two and probably three inches off per day in order to keep the

food from spoiling. Sixty inches of silage would thus only last about

twenty days. Also, the deeper a silo is, the tighter the ensilage is

packed and the more will be contained in a cubic foot. The following

table will give suggestions as to dimensions:

Diameter. Height. Capacity. Diameter. Height. Capacity.

10 feet 25 feet 36 tons 14 feet 34 feet 115 tons

10 " 28 " 42 " 15 " 34 " 131 "

11 " 29 " 60 " 16 " 35 " 158 "

12 " 32 " 73 " 20 " 35 " 258 "

13 " 33 " 83 "

A cow can consume four tons of silage in 180 days and more or less as

you care to feed, so by figuring out how long you will probably feed,

you can see the size of silo to build at once.

Soiling Crops in California.

What are the dates for planting crops to be used for soiling in your

State?

We are using Indian corn and sorghums of various kinds for soiling to a

certain extent. There is also some cutting and carrying of alfalfa,

although most of the alfalfa is pastured. Dates of planting depend upon

the frost-free period; sometimes beginning in April, and successive

planting for later growth as water may be available for irrigation.

There are places where one can see standing corn and sorghum untouched

by frost as late as December 1. In other locations the growth of these

plants have to be made between May and September. We have also

winter-soiling practiced to a small extent in this State and for that

purpose rye and barley sown at the beginning of the rainy season are

used to some extent.

Brewer's Grains for Cows.

Are sprouted barley grains that may be had from breweries good for milch

cows? Will it increase the milk, or will it dry up the cows?

Professor Henry, in his standard work on "Feeds and Feedings," says:

"Fresh brewer's grains constitute one of the best feeds for the dairy

cow. She is fond of them and they influence most favorably the flow of

milk. Fed while fresh in reasonable quantities, supplemented by bright

hay or corn fodder for dry feed, the grains being kept in tight

feed-boxes which can be kept clean, and with other conditions favorable

to the healthfulness of the cow, no valid objection can be raised

against this form of feed. From 20 to 30 pounds of wet grains should

constitute a day's allowance."

Feeding Pumpkins.

What is the proper way to feed pumpkins to cows? Some say to cut them in

halves; while others say they must be chopped fine enough so that the

cows cannot choke on them. Some tell me the seeds tend to dry the cows

up, and should not be fed with pumpkins.

Pumpkins should be either cut in halves or broken in large fragments so

that the stock can get a bite at them or else should be chopped fine,

and we could never see the advantage of going to that trouble. Cutting

into medium-sized pieces is dangerous because of the temptation to

swallow them whole and thus getting choked. It is not necessary to

remove the seeds.

Feeding a Family Cow.

What shall I feed family Jersey cow in addition to alfalfa hay to insure

a good supply of milk?

One of the best things to feed in addition to alfalfa hay is a couple of

quarts of middling or bran twice a day, with which is mixed a cup of

molasses with enough water to make a nice paste. Dried beet pulp is

exceptionally good with alfalfa, if it is available, this also to be

moistened before feeding.

Rolled Barley for Cows.

Will rolled barley hurt milk cows, say two light feeds a day? Will it

not do about as much good as the same amount of bran?

Certainly not and otherwise will be good if not used in excess to

encourage fattening. Bran is a better feed for milk because it has a

higher protein content.

Horse Beans and Pie-melons.

Would it pay me to raise horse beans for fattening hogs? Horse beans do

well. Would citrons do well there without irrigation, and would they be

better than stock-beets for hog feed?

We do not promise anyone that anything will pay. Horsebeans are good

with other feeds for hogs. Theoretically, they will balance well with

pie-melons and beets, and both the latter will produce well on good land

with proper cultivation in the valley you mention. Theoretically, also,

we would rather have beets than pie-melons. The hogs will tell you the

rest.

Horse Beans.

Are "horse beans" a leguminous crop and how does their feeding value for

hogs compare to cowpeas and Canadian field peas?

They surely are legumes, and they resemble so closely in composition the

other legumes which you mention that their feeding value would be

practically the same.

Storing Stock Beets.

What is the best method of storing stock beets and stock carrots in this

climate? We can let them remain in the ground and grow until February or

March and would like to preserve them for feeding as long as possible.

Stock beets and carrots can be stored in California without recourse to

covering with ground or use of a cellar. They keep very well during the

winter if piled under cover in such a way as to keep cool and dry.

Kale for Cow Feed.

What is kale worth for cow feed as compared with alfalfa, also can it be

cut and cured the same as alfalfa and what variety is the best?

Kale is very similar to cabbage in growth, and for feeding purposes. For

cow feed it would have about three-fourths the amount of digestible

nutrients as green alfalfa, but would have an added value on account of

its succulency. It would go especially well with alfalfa hay. The Jersey

or Thousand-Headed kale is considered the standard for stock or poultry

feed. It is always fed fresh and is not made into hay.

What Kind of Beet for Stock?

Which would be most valuable to plant on river-bottom land for cattle

and hog feed, sugar beets or mangels?

Grow a large stock of beet by all means - either a mangel or a tankard.

Usually you will get more weight than with sugar beets; the cost of

harvesting is far less, and the nutritive contents high enough.

Keeping Pumpkins.

What is the best way of storing pumpkins, under ordinary farm

conditions, in a climate such as we have here in northern California? I

have no facilities for cold storage.

All you have to do in this climate to keep pumpkins is to keep them out

of reach of the stock. They do not need storage of any kind, but will

keep in good condition during the late autumn and winter months in any

open-air place where they may be convenient for feeding purposes. In

parts of California where there is hard ground freezing, protection must

be given by covering with boards or straw or any other material

available. We have no need for root cellars or cold storage, for our

winter temperatures are neither high nor low enough to hurt them.

Grape Pomace as Hog Feed.

What is the value of grape pomace as a hog feed?

It has been sold for 50 cents a ton as it comes from the press at the

winery and when a person has not got any surplus of other feeds, it is

evidently worth that and then some. The only way to feed it is to put it

up in a big pile and let the hogs take it as they want it. It will help

keep them growing through the winter provided they have other feed with

it that might not be sufficient without the pomace.

Proper Feeding of Young Pigs.

If I put two 50-pound shoats to an acre of barley that will yield 10 or

12 sacks of grain, how many months could they be kept there to

advantage, and what gain could I expect them to make in that time?

If the pigs have been properly fed and were of good stock, they should

have attained a weight of 50 pounds at three or four months of age. Pigs

in this condition would be more likely to lose than gain turned on a dry

barley field, even if the yield were double what you state. Barley is an

excellent fattener for mature hogs, but is a poor food for young growing

pigs. Young pigs should have a balanced ration, which may be defined as

a little of almost all kinds of feed and not all of any one kind. We

have pigs running on a barley field such as you describe, and in

addition to the barley we feed them once a day a slop composed of wheat

middling and bran in equal parts by measurement, to which we add about 8

per cent tankage, and they seem to be moving along nicely. Without the

slop we don't think they would hold their own. - Chas. Goodman.

Pie-melons and Pigs.

I have 14 sows which were fed almost entirely on pie-melons and milk,

not much of the latter. Out of the 14, only 3 sows have saved any pigs;

the rest lost all the young they had. Four or five sows that for the

last three weeks have had no melons, nothing but green grass and a

little whole barley each day, are saving their pigs all right.

Pie-melons are poor feed and pigs which are not given anything better

ought to fail. "Green grass and a little whole barley" is much better

feed than pie-melons. Pie-melons are useful fed with alfalfa hay or some

richer food.

Wheat or Barley for Hogs.

Which would be the better grain for me to buy for hog feed; wheat at

$1.30 per hundred, or barley at $1? Would it be worth paying 10 cents a

hundred for rolling, and then haul the grain 8 miles by wagon?

Wheat is only considered about 10 per cent more valuable as a hog feed

than barley, so that in your case, barley at $1 is the cheaper. In

Bulletin 80 of the Oregon Station it was found that crushed wheat was 29

per cent more efficient than the whole grain, and it is safe to say that

barley will run about the same, enough so at any rate to pay the extra

10 cents a hundred for crushing and the hauling.

Grain and Pasture for Pigs.

What is the most profitable amount of grain to feed to spring pigs while

on alfalfa pasture, from the time of weaning to the time of marketing?

We doubt the profit of feeding whole grain to hogs of any age while on

green pasture. On almost all kinds of land they will get enough grit to

keep their teeth sore, hence they will not masticate the grain

thoroughly. Perfect mastication is very essential. We would feed the

pigs all the slop that they would clean up good twice a day. The slop to

be composed of equal parts of corn, barley meal ground fine, and wheat

middlings mixed with milk. There is nothing in all the world like milk

for growing pigs. If milk is not to be had, we would add from 5 to 10

per cent meat meal, which we consider next to milk. If whole grain is to

be used, it should be thoroughly cooked on account of the pigs' teeth

not being in condition to chew the hard grain. - Chas. Goodman.

Growing Pigs on Roots and Barley.

We can raise all kinds of root crops, such as carrots, sugar beets,

rutabagas, etc., and cow peas and pumpkins do wonderfully well. Will

hogs do well an that kind of diet, especially if given a little barley

with it?

The plants that you mention are good for hog feeding and can be used to

advantage with a little barley as you suggest. None of these plants are,

however, rich in protein as alfalfa and the other clovers are. The

reason why we get such a rapid and satisfactory growth of young hogs in

California is due to the fact that they are largely kept on alfalfa and

rapid growth is the product of a sufficient protein content in the

fodder. Both common field peas and cowpeas do not possess this element,

and if you can grow them they will serve as a substitute for the other

legumes, such as alfalfa. If you are feeding skim-milk, which is rich in

protein, roots and grain will go well with that.

Wheat and Barley for Feeding.

What is the difference in the feeding value of wheat and barley for hogs

and horses?

There is very little difference in the chemical composition of wheat and

barley. In their physical condition there is much difference, chiefly

because of the adhering chaff of the barley, which makes it more

digestible because it separates the starchy mass and enables the gastric

juice to work upon the particles more readily and quickly. Oats also

have this character. This is very important in the case of horses, which

can quickly be put out of condition by feeding wheat. For hogs and

chickens it makes much less difference, and the absence of the chaff

gives a greater amount of nutritive matter to the ton, so that wheat is

worth more at the same ton price. But look out about giving horses too

much wheat.

Part VII. Diseases of Animals

This division is largely compiled from the writings of Dr. E. J. Creely

of the San Francisco Veterinary College.

Abscess of Parotid Gland.

My horse has had a bad cold and it has a large lump on its neck which

keeps running and does not seem to get any better; it has been running

for two weeks.

This horse has an abscess of the parotid gland and the abscess should be

opened large enough so that the finger can be introduced to break down

adhesions, so that proper drainage can be established, after which wash

out with a 5 per cent solution of permanganate of potash. As this is a

dangerous location for a layman to interfere with, owing to the

branching of the carotid artery, pneumogastric nerve and jugular vein,

it should be done by a qualified veterinarian.

Forage Poisoning.

Last fall one of our horses was taken ill and had a swollen jaw. He died

soon and we supposed that he had been kicked and died of lockjaw. This

spring another was taken ill. He began dragging around, making an effort

to eat and drink, but not being able to swallow much. Something seemed

wrong with his throat and his hind legs. In two or three days he got

down, seeming to have no strength in his back. He kept struggling for

two days, not being able to swallow much; so we put him out of his

misery. Since then two others have gone off the same way.

The trouble is due to forage poisoning, caused by the eating food

infested with poisonous moulds. The symptoms are inability to swallow

(paralysis of the muscles of deglutition) and paresis of the hind and

forequarters. When the symptoms become advanced, treatment is of little

avail. However, further troubles can be prevented by ascertaining the

food which is infested with this mould. Ofttimes, however, such food may

be apparently clean to the eye. Make a complete change of food and a

thorough cleaning of your stable and corrals of all old fodder which

might be in the mangers, or in any accessible place. Very frequently old

food which is left in the bottom of mangers becomes mouldy, and horses

picking for grain which might be left in it, eat considerable quantities

of this spoiled fodder, get poisoned.

For a Scabby Swelling.

One of my cows has a swelling on her hind leg with little scabs on it,

first it was on the front leg. It is as big as your hand.

Use the following, applied once daily: Olive oil, 1 pint; turpentine, 2

ounces; oil cedar, 2 ounces; lysol, 1 ounce; mix and apply.

An Easement in Bloat.

What can be done for bloating?

It does not seem to be generally known that to put a bridle on a cow or

put a stick in her mouth and tie tightly with a string or strap up over

her head, so as to keep her jaws working, will relieve bloat. We have

given common soda and salt with good results to our milk cows. Take a

whip and run her around the corral, after giving the soda. This

treatment causes the wind to pass off.

Fatal Skin Disease.

About two months ago a horse was turned out in pasture. Several of the

horses in the pasture started to lose their hair. It seemed to fall away

from the hide, and leave the skin exposed. The horse that was newly

turned to pasture got the same disease and died. The other horses did

not die. The hair on the horse that had died had fallen off from the

sides and hind legs.

This is gangrenous dermatis, a gangrenout inflammation of the skin. It

is due to mould, must or vegetable fungi. Remove to a new pasture, give

food free from the fungi, and apply the following ointment to the skin:

Lanoline, 8 ounces; zinc oxide, 1 ounce; Pearson's Creoline, 1/2 ounce;

tannin, 3 drachms; mix and apply once daily.

Shoulder Injury on Mare.

A young mare that bruised her shoulder on the point with collar. It was

lanced and now has a hard lump or callous, about three inches in

diameter. What is best to do? She is not lame, but it would interfere

with the collar.

Get a qualified veterinarian to operate and entirely remove the growth

or you may use the following mixture to see if it will not cause it to

partly absorb and then use a dutch collar or a specially padded collar:

Compound tinct. iodine, 4 ounces; sulphuric ether, 2 ounces; oil cedar,

2 ounces; turpentine, 4 ounces; mix and apply once daily until

blistered.

Horse with Worms.

What is the best remedy for a horse that has worms? I would like to

know, as I have a horse that is getting poor with this trouble.

Mix 1/2 pound pulverized and dried iron sulphate and 1/2 pound

bicarbonate of soda, and give one teaspoonful each morning until the

medicine is gone. After the last dose give the following: Turpentine, 2

ounces; fluid extract male fern, 1/2 ounce; Pearson's Creolins, 1 ounce;

raw linseed oil, 1 pint. Mix and give all at one dose. To improve the

general condition one may give artificial Carlsbad salts, 1

tablespoonful in each feed, and each dose to have added to it 3 to 5

grains arsenious acid. If plenty rock salt is allowed for horses to

lick, they will be protected against intestinal parasites to a slight

but useful degree.

Is It Mange?

We have a horse five years old that is always scratching and biting

himself as if he had mange or lice. He seems to itch more on his

shoulders and front legs than any other place. We have washed him with a

carbolic wash, also with a tea made from tobacco, but so far have been

unable to stop it. He often bites his legs below the knees until he

takes off all the hair and part of the skin. None of the other horses

are, troubled, although this horse has been troubled for three years.

Apply the following: Lysol, 1 ounce; kerosene, 4 ounces; formalin, 2

drachms; cotton seed oil, 9 ounces. Mix and apply once daily after

washing with hot sheep dip solution 10 to 100.

Horse with Itch.

For about a year my horse has been itching so badly that he has rubbed

off all the hair on certain parts of his body. Lately he bites his tail.

Whitewash the stall once weekly, scrub the harness, brushes, combs and

every stable appliance that he has come in contact with. Don't use the

same appliance on other animals that you use on this horse. Use the

following mixture once daily on affected spots: Milk of sulphur, 4

ounces; tincture of iodine, 4 ounces; turpentine, 4 ounces; kerosene, 16

ounces; cottonseed oil, 120 ounces.

For a Bowel Trouble.

What can I do to relieve a horse that balls up on alfalfa at the time of

the first symptoms? I have been bothered considerably with this, and

although I know the symptoms, I can never seem to relieve the pain

before the veterinary is called.

Give the following prescription: Fluid extract Cannabis Indica, 3

ounces; sulphuric ether, 2 ounces; spirits turpentine, 3 ounces; oil

peppermint, 10 drops; raw linseed oil, 24 ounces. Mix. Give one-half at

once, balance in one hour. If not relieved give several hotwater

soap-sud injections.

Abnormal Thirst of Horse.

I have a horse with an abnormal desire for water. I notice that in

drinking she always wants more than the others. I also notice she

perspires more freely in the harness and even will sweat in the barn at

night.

Your horse has kidney affection, probably due to feeding hay rich in

alkalines. Treatment: Change the feed and give 1 quart of thick flaxseed

tea three times daily.

Scours.

Kindly recommend a treatment for a horse troubled with scours. He is on

dry feed, but the trouble continues.

Give very little water mornings and while worked, but give plenty at

night. Feed dry rolled oats, oat hay, one handful of whole flaxseed at

night, and the following powder: Bismuth subgalate, 4 ounces; iron

sulphate, dessicated, 8 ounces; bismuth subnitrate, 8 ounces. Mix, and

give a heaping teaspoonful each morning.

Depraved Appetite.

I have a colt about one year old that continually delights in chewing up

harness, ropes, chews on the manger and, in fact, anything it can get a

hold of.

This is a condition caused by something being lacking in the system

(lime, salts, etc.). Give plenty of salt, good food, grain, etc. Get

this prescription: Iron sulphate, 2 ounces; soda syposulphate, 4 ounces;

Gentian root pulv., 2 ounces; ginger, 1 ounce. Mix and give teaspoonful

daily.

Good Dentist Needed.

I have an old horse which has always been fat and quite full of life

until right lately. Now he is getting thin and looks bad. He eats his

food all right. I had his teeth fixed a few weeks ago. The man said they

were bad and he fixed them as well as he could.

There is probably an excessively long molar projecting into a cavity and

the projecting molar should be cut off by a qualified veterinarian. The

horse will begin to pick up and grow fat almost as soon as the condition

is relieved. Most horse owners will permit every person with a float to

ruin a horse's mouth without inquiring whether the dentist possesses

proper qualifications as certified by a State license and diploma.

Kidney Trouble.

My horse has some trouble in passing water. What can I give him that may

be put in the mash? I don't think his trouble is due all to old age, for

it didn't come on gradually.

Give gran. sal nitre: a teaspoonful daily in water is good to stimulate

the kidneys.

For Chronic Indigestion.

I have given my horse condition powders for indigestion, but her hair is

rough still. Do you advise feeding on the road when a horse leaves the

stable at 10 a. m., traveling continually for thirty miles, returning

5:30 p. m., being fed at 7 a. m.?

A great majority of condition powders contain resin and antimony. While

a slight amount may be beneficial, continued use results in affection of

the kidneys by over-stimulation. Give the following for indigestion:

Bismuth subintrate, 1 ounce; powdered pepsine, 1 ounce; soda bi

carbonate, 12 ounces; carbonate iron, 2 ounces. Mix and give a heaping

teaspoon twice daily. By all means feed your horse three times daily and

water as often as you can. It is unnecessary to warn you that the horse

must not be overheated when you give the noonday feed.

Wound Sore.

My colt got its hind leg cut on barbed wire some weeks ago. There is a

hole about an inch and one-half deep in the center of the sore which

will not heal. The inside of the sore does not seem very tender, but the

leg stays swollen all of the time and is somewhat feverish.

This is probably a fistulous track that should be curetted by a

veterinarian, after which the following formula could be used to heal:

Acetanilide, 1/2 ounce; zinc oxide, 1/4 ounce; bismuth subgalate, 1 1/4

ounce. Mix and apply on cotton and bandage once daily after washing.

Warts on Horse.

How can warts be removed from a horse's hide?

We use sulphuric acid. The results were favorable from the very start.

The warts rapidly shrunk away and finally disappeared entirely. The acid

is applied to the crown of the wart with a small swab or similar

instrument, and only in sufficient quantities to wet the crown surface

of the wart. It should be applied about three times a week until the

wart is well reduced. Don't use too much acid, and don't keep up the

application too long - A. F. Etter.

Kidney Trouble in Horse.

What is the remedy for a horse that stops often to urinate while

working?

The horse is affected by an irritation of the kidneys. Give 1 quart of

flaxseed tea daily, change the food and give 1 drachm of C. P.

hydro-chloric acid in one bucket of drinking water.

Castration of Colt.

Which is the correct and best way to castrate a yearling colt, with an

emasculator or a blade, and when is the proper time?

An emasculator is the only instrument to use in castrating. The object

in using any instrument is to prevent a hemorrhage, and nothing works

with so much certainty and quickness. The A. Hausman and Dunn

emasculator is recommended. The proper time is when the weather is mild,

the grass at its best and the colt in good condition.

For a Chronic Cough.

We have a mare seven years old that is troubled with a chronic cough,

and at times shows symptoms of heaves, and also has occasionally a white

foamy discharge from the nostrils. She is a greedy eater and drinker and

her excreta is often very offensive.

If she expels flatus when she coughs, this would indicate a

predisposition to heaves. Wet all food, as dry or dusty food aggravates

the cough. Give the following: Spirits camphor, 4 ounces; Fl. Ext.

belladonna, 2 ounces; neutral oil, 8 ounces; oil eucalyptus, 2 ounces.

Mix and give tablespoonful three times daily.

Chronic Indigestion.

I have a mare eleven years old. Give her plenty of oats, hay, grain and

a little alfalfa hay three nights per week and leave salt where she can

get at it, but she is falling off and her hair does not lie down

properly. She eats well and her system seems to be in good condition.

Have had her teeth attended to so she chews her food well.

This condition is caused by the animal not being able to properly

masticate the food. Have your dentist examine the mouth again, or you

can carefully examine the feces and see if it shows whole grain, or long

pieces of hay.

For Short-Wind or Heaves.

I have a mare that has something wrong with her wind. About six months

ago I noticed her wind was not good and she had a slight cough, and

about a week later, while working her, she seemed to choke down and

almost died before she got her wind, and since then she sometimes takes

those spells should she trot off briskly for a short distance.

Give two 3/2-ounce doses of Fowler's solution arsenic daily. Dusty or

musty hay will aggravate the symptoms. Thoroughly shake out the dust and

wet the hay. Feed hay only at night. Give the animal as little feed and

water as possible before being put to work. Continue this treatment one

month if necessary. The following is a case of experience with this

treatment: For a remedial agent we began to use Fowler's Solution of

Arsenic, in two teaspoonful doses at first. once a day, put in the water

with which the hay was moistened. These doses were given for a few days,

then skipped for a day, then continued for five or six days again. This

treatment has been continued. At times when the trouble was most severe,

giving a great spoonful at a dose, twice a day for two days, then

stopping for a day or two, always being sure to mix it with the water

which the hay is moistened, so that it shall be taken into the stomach

very slowly. This course of treatment has served to so relieve the

disease that nature has nearly or quite overcome it.

Side-Bone.

I have a 1500-pound 3-year-old colt with small brittle feet that has

side bone coming on left front foot caused by driving him barefoot on

the road two or three months ago.

A good blister of the following once every six weeks for three times

will stop the side-bones from growing. Side-bones on a draft horse are

not considered an unsoundness; in light fast drivers it is an incurable

blemish causing lameness. Side-bones cannot be removed. Use this

blister: Simple cerate, 4 ounces; cantharides, 3 drachms; bin iodide

mercury, 2 drachms. Mix thoroughly and apply after clipping hair.

Fungus Poisoning.

One of my mares, every evening after a full day's work harrowing, stands

for an hour or so with her head to the ground, shaking it frequently and

not touching the feed till the spell was over. She does not seem to be

any worse off, and in the morning seems to be in good shape.

This is due to a mold or fungus in the earth or hay. Let them have

access to plenty of water during the day. In the morning feed give a

handful of sodium hyposulphate.

Treatment for Horse's Feet.

The soles of the fore feet of a fine 4-year-old horse, weight 1350, are

rather spongy and grow down faster than the hoof, sometimes causing

slight lameness. He is not on soft pasture, but is stabled all the time.

Now have bar shoes on him. What treatment do you recommend?

Use leather, tar and okum and a dish-shoe.

For a Cleft Hoof.

I have a horse with a cracked hoof. One hind foot has been in a bad

condition, the other seems to be beginning to crack. Can anything be

done by feeding or otherwise to toughen the hoofs and render them less

liable to crack?

Apply the following: Honey, 2 ounces; yellow wax, 4 ounces; tar, 2

ounces; olive oil, 8 ounces. Melt, mix and apply once daily.

Stiff Joints.

I have a horse that was bruised on the ankle about two years ago. This

is now producing an enlargement of the bone and stiffness of the joint.

Apply the following liniment: Sulphuric ether, 1 ounce; tinct. iodine, 1

ounce; pulv. camphor, 1 ounce; alcohol, ounces; turpentine, 2 ounces;

oil of cedar, 2 ounces.

Treatment for Nail Puncture.

Our horse got a nail in his foot. It was a wire nail, rusty, entering

about one inch from the point of the frog, and just puncturing far

enough to reach a sensitive part of the hoof. It occurred six days ago;

the nail was pulled at once, the hoof cut open, and thoroughly cleaned

with turpentine (the first thing we could get), then later filled with

iodine. Since then I have kept on a flaxseed poultice.

The treatment with turpentine and iodine was proper and should prove a

success. If the foot becomes tender and inflamed, it will be because all

dirt was not removed from the wound, and the poultice should be taken

off, all foreign matter removed from the wound, and the treatment

repeated. In case of similar accidents, other disinfectants could be

used in place of turpentine or iodine.

Pregnancy of Mare.

Is there any way to tell when a mare is in foal? I have had a

veterinarian and he could not tell me.

There is no very good way to tell whether a mare is in foal for some

time. Practically speaking, the safest way to do is to have her bred

every time she comes in heat until she takes the stallion no longer.

Even then some mares will come in heat a couple of times after getting

in foal. If the sexual excitement speedily subsides and the mare

persistently refuses the stallion for a month, she is probably pregnant,

though not surely so. Also if a vicious mare becomes gentle after

service it is an excellent indication of pregnancy; likewise pregnant

mares will very often put on fat rapidly after conception and will be

unable and unwilling to do as hard work as before. Enlargement of the

abdomen, especially in its lower third, with slight falling in beneath

the loins and hollowness of the back are significant symptoms, though

they may be entirely absent. Swelling and firmness of the udder, with

the smoothing out of its wrinkles, is a suggestive sign, even though it

appears only at intervals during gestation. A steady increase of weight

(1 1/4 pounds daily) about the fourth or fifth month is a useful

indication of pregnancy. The further along the mare is in gestation the

more pronounced the symptoms become. In the early stages it is naturally

much more difficult to detect, especially with the great differences in

different mares. Cessation of heat and changes of disposition are about

the best signs in early stages.

Diseased Uterus of Mare.

I have a brood mare that has given me two fine colts, but for the last

two years I have not been able to get her with foal. She takes service

and then refuses service for three or four months, and about the time I

come to the conclusion that she is safe with foal she will pass off

great quantities of mattery substance. I have had her thoroughly washed

out with Lysol previous to breeding, but so far she has repeated this

performance each time about three or four months after service.

This is a disease of the ovaries or uterus; perhaps mumification of a

foetus. Irrigate with a normal salt solution (teaspoon salt to each pint

of warm water) only daily. Insert the solution through the neck of the

womb into the uterus. Give internally 1/2 ounce daily of Fowler's

Solution of Arsenic.

Deep-Seated Abscess.

I have a mule which has a swelling on the throat about where the

throatlatch touches. It just seems to be swollen hard and not sore. I am

using caustic liniment to fester it so it will come to a head and I can

open it, but the liniment does not seem to do much good. The mule is

losing flesh and does not eat much.

This mule should be operated upon at once by a qualified veterinarian.

The application of liniments or blisters are useless; the knife only

will effect a cure. The fact that the mule is losing flesh makes the

case serious.

Cure for Cocked Ankles.

I have a 4-year-old mare that has cocked ankles, and would like to know

what treatment to give her.

Cocked ankles are due to an inflammation of the tendons back of the

ankle and a drawing up or contraction in consequence. Put on heel calks

one inch, no toe, to rest and relieve the back tendons from strain.

Apply the following liniment at night, after which put on cold-water

swabs and let them remain all night: Soap liniment, 8 ounces; tincture

iodine, 2 ounces; oil cedar, 4 ounces; sulphuric ether, 2 ounces. Mix

and apply once daily.

Dehorning.

Which is the best way to dehorn cows and calves?

The best time to dehorn cows is in the spring, before the fly season

starts. It is best not to have a cow too far along in calf before

dehorning, as she is very apt to lose her calf. It is also better to

dehorn before your cows freshen, because when cows are milking and are

dehorned they will go back in their milk a great deal for the first

month after the dehorning has taken place. Calves can be dehorned by

blistering the little buttons before they adhere to the skull. This is

very simple and not painful. First clip the hair about the horns and wet

the little loose button and apply caustic potash, in stick form, by

rubbing it on the damp horn. Remember, this must be done before the horn

adheres to the skull. Also remember not to use water enough to run the

lye away from the button and rub until the skin reddens. Also, look out

to keep your end of the potash stick dry or you may dehorn the tips of

your fingers.

Paralysis During Pregnancy.

I have a cow that will freshen in a few days. About six days ago she

seemed weak in her hind legs and on going downhill would drag or stumble

for 10 or 12 feet, then catch herself and go on rather wobbly.

Pregnant animals about to bring forth their young sometimes show a

paralysis or loss of power in their hind parts due to pressure of

foetus. Nature corrects this after birth.

Bloody Milk.

What can be done to stop bloody milk?

Milk each teat in a separate glass jar, let stand to ascertain which

teat the red specks are coming from, then milk the teats clean and

inject the infected teat with equal parts of hydrogen dioxide and water.

After a few hours inject 4 drachms of ferric chloride in 1 ounce of

water. Then milk clean.

To Cleanse Cows.

My cows are healthy and calves all right, but seem to have trouble

throwing the afterbirth.

Wash out twice daily with about 1 gallon of normal salt solution

(teaspoonful of salt to each pint of warm water). Give internally the

following powder: Pulv. gentian, 4 ounces; puv. slippery elm, 1 ounce;

puv. charcoal, 1 ounce; pulv. hyposulphate of soda. 8 ounces. Mix and

give a heaping teaspoonful twice daily.

Treatment for Caked Bag.

I have a cow whose udder is caked hard and has been swollen from the

udder to the forelegs. This latter swelling has gone down by applying

equal mixture of turpentine and lard, but the udder itself still remains

hard. When first noticed, one teat caked, then another, until all four

are caked alike.

Insert a milk tube and inject the following: Hydrogen dioxide, 8 ounces;

tincture iron chloride, 1 ounce; water, 7 ounces. Inject into each

affected teat. Apply the following externally: Camphorated oil, 8

ounces; tincture belladonna, 2 ounces; oil eucalyptus, 2 ounces. Mix and

apply twice daily.

Garget.

I have a cow which gave rich milk all the time, but now every time I

milk her some yellow, hard substance will come out instead of milk.

First from one teat, then the next, and when I strain the milk the

strainer will be full of hard yellow specks.

Your cow has undoubtedly been affected with garget. This milk should not

be used. The condition is best treated by massaging the udder every day

with camphorated oil. It will also be necessary for you to continue to

milk her regularly until about six weeks before she is due to freshen,

at which time you should proceed to dry her up.

Infectious Mastitis.

We have a 2-year-old heifer, which, two weeks before she was due to

freshen, had a large udder slightly caked. Upon pressing the teat a

discharge of blood issues from each teat.

This is infectious mastitis. It may be due to a bruise or blow or

infection introduced through the milk duct. The first is most likely.

Apply camphorated oil externally and inject into the affected udder some

hydrogen dioxide (peroxide of hydrogen. - EDITOR.). After ten minutes,

milk out again. Repeat once daily.

A Mangy Cow.

I have a milk cow with some trouble about her head, neck and shoulders,

which causes her to rub herself enough to make raw spots and take off

most all of the hair from the parts affected. The trouble has been

standing for 18 months, but I have been using medicine at different

times, which stops the rubbing, and the part will cover with hair nicely

again, but in due time the trouble shows up again.

This cow seems to have mange or scabbies, which is caused by a parasite

and is easily spread by contact to other cattle. It should be treated by

two or three applications, ten days apart, of a hot solution of creolin,

well scrubbed into the skin. The solution is made by mixing five

tablespoonfuls of creolin in a gallon of hot water. The treatment should

be applied pretty well over the body to cover all the affected parts,

and needs to be repeated in ten days to destroy the younger generation.

The sheds should be cleaned and whitewashed.

Irritation on Back of Udder.

I have a yearling heifer which has sore teats and blotches just back of

her bag which seem to itch. Her mother had a sort of eczema on her neck.

I fear her sore teats will spoil her for milking when she comes in next

year.

The following treatment is advised: Drench with 1 pound of Epsom salts

dissolved in a couple quarts of water. The sores may be treated by

washing them with a 2 per cent solution of one of the coaltar

disinfectants, such as creolin. After the sores have been allowed to dry

naturally, a very little powdered calomel may be dusted thereon. Do this

every other day for a few days.

Enlarged Gland on Neck.

I have a calf that has a lump on her neck, which appeared when she was

two days old. The lump is getting larger.

This is probably an enlarged thyroid gland. Apply the following once

daily for several weeks and let it alone unless it becomes too large or

gets very soft, which is unlikely. Churchill's tincture iodine, 8

ounces; turpentine, 1 ounce; sulphuric ether, 2 ounces; oil aniseed, 1/2

ounce. Mix and apply once daily.