various elements, the result accomplished in reading will depend largely
upon the methods of the teacher in preparing his work for each day’s
reading. Before beginning the reading and study of a piece of literature
with a class, the teacher should make a careful study of the whole,
analyzing and outlining it, so that the relation of each part to the
expression and development of the theme may be clearly determined. With
this outline before him the teacher can plan each day’s reading more
readily and intelligently. Every recitation in reading should be
carefully planned by the teacher in order that each part of the work may
receive emphasis proportionate to its importance and that something
definite may be accomplished toward a better appreciation of the whole.
Owing to the fact that the study of literature is radically different
from any other subject which the high school pupils pursue, much
attention must be given to teaching them how to read and study a piece
of literature. In assigning the lesson in reading, the teacher should
indicate clearly to the pupils what they are to do, and as far as
possible, how they are to do it. Failure of the pupils to understand
clearly what is desired of them, is the cause of many a poorly prepared
recitation in English. A well planned outline with the important points
to be considered in studying the day’s lesson, or a series of questions
concerning these points, will serve to give direction to the pupils’
preparation from day to day, and in the end will teach them how to read
and study literature.
In connection with the reading, pupils should be encouraged to memorize
the whole or parts of many of the pieces of literature studied in class.
In every year of the course the teacher should select passages from the
reading that are worth memorizing, and should urge the pupils to learn
them. To make a task of this memorizing is not desirable, nor is it at
all necessary, for pupils will usually respond willingly to the
teacher’s suggestion as to the value of learning choice selections of
prose and poetry. The value of knowing and being able to quote many of
the finest passages in English and American literature cannot be
overestimated.
2. Reading Aloud
Some attention should generally be given to reading aloud intelligently.
A part of each recitation may be devoted to giving the pupils practice
in distinct, accurate pronunciation, and in reading with sufficient
expression to interpret the meaning. The teacher can do much toward
showing the pupils how to read by reading to them from time to time, and
then having them read the same selection. The frequent practice of
devoting a considerable part of the recitation period to reading aloud
in class by the pupils without individual correction or helpful
suggestion by the teacher is a waste of time. As few high school pupils,
particularly in the first two years of their course, read sufficiently
well to interpret a piece of literature for their classmates continued
reading aloud in class by the pupils is an uninteresting exercise that
is more likely to decrease than increase the pupils’ interest, pleasure,
or appreciation. If the assignment has been read and studied carefully
by the pupils in preparation for the recitation, the only purpose of
having any portion of it read aloud in class must be to give the pupils
practice in reading clearly, accurately, and intelligently. To be of
value this practice must be systematic and must be regarded as an
exercise in expression. Careful preparation by the pupils including
practice in reading aloud at home, and helpful criticism by the teacher,
are as essential for success in exercises in reading aloud as in other
forms of expression. Since training in reading aloud is neither the
primary nor the secondary aim of the study of literature, the time to be
devoted to these exercises in the class room must necessarily be very
limited.
As the ability to read well depends in part upon the management of the
voice, some attention may be given from time to time to the fundamental
principles of vocal expression. Occasional instruction in class in
correct breathing, the control of the voice, the position of the vocal
organs in the formation of the different sounds, and the care of the
voice, supplemented by exercises for individual practice, will aid
materially in improving the character of the vocal expression not only
in reading but also in recitation and conversation.
3. Choice of Reading
To carry out effectively the plan for the correlation of the reading and
composition work, and to provide a well graded course of reading adapted
to the maturity and ability of the pupils, the greatest care must be
exercised in the selection of masterpieces of literature to be read and
studied in class. Beginning with the simple prose narrative in the form
of short stories, tales, and sketches in the first year, the work should
proceed by regular gradations to more difficult types. For the first two
years of the course, during which one-half of the time allotted to
English is devoted to work in composition, the reading should be chosen
with regard to the principles of composition and forms of discourse that
are to be considered, so that a close correlation may be made between
the two elements of the course. In the third year the study of the
history of English literature will determine the order in which the
authors are to be taken up, but the character and maturity of the pupils
must be considered in the choice of authors and selections for reading
and study in class. Again in the fourth year the same elements must
determine the choice. It is impossible to prescribe certain books to be
read in each year, since the character of the pupils in different
schools and in different classes in the same school, makes necessary a
selection of reading adapted to local conditions.
Although in the number and variety of the books the list of college
entrance requirements in English is now sufficiently large to meet the
needs of the average school, it is not necessary to confine the
selection of material for study in class to this list. On page 50 of
this bulletin is given a list of the selections adapted for reading and
study, together with suggestions as to the years in the course in which
they can be read to the best advantage.
In selecting editions of the masterpieces for reading in class, the
purpose and methods of the reading should not be forgotten. If the pupil
is to be taught to work out the meaning of unfamiliar words, figures,
and allusions, it is undesirable to give him this information on every
page in the form of foot-notes explanatory of many things that with a
little effort he might find in reference books. Elaborate introductions
in which the structure and style of the masterpiece are fully discussed
are equally undesirable, since they tend to make unnecessary any
original thought or analysis on the part of the pupils. The text of the
masterpiece with a few notes explanatory of unusual difficulties is all
that is necessary in order to carry on successfully the study of any
selection.
4. Library Reading
Throughout the course in English, the pupils ought to be urged, if not
actually required, to read considerable good literature in addition to
that read and studied in class. A list of standard books as large and as
wide in range of subjects as the library facilities of the school make
possible, should be prepared each year, and the pupils should be
encouraged to read as many of these books as their time permits. Reading
that is done on the pupil’s own initiative is many times more valuable
than that which he does simply because of a formal requirement. If the
plan is followed of requiring that a certain number of books be read,
precaution must be taken against making the outside reading a formal
task rather than a pleasure. The teacher can do much toward interesting
the pupils in the library reading. By reading aloud to the class a
chapter or two of a book, he may lead many of the pupils to read the
whole book. By referring in the class work to the characters, plots, and
other details of the books on the reading list, or by quoting from them,
he will often arouse the pupils’ curiosity and create a desire to read
the books. By considering the tastes and needs of the individual pupils,
he can suggest to each the books most likely to be of the greatest
interest and value. To create and develop the desire to read good
literature outside of the class room, is one of the greatest privileges
of the teacher of English.
In general the plan of having a written review, outline, or summary of
these books, either as a part of the composition or the reading work, is
to be discouraged. Since the writing of a book review is a difficult
task for a man or woman of broad education, it is too much to expect
that the immature high school pupil will be able to do it with any
degree of intelligence or interest. The fact constantly emphasized by
such a method, that every book which he reads must serve as material for
a book review, a summary, or an examination, often defeats the purpose
of his outside reading, since it tends to create a dislike rather than a
love for reading. The books read by pupils may sometimes be discussed in
class, however, as a means of arousing interest in the outside reading,
and frequently pupils may be led to express their opinions freely, and
spontaneously concerning the books under discussion. If the pupils can
be turned from an oral to a written discussion of the book more or less
spontaneously, there is less danger in having an occasional written
exercise based on the library reading.
V
FIRST YEAR ENGLISH
In outlining the work of the first year, it is assumed that English will
be pursued for five periods a week throughout the year. Of this time
one-half should be devoted to composition, and one-half to reading.
These two phases of the first year English, as has already been
indicated, should be closely correlated, and must, of course, be taught
by the same teacher. By suggesting that one-half of the time be devoted
to each phase of the subject, it is not intended, as has already been
said, that the time should be formally divided. Instead of setting aside
two or three periods a week for composition it is frequently more
satisfactory to devote a portion of each period to a study of the
principles of composition as exemplified in the reading or to a
discussion of subjects for composition, and thus not to interrupt the
continuity of the reading.
In Wisconsin high schools the present course of study for one course,
generally called the English course, presents one serious difficulty in
connection with first year English; i. e., the arrangement by which
grammar and composition for five periods a week and reading and
composition for five periods a week are required of all pupils in this
course. It is manifestly undesirable for any pupils in the first year to
pursue two courses in English for ten periods a week throughout the
year. This arrangement gives the pupils in this course seven and
one-half periods of composition work during the second semester if the
course in grammar and composition is divided so that grammar is required
in the first semester and composition in the second. It also divides the
composition work between two separate classes, part of the instruction
in composition being given in the course in grammar and composition and
part in the course in reading and composition. Since instruction in the
principles of composition without practice is of little value especially
for the immature pupils in the first year, and since from five to seven
and a half periods is too much time to devote to composition when the
amount of practice that is possible or even desirable is necessarily
limited, the best solution of the problem seems to be to devote the time
to additional reading and not to attempt to give more than two and a
half periods, the amount assigned for other courses, to composition
work. The question of teaching grammar is considered on page 32.
1. Composition
The object of the first year in composition should be to encourage
pupils to express freely their own ideas and impressions. Fluency of
expression is to be encouraged by every possible means. The most
effective method of developing this free and fluent expression is to
have the pupils write on subjects in which they are most interested. It
is sometimes said that the difficulty in writing themes in the first
year lies in the fact that the pupils have nothing to write about from
their own experience, and that therefore subjects must be drawn largely
from the reading; that is, pupils must reproduce others’ thoughts rather
than express their own. It seems doubtful whether this paucity of ideas
really exists, for it is indeed a stupid girl or boy in the first year
at high school who is not interested in many things in active everyday
life, and who does not talk constantly of these things to schoolmates
and friends. It is doubtless true that the pupil often does not consider
his simple experiences of sufficient importance to be the subjects of
his compositions and must therefore be led by the teacher to see the
possibilities which they contain. It is the duty of the teacher of
composition, as has been said, to familiarize himself with the
surroundings of his pupils, and to interest himself in their various
activities in and out of school. It is only by such sympathy and
interest that he can get his pupils to express themselves freely in
their themes. Experience has shown that the daily life of the individual
pupil, and the varied activities of the school can be made to furnish
practically all of the theme subjects not only for first year
composition, but also for that of the other three years.
While fluency and spontaneity of expression should be encouraged in
every way possible, the teacher must also insist on accuracy in details
of expression. The common errors in grammar, spelling, capitalization,
punctuation, and other matters of form should be corrected constantly,
and by the end of the first year all such mistakes should be fairly well
eliminated from the average pupil’s work. In connection with the
correction of errors in the themes, the rules of spelling,
capitalization, punctuation, and grammar may be reviewed to advantage
from time to time.
2. English Grammar
It is not desirable to take up formally the study of English, grammar as
a regular part of first year English. Whenever the plan of devoting a
semester or a term to English grammar has been tried, it has been
conceded that the course has not been very successful. The cause of this
is not far to seek. Since the pupils have been drilled in grammar in the
seventh and eighth grades, a repetition of the subject at the beginning
of the high school course invariably proves distasteful, and it is
extremely difficult if not practically impossible to arouse any interest
in the subject. High school pupils in the first year are too immature to
take up the subject from a point of view materially different from that
from which it was studied in the grades. The work, consequently, is done
in a perfunctory manner, and seems to have little practical result in
the pupils’ written or spoken English. It is the general experience,
nevertheless, that a number of pupils entering the high school are
deficient in their knowledge of the most elementary principles of
English grammar, and that they are therefore somewhat handicapped in
taking up the study of composition. If the present system of promotion
permits some pupils to enter the high school without a sufficient
knowledge of the elements of English grammar to make possible an
intelligent study of high school English, it seems very doubtful whether
the high school course in English should be planned to provide for
pupils whose preparation is deficient. If provision must be made for the
deficient ones, a special class in grammar should be organized for their
benefit, and well-prepared pupils should not be compelled to repeat this
grade work. This special review of grammar for poorly prepared pupils
should not form a part of the regular English work of the first year,
and it may be questioned whether it should be credited for graduation
from high school. For pupils of required preparation the only study of
grammar necessary in the first year may be taken up in connection with
the correction of errors made by the pupils in composition. Syntax must
be studied in connection with the construction of sentences in
composition work. A consideration of the grammatical construction of
sentences required for effective work in reading and composition, with
such review of grammar as is made necessary by the actual errors of the
pupils, will generally be sufficient training in grammar for the first
year.
3. Rhetorical Principles
The study of rhetorical principles in the first year should be confined
to the consideration of the simpler principles of sentence and paragraph
construction. In connection with the study of grammatical construction
of sentences, the violation of the principles of sentence unity and
sentence coherence in the pupils’ written work will offer opportunity
for enlarging upon the application of these principles. If, in the first
year, pupils can be taught to express simple ideas in sentences the
parts of which are logically connected, much will have been
accomplished. In paragraph construction unity and coherence must also be
emphasized; that is, the pupils should be taught that the paragraph
consists of a series of closely related sentences developing a single
topic. The unity of the paragraph as emphasized by the part of the
definition referring to the single topic, and the principle of
coherence, as brought out by the idea of a series of related sentences,
constitute the important points regarding paragraph construction to be
developed in the first year.
The simplest principles of narration, such as the choice, order, and
connection of incidents, may be emphasized and developed in the pupils’
composition work. Examples of the application of these principles will
be noted constantly in the short stories read in class. During the
second semester the elementary principles of description can be
developed from the reading, and pupils can be led to add a descriptive
element to their narrative themes, or even to write short descriptive
themes. After studying the descriptive methods used in the portrayal of
a character or scene in the story read in class, the pupils may very
naturally be encouraged to write descriptions of persons or places with
which they are familiar. The knowledge and application of these
principles of composition, thoroughly mastered, is all the rhetoric that
is necessary for the first year.
4. Theme Writing
In the first year one or two short themes a week will give sufficient
practice in composition. A short theme should consist of one
well-rounded paragraph of about 150 words. The one-paragraph theme of
this length has several advantages. First, the pupil is taught from the
beginning of his high school composition work to regard the paragraph as
a unit of some length, which may be complete in itself. Second, the
pupil usually has enough ideas for a short theme, and can present them
simply and directly without writing to fill space, as he sometimes must
do when longer themes are required. Third, a teacher can correct these
short single page themes in less time, and yet see clearly the pupil’s
faults, for he is likely to make the characteristic errors as evident in
one page as in three or four. If the teacher has time to correct
carefully two short themes a week, one of these may be prepared outside
the class room, and the other may be written during part of one of the
recitation periods. This plan gives the pupil practice in carefully
prepared written work for the writing of which he has plenty of time,
and also in writing rapidly in class when he has time to prepare but a
single draft of his theme.
As in all composition work, these themes must be promptly and carefully
corrected by the teacher; and the errors, as has already been pointed
out, should be indicated by signs and abbreviations so that the pupil
may have the benefit of correcting his mistakes. This correction by the
pupil may be done either by rewriting the theme or by revising it and
making corrections neatly between the lines, or in some other convenient
place. In either case, the work should be returned to the teacher so
that he may glance over the original and rewritten forms, or the
original as revised, and may see whether the errors have been corrected
and the changes properly made.
In the first year the conferences of teacher and pupil on composition
work are of great importance. By talking over the work, the teacher can
do much towards encouraging a pupil who becomes disheartened because of
the difficulties in expressing his ideas in writing. In these
conferences, also, the teacher can learn much concerning the pupil’s
interests and character, and by sympathy and insight can be as helpful
to the excellent pupil as to the mediocre or poor one.
5. Reading
The selection of suitable masterpieces for reading and study in the
first year must be made with particular care, since the pupils’ attitude
toward the reading and study of literature is often influenced for some
time by their first impressions. As the purpose of the reading is not
only to have the pupils understand what they read by teaching them to
read carefully and accurately, but also to interest them in reading good
literature, it is desirable to begin on material that does not present
too many difficulties. The length of the selection is also an important
element. The piece of literature must not be so long that interest in it
flags or that the pupil can not grasp it in its entirety and study it as
a unit. Short stories, tales, and narrative and descriptive sketches
combine more of the desired elements than other forms of literature.
Prose narratives of this type also make possible the close and effective
correlation of the reading and composition, the importance of which has
already been emphasized. Among the short stories and sketches that have
been used successfully in the first year and that may be taken as
typical are Hawthorne’s “Twice Told Tales”, Irving’s “Rip Van Winkle”
and “Legend of Sleepy Hollow”, Holmes’ “My Hunt After the Captain”,
Warner’s “A-Hunting of the Deer”, Dickens’ “A Christmas Carol”.
Mythology and folk tales have also been tried with considerable success
in the first semester of the first year; the available selections
include Hawthorne’s “Wonder Book”, Church’s “The Story of the Iliad” and
“The Story of the Odyssey”, Peabody’s “Old Greek Folk Stories”, Bryant’s
translations of the “Iliad” and the “Odyssey” and Palmer’s translation
of the “Odyssey”.
The advantages of using prose for reading and study in the first year in
preference to poetry or the poetical drama, are important ones. In the
first place since it is desirable to teach pupils to get the whole
thought contained in what they read, it is undoubtedly best to begin
with those forms in which ideas are expressed in the usual order, which,
of course, is that of prose rather than that of poetry or the poetical
drama. The training in following and grasping in their entirety the
expressed thoughts of others as they appear in the simplest logical
order of prose should be one of the first aims of the first year
reading. In the second place poetic inversions and figurative
expressions increase so greatly the pupils’ difficulties in
understanding what they read, that at the beginning of the course it
makes too great a task of that which should be a source of interest and
pleasure. To pass over these difficulties and emphasize simply the story
or description in the study of poetry is to encourage the bad habit of
careless, inaccurate reading. If the pupil is taught to understand fully
the prose that he reads in the first year, his progress in reading
poetry in the following years will be much more rapid. These advantages
together with close correlation possible between the study of prose and
the theory and practice of composition should determine the choice of
reading for the first year.
What has already been said in regard to the reading in general (p. 23)
applies particularly to the first year work.
VI
SECOND YEAR ENGLISH
1. Composition