HIGH SCHOOL SERIES
1. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN ENGLISH, by Willard G. Bleyer, Ph. D.,
Assistant Professor of English. 1906. 1907.
2. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GERMAN, by M. Blakemore Evans, Ph. D.,
Assistant Professor of German. 1907.
3. REPORT ON THE ENTRANCE EXAMINATION IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION, by Willard
G. Bleyer, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of English. [_In Preparation._]
4. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN MATHEMATICS, by Ernest B. Skinner, Ph. D.,
Assistant Professor of Mathematics. [_In Preparation._]
5. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN LATIN, by a committee of the Wisconsin
Latin Teachers Association. [_In Preparation._]
6. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN FRENCH, by Hugh A. Smith, M. A., Professor
of Romance Languages. [_In Preparation._]
Issued bi-monthly, and entered at the postoffice, at Madison, as
second-class matter.
THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN ENGLISH
BY
WILLARD G. BLEYER, Ph. D.
Assistant Professor of English
University of Wisconsin
REVISED EDITION
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
MADISON
1907
CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 5
I. PURPOSE OF THE COURSE 7
II. ORGANIZATION OF ENGLISH WORK 9
1. Length of Course 9
2. Plan of Course 10
3. Arrangement of Classes 11
4. Conferences of Teachers 12
III. COMPOSITION 13
1. Theme Writing 13
2. Correction of Themes 17
3. Filing of Themes 19
4. Conferences on Written Work 20
5. Oral Composition 20
6. Principles of Composition 21
7. Use of Text-book 22
IV. READING 23
1. Methods of Teaching 23
2. Reading Aloud 27
3. Choice of Reading 28
4. Library Reading 29
V. FIRST YEAR ENGLISH 30
1. Composition 31
2. Grammar 32
3. Rhetorical Principles 33
4. Theme writing 34
5. Reading 35
VI. SECOND YEAR ENGLISH 37
1. Composition 37
2. Reading 39
VII. THIRD YEAR ENGLISH 40
1. Reading and History of Literature 40
2. Composition 41
VIII. FOURTH YEAR ENGLISH 42
1. Reading 42
2. The Novel 42
3. The Drama 43
4. The Lyric 43
5. The Essay 44
6. Library Reading 44
7. Composition 45
8. Writing of Verse 46
IX. OUTLINE OF HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN ENGLISH 47
X. LIST OF READINGS FOR FOUR YEARS 50
XI. OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF COMPOSITION AND STYLE 53
1. Whole Composition 53
2. Paragraphs 55
3. Sentences 57
4. Words 60
5. Figures of Speech 60
6. Qualities of Style 62
7. Forms of Discourse 62
XII. BIBLIOGRAPHY 65
1. The Teaching of English 65
2. Literature 66
3. Language and Grammar 68
4. Rhetoric and Composition 68
INTRODUCTION
This bulletin has been prepared with the purpose of offering some
practical suggestions in regard to the organization of the high school
course in English and to the methods of teaching English. As it is
designed for the principals and teachers of Wisconsin schools, the plan
and methods conform to the courses of study and conditions required of
free high schools in this state. The aim has not been to discuss
theories or to offer novel solutions for the problems of teaching, but
rather to present ways and means of accomplishing the generally accepted
purposes of the study of English in secondary schools. All the methods
and plans suggested have been shown by experience to be practical, and
are adapted to present conditions in both large and small high schools.
While the plan of the work has been made as flexible as possible in
order to adapt it to different schools, it has seemed desirable to
indicate definitely how all of the details of the course should be
organized and what methods should be used to bring about the required
results. The object has been to consider the purpose of each part of the
English work, and to show as specifically as possible what must be done
and to some extent how it must be done to accomplish this purpose. By
having a definite aim for each year’s work and by seeing clearly what is
to be accomplished in each part of the subject, the teacher of English
feels responsible for the successful completion of a specific part of
the course. At the same time the originality and ability of the teacher
need not be hampered by a definite plan but may be exercised in adapting
the work to different conditions in different schools and classes.
In discussing the course in English, the general aim and methods in
teaching the important elements, composition and reading, are taken up
first, and then the particular phases of each subject to be presented in
each year, are considered. What is presented under the general topics,
reading and composition, therefore, applies to the work of each year
unless otherwise stated, and usually is not repeated in considering each
year of the course.
A second edition of this bulletin has made possible some revision. No
essential changes have been made, but considerable new material has been
added. Some parts have been developed at greater length in order to
explain the methods more fully. The most important addition is the
outline for the study of composition and style, which has been included
for those teachers who desire to review the various phases of rhetorical
theory in preparation for teaching composition or reading. The
bibliography has been extended to include a number of standard reference
books on various phases of the English work. The books have been
selected on the basis of their practical value to the teacher in the
work actually required in the high school course in English, and of the
possibility of assisting the teacher to build up for himself, at
reasonable cost, a good working library. In order to accomplish the
latter purpose the less expensive reference books have, as far as
possible, been chosen, and the price and the publisher of each have been
given.
I
PURPOSE OF THE COURSE
The main objects of the teaching of English as presented in the Report
of the Committee of Ten[1], are (1) “to enable the pupil to understand
the expressed thoughts of others;” (2) to enable him “to give expression
to thoughts of his own;” (3) “to cultivate a taste for reading, to give
the pupil some acquaintance with good literature, and to furnish him the
means of extending that acquaintance.” Other subsidiary objects may be
accomplished by the study of English, the Report points out, but these
should never be permitted to encroach upon the main purposes. While
these purposes are considered separately, and are apparently separated
in arranging the course of study, the Report continues, their mutual
dependence must constantly be kept in mind. By studying the thoughts of
others as expressed in the literature read in or out of the class room,
the pupil can be led to see how to express his own thoughts more
effectively. All reading of good literature should tend to cultivate a
taste for reading, and all study of good literature should lead to a
better appreciation of what is best in expression. The survey of the
history of English and American literature accompanied by the reading
and study of characteristic selections of every period, will open up to
the pupil the whole field of literature in English and will furnish him
the means of judging intelligently of what he reads. This
interdependence of the main purposes of the study of English requires
the closest correlation of every phase of the English work.
Footnote 1:
Report of Committee on Secondary School Studies, p. 86.
Since the English work is divided into two principal parts, reading and
composition, it may be well to consider briefly the purpose of each in
relation to the main objects just considered.
The first object of the work in reading must always be to have the pupil
understand the thought expressed on the printed page. However thorough
has been his training in the grades, the average pupil on entering high
school needs to be taught how to read. Generally he gets but a hazy,
general idea from reading a paragraph, either because he fails to grasp
the meaning of each sentence, or because he does not combine the
sentence-thoughts in their relation to the topic. The aim of the reading
must be to enable the pupil to understand each idea as it is presented,
to combine these ideas to get the thought of the sentence, and to follow
the chain of thought from sentence to sentence until he grasps the
meaning of the paragraph, essay, story, or poem, as a whole. As rapidly
as the maturity of the pupil permits, other elements that aid in the
better understanding of a piece of literature may be considered in
connection with the reading. The study of the structure, the form, the
author’s purpose, his style, the revelation of the author’s personality,
the relation of the piece of literature to the age in which it was
written, and a comparison with other pieces of the same type, all give a
clearer understanding of literature. The other purpose of the reading is
to stimulate the pupils’ interest in good literature, and to lead them
to read what is worth while, on their own initiative. If interest is
aroused by the reading and study in class, of one work of an author, it
is easy to create a desire to read other works by the same author,
outside of the class room. By suggestions and advice the teacher can do
much toward directing the pupils in their outside reading. To lead
pupils to read, understand, and appreciate the best of English
literature is certainly an aim that is worth striving to accomplish.
To enable the pupil to give clear and effective expression to his own
thoughts, is the end and aim of the other important part of the English
work—composition. That composition is the expression of his own thoughts
is the first principle that must constantly be impressed upon the
pupils’ minds. The misconception that the only ideas worth expressing in
writing themes are those derived from books, must be corrected at once.
While reproductions and paraphrases of the expressed thoughts of others
may sometimes be used as exercises, the fact must be made clear to the
pupils that these are not original compositions, in as much as they are
not the expression of their own ideas.
The relation of clear thinking to clear expression is another factor to
be considered in teaching composition. Much of the instruction in theme
writing is really concerned with training the pupils to think logically
and to arrange their thoughts in an orderly manner. Pupils must be
taught that as they can give clear expression only to those thoughts
that are clear in their own minds, the first process in theme writing is
the clarifying and arranging of their ideas. The mental training given
by such systematic preparation for theme writing as the making of
outlines or other devices for grouping thoughts in a logical plan, is
invaluable, since, unlike that given by other studies, it is concerned
largely with the pupil’s own thoughts rather than with those acquired
from books.
The third important element in composition is the style or form of
expression. The first aim of teaching composition, whether written or
oral, must be to give the pupils sufficient command of simple, idiomatic
English for the needs of everyday life. If the average pupil can be
taught to express his ideas in clear, correct English, much will have
been accomplished by the four years’ training. Those pupils who show
natural ability in expression can be encouraged to develop their talent
for writing or speaking in connection with class work or with the
various outside activities of the school, and may be given considerable
assistance in their efforts by the teacher of English. It is much more
important, however, to enable the majority of high school pupils to
express themselves simply, naturally, and correctly, than to attempt to
develop literary style where there is little natural ability.
II
ORGANIZATION OF ENGLISH WORK
1. Length of Course
All high schools provide four years of instruction in English, and most
of the schools devote five periods a week to the subject in each year.
The course of study outlined in this bulletin, therefore, is arranged on
the basis of five periods a week for four years. The successful
completion of at least two years’ work in English, one-half of which
shall be devoted to composition and rhetoric, and one-half to the study
of English classics, is required of all students for graduation from
Wisconsin high schools, and for entrance to the University of Wisconsin.
The first two years of English are always required of all high school
pupils whether they pursue an elective or a prescribed course of study.
In some high schools four years’ study of English is required of all
pupils, and in most of the Wisconsin high schools the curriculum
provides for three years of English in all courses. When the course of
study is partly elective, pupils are usually advised to continue with a
third and often a fourth year of English after completing the two years
of required work. Thus practically all high school pupils pursue the
course in English for at least three years.
Whether pupils who study English for three years take up the work in the
third or the fourth year of their course, is generally determined by the
arrangement of the other subjects in the curriculum. When a choice may
be made by either third or fourth year pupils between third and fourth
year English, the principal and teacher of English can often decide for
the pupil, basing their decision in each case upon what they know of the
pupil and his plans. For some pupils the survey of English and American
literature in the third year will be most valuable since it furnishes
them the means of extending their acquaintance with literature by
independent reading. Other pupils will doubtless derive more benefit
from the intensive study of a few classics outlined for the fourth year.
2. Plan of Course
The arrangement of the several phases of the English work in the course,
and the amount of time that is to be devoted to each is as follows[2]:
Footnote 2:
For a complete outline of the course see p. 47.
First year—5 periods a week; one-half of the time to be given to
composition, and one-half to the reading and study of literature.
Second year—5 periods a week; one-half of the time to be given to
composition, and one-half to the reading and study of literature.
Third year—5 periods a week; from one-tenth to one-fifth of the time to
be given to the history of English literature during the first
three-quarters of the year and to the history of American literature
during the last quarter of the year; four-fifths of the time to be
devoted to the study of the works of representative authors in each
period of the history of English and American literature; and from
one-tenth to one-fifth of the time to be given to composition.
Fourth year—5 periods a week; four-fifths of the time to be devoted to
the study of typical examples of each of the following forms of
literature: the novel, the drama, the lyric, and the essay; one-fifth of
the time to be given to composition.
The reading and study of literature in class in each year is to be
supplemented by library reading of literature, the amount of which will
be determined by library facilities and other local conditions.
3. Arrangement of Classes
If the English work is being taught by several teachers, the
distribution of classes among the teachers deserves careful
consideration. No English work should be entrusted to a teacher who is
not interested in the subject and who is not adequately prepared to
teach it. It is particularly important that the first year classes
should be in charge of the best teachers of English that the school has
in its corps. The not infrequent practice of having the thoroughly
prepared and experienced teachers take charge of third and fourth year
English, and of assigning the first year classes to the young and
inexperienced English teacher, or even to teachers of other subjects who
have little or no interest in the work and who are compelled to take
classes in first year English because their time is not completely
occupied by their own subjects, generally proves extremely
unsatisfactory. If the pupils in the high schools are to have the right
attitude toward the study of English, and are to begin the subject in
the right way, the best teachers must be provided for the first year
work, since much of the success of the whole high school course in
English depends upon the manner in which the introductory work is
taught.
The number of classes in English to be assigned to the teacher and the
size of these classes must also be considered. The teaching of English
requires an unusual amount of work outside of class. First, the
preparation for each day’s teaching whether the work is in composition
or reading demands much time and energy if it is to be done as it should
be. Second, the correction of themes is a daily task that must be done
carefully and accurately and that requires the best effort of the
teacher when his mind is most keen and active. Third, personal
conferences with each pupil on his written work are now generally
conceded to be essential for successful training in writing. All these
elements must be considered in arranging the programme of classes for
teachers of English. Teachers cannot do satisfactory work if they must
prepare for five or six classes a day, teach these classes, correct
twenty-five or thirty themes daily, and hold conferences with pupils
before and after school. The teaching of many classes exhausts the
energy of the teacher and makes accurate correction after school or in
the evening, as well as the careful preparation for the next day’s
classes, extremely difficult if not impossible. Conferences on written
work should be provided for in the regular programme and should not
interfere with the teacher’s other duties before and after school. Four
classes a day, two periods daily for conference with pupils, and not
more than a hundred pupils in all classes, a number which requires the
correction of one hundred themes a week, is an arrangement of work that
makes possible effective teaching.
4. Conference of Teachers
To give unity to the four years’ work in English, it is essential that
all the teachers of English in each high school meet at frequent
intervals to discuss organization, methods, and progress of the work.
Each teacher will thus familiarize himself with the English work of the
whole school, and can do his particular part of it more intelligently
and more effectively. As the success of high school English also depends
in no small degree upon the character of the instruction which the
pupils have received in the grades, and particularly in the seventh and
eighth grades, it will be found very profitable to have similar
conferences occasionally between the seventh and eighth grade teachers
and the high school teachers of English. A closer relation ought to
exist between the English work of the last two grades and the high
school, and there seems to be no better way to accomplish this than to
bring about cooperation between the teachers through the medium of these
conferences. The benefit to the teachers and the great advantage that
results to the English work of the school repay many fold the time and
effort devoted to these conferences. If local conditions make these
meetings of grade and high school teachers impracticable, the high
school teacher of English should make every effort to familiarize
himself with the amount and character of the training which the pupils
have had before entering the high school, by visiting the schools and
conferring with the teachers in the seventh and eighth grades. The
knowledge thus acquired of the earlier training of the pupils will be of
great service to the high school teacher in planning his work both in
reading and composition.
III
COMPOSITION
The ability to write clearly and accurately can generally be acquired
only by practice. If this practice is to be really effective it can not
be confined to one semester or one year, but must extend through the
whole course in English. Training in composition naturally includes a
study of the principles of the art; and since these principles are of
different degrees of difficulty, all can not be presented in one year,
but must be developed from year to year as the ability and maturity of
the pupil makes possible the comprehension and application of them.
Practice in writing and instruction in the principles of composition,
therefore, must form a part of all instruction in English throughout the
four years.
1. Theme Writing
Since it is only by constant practice that the average pupil can learn
to write good English, it naturally follows that the essential part of
the composition work is the writing of themes. The methods by which the
pupil is given this practice are of the greatest importance. In the
first place, as has already been indicated, it should be made clear to
the pupil what original composition is, and what it is not. The belief,
all too prevalent among pupils, that ideas for compositions are to be
obtained largely if not entirely from books, should be promptly
eradicated from their minds. They must be constantly impressed with the
fact that the expression of their own ideas is the important factor in
all original composition.
The direction of the pupils to a right choice of subject for their
compositions is the first important consideration. The possibility of
writing interesting themes on the everyday incidents in the life of the
pupils and the school must be made clear to them at the beginning of the
course. After the pupils have once been made to see the inexhaustible
supply of material which their own experience affords, there will be no
temptation to turn to books for inspiration. Throughout the course in
composition it is necessary for a teacher of English to have a large
supply of good subjects for themes. To secure these subjects the teacher
must familiarize himself with local conditions, particularly as they
affect the life and interests of his pupils. It is an essential part of
the teacher’s preparation for teaching composition that he inform
himself fully upon the subjects of local interest upon which he
encourages the pupils to write. By his interest in the various
activities of the pupils and by his sympathy in their efforts, the
teacher not only comes to know what subjects to suggest for composition,
but gains the pupils’ confidence, and arouses in them a desire to tell
him of these activities in their written work. With proper encouragement
and interest on the part of the teacher, pupils will soon come to take
pleasure in writing of their everyday experiences, and the themes will
become a source of greater pleasure and satisfaction to both teacher and
pupils.
It is frequently desirable that the same subject be assigned to all
pupils, so that the results may be compared and presented to the class
as part of the regular instruction. At other times it is necessary to
give the class a number of subjects from which each pupil may select the
one that suits him best; and at still others, to suggest general topics
from which the pupil may frame his own subject. In announcing and
assigning a subject for compositions the teacher can be of much
assistance to the pupils by discussing with the class the subject under
consideration. These discussions will stimulate interest in the subject,
and will arouse a desire on the part of the pupils to write upon it. The
teacher can direct the discussion so that the pupils will be led to
consider the best method of treating the subject and can thus prevent
waste of effort. It is necessary, however, to guard against giving the
pupil so many suggestions that little original thought and observation
will be required in writing the theme.
That clear, logical thinking is prerequisite for clear expression should
also be constantly emphasized in teaching composition. Pupils must be
made to realize, as has already been said, that unless thoughts are
clear in their own minds, they cannot expect to make these thoughts
clear to others. They should be taught, therefore, to get before their
minds clearly what they desire to express before they undertake to
express it. The first step can be taken early in the course when the
pupils are writing narratives, by urging upon them the necessity of
accuracy in observing what happens and how it happens, since the degree
of completeness of the remembrance of the event depends upon the
character of the impression. In description, likewise, careful
observation of what is to be portrayed must be emphasized as the only
means of obtaining a complete mental picture that can be described to
others. The methods of exposition and argumentation presented in the
third and fourth years naturally involve a discussion of the methods of
reasoning and as much logic as the pupils can comprehend. So closely
related are thinking and the expression of thought that, as has been
pointed out before, much of the work of teaching pupils to express their
thoughts clearly and accurately is really concerned with teaching them
to think clearly and logically.
In all work of this kind the outline is of great value. An outline of a
paragraph analyzed in connection with the reading will make clear the
manner of arranging the subtopics and details in an orderly form. A
similar outline of the subject of a theme, made in class by the
cooperation of teacher and pupils, will indicate the method of grouping
the pupil’s own ideas in a logical manner. After the process has been
illustrated by such class exercises, the pupils should be required to
make outlines of their themes, without assistance from the teacher.
While it is not necessary to require that a complete outline be prepared
by the pupils for every theme that is assigned, frequent exercises in
outlining the material of the theme before it is written are desirable
throughout the course. Like all formal devices, the outline, if made
mechanically, may tend to curb the spontaneous expression of the pupils;
but rightly employed by the teacher and pupils, it will readily become a
valuable aid to clear thinking and expression.
From the beginning to the end of the course in English, the fact must be
impressed upon the pupils’ minds that the only acceptable themes are
those that are the result of thought and careful effort. Hastily and
carelessly prepared compositions and those handed in after the appointed
time, should not be accepted by the teacher. Promptness, neatness, and
earnest effort are essentials for successful theme writing that pupils
should never be permitted to neglect. While it may seem very exacting to
require that all themes be written in black ink, on paper of uniform
size, and that they be numbered or dated and indorsed in a prescribed
form, experience has shown that these details in the organization of the
work are important for economy of time and effort on the part of teacher
and pupils.
Although most of the themes will be prepared by the pupils before coming
to the class room, it is desirable to have some of them written during
the recitation period in order to give the pupils practice in thinking
and writing rapidly. At the beginning of the course the subject may be
assigned at the preceding recitation so that the pupils may consider it
carefully and come prepared to write. After the pupils have gained some
fluency of expression, impromptu themes will prove interesting and
valuable class room exercises. Considerable importance should be
attached to these impromptu themes and exercises as tests of the pupils’
ability to write rapidly and accurately.
2. Correction of Themes
Of equal importance to the writing of themes is the prompt and careful
correction of them by the teacher, and the revision or rewriting by the
pupil. While doubtless the pupil will gain some facility in expression
by writing frequently, he is not likely to learn how to write clear,
accurate, forcible English unless his work is carefully corrected and
returned to him promptly so that it may be revised or rewritten. In
correcting themes the purpose should be to indicate to the pupil the
errors and weaknesses of his style, in order that he may correct these
faults. The teacher, therefore, should not correct the pupil’s errors,
but should use some sign or abbreviation to indicate the character of
the fault. Much if not all of the benefit derived by the pupil from the
teacher’s correction is lost if he does not have the opportunity to
correct his own errors in revising or rewriting the composition. Not
only is this correction of the pupil’s mistakes by the teacher bad
pedagogically, but it takes a needless amount of the teacher’s time. It
is desirable to have a simple but complete system of signs and
abbreviations indicating the exact character of the error. In this
connection attention may be called to the value of having each school
adopt some system of correction signs and abbreviations, so that the
same marks may be used not only by all of the teachers of English, but
by the teachers of all other subjects in correcting note-books, topics,
examination papers, and all other written exercises. It is only by
insisting that high school pupils be as careful of their English in all
written work as in compositions prepared for English classes that the
best results can be accomplished.
The following sign and abbreviations used in the English department of
the University of Wisconsin for the correction of themes may serve to
indicate the character and scope of a system of correction marks:
amb ambiguous.
ant antecedent.
bal make elements balance.
ch coherence.
cst construction.
∥cst. parallel construction.
D see dictionary.
E poor English.
emp emphasis.
F. W. fine writing.
fig figure of speech.
gr grammar.
H hackneyed.
K awkward.
L loose.
MS manuscript.
p punctuation.
pc comma fault.
per make periodic.
rep repetition.
red redundant.
S sentence.
sp spelling
Th theme.
tr transpose.
U unity.
V vague.
W weak.
W. W. wrong word.
¶ paragraph.
[ ] omit.
] indention.
x obvious error.
│ divide.
╱ small letter.
≡ capital letter.
⁐ unite.
Besides indicating all the errors in every theme, the teacher should
write a concise comment on each, pointing out the faults and merits of
the theme. He should aim to make these comments as stimulating and
suggestive as possible for judicious criticism must be constructive,
encouraging the pupil in that which is praiseworthy in his efforts, as
well as aiding him to eliminate that which is undesirable. These
comments to be most helpful should be based on the teacher’s knowledge
of the pupil’s personality and of the character of his other themes, for
each piece of written work must be regarded as a step in the individual
pupil’s progress toward the more effective expression of his thoughts.
The teacher should also remember that firm insistence from the beginning
to the end of the course on correctness in the fundamentals of
expression such as grammar, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, is
quite as necessary as the stimulating criticism that aims at developing
more original and spontaneous thought and expression.
In order that the pupil may get the greatest benefit from the teacher’s
correction of his themes, these should be returned for revision or
rewriting as soon as possible. If the pupil does not receive his theme
until a week or more after he has written it, the corrections and the
revision and rewriting are much less interesting and valuable than if it
is returned to him promptly. It is also easier for the teacher to
correct themes as soon as they are received rather than to allow them to
accumulate until their number makes the correction of them an exhausting
task.
In addition to the careful correction of compositions by the teacher,
other methods may be used to call attention to the merits and faults of
the pupils’ themes. The teacher may have the pupils copy on the
blackboard the themes which they have prepared before coming to class,
and the recitation period may be devoted to the criticism of these
compositions by teacher and pupils. The pupils may occasionally be
required to correct each other’s written work, either in or out of the
class room. A recitation period can sometimes be used to advantage for
the rewriting by the pupils of themes corrected by the teacher, who by
passing from one pupil to another during this exercise can assist each
in correcting and improving his work. While these methods often prove
interesting and valuable, they should not be regarded as an adequate
substitute for the prompt and accurate correction of themes by the
teacher.
3. Filing of Themes
After themes have been either rewritten or revised by pupils, they
should be returned to the teacher, who must glance over them to be sure
that the pupils have made the necessary changes. If the themes are
rewritten, the original as well as the rewritten form should be returned
to the teacher for the purpose of this comparison. It is also desirable
to have some method of filing themes after they have been returned to
the teacher. A simple method of keeping them is to use looseleaf
note-books similar to the laboratory note-books in science. With this
system the themes are first handed in on separate sheets of uniform
size, and, after they have been corrected by the teacher and revised or
rewritten by the pupil, are fastened in the note-book. If the themes are
rewritten or corrected on the blank page of the note-book facing the
original copy, the teacher can readily compare the two forms and can
determine the character of the revision. Another plan adopted by a
number of schools is to have a large filing case with a compartment for
the themes of each pupil in the school. All the themes should be
preserved until the end of the year, when they may be returned to the
pupils.
4. Conferences on Written Work
In order to accomplish the best results in theme writing and correcting,
it is desirable that the teacher talk over the written work with each
pupil as frequently as his time permits. If the English teacher’s
programme of recitations is properly arranged, he should have sufficient
time to have conferences with all his pupils once a month. Regular
appointments should be made with each pupil for holding these
conferences during those periods in which both pupil and teacher have no
recitation. At the conference the teacher can go over with the pupil the
written work of the month, can answer questions, and give helpful
suggestions for improving the pupil’s composition and class work.
5. Oral Composition
Although the term “composition” as used in connection with English work
usually refers only to written expression, it is evident that the oral
expression of the pupils’ thoughts is worthy of consideration. Generally
no particular provision is made in high school work for so-called oral
composition, nor does it seem necessary to provide a distinct place for
it in the outline of the course. The importance of the form of the
recitation in every subject is emphasized by all good teachers. The
topical recitation now so frequently required in all high school
studies, if properly conducted, is the most effective kind of oral
composition that can be given. A teacher of English, of course, should
give especial attention to the form of recitation in English classes.
Pupils, after some encouragement, will express their ideas freely in the
course of the discussions which inevitably arise in connection with the
reading and composition. Their attention should be directed to the fact
that the same principles govern the clear and forcible expression in
spoken, as in written language. The correction of common faults in
recitation, such as the “and”, “and then” habit, will assist in
eliminating these errors from the written work as well as in improving
greatly the oral expression. During the first year the pupils may be
assigned simple topics in connection with the reading and should be
taught how to collect the material and arrange it in an outline form
from which to present it in the class room. After they have acquired the
ability to present topics with the aid of notes, they should be
encouraged to speak without any of these aids. The same method may be
applied to the daily recitation. In fact, it is often best to begin by
having the pupils outline the subject matter of the lesson and come to
class prepared to recite upon any topic in the outline. In this manner
the recitations in English and in practically all of the other subjects
of the high school course may be used to give the pupils the necessary
training in oral composition.
6. Principles of Composition
In connection with the writing and correction of themes must be studied
the principles of composition and their application. These rhetorical
principles may be presented either inductively or deductively. The pupil
may either learn them from a definite statement in the text-book, which
illustrates their application by selected examples, or he may be led to
discover the principles of effective expression from the literature that
he is studying in class as a part of the work in reading. While much may
be said for the merits of each of these methods, the inductive plan
seems to commend itself particularly, since it makes possible a close
and effective correlation of the two elements of the English
work—composition and reading.
During the first two years, when particular attention is given to the
principles of sentence and paragraph construction in the composition
work, these principles can be developed and their application readily
illustrated from the selections that are read and studied in class. The
object of the work in reading, as has already been stated, is to teach
the pupil to get the thought clearly from the printed page. In order to
do this effectively, it is necessary to study with some degree of care
the sentence and paragraph structure of the selection which he is
reading. To get the thought of each sentence it is necessary to
understand clearly the relation of all its parts. By noting the separate
ideas as expressed in words, phrases, and clauses, and by determining
their relation in the sentence as the expression of the whole thought,
the pupil is taught the principles of sentence unity and coherence. If
his attention is properly drawn to these principles as they are
exemplified in the literature before him, the importance and application
of them may be clearly demonstrated without spoiling the masterpiece of
literature. In fact the appreciation of the skill of the literary artist
is thereby increased, provided the teaching is done in a proper manner.
To follow the chain of thought in the paragraph, it is necessary to see
clearly the relation of each thought as expressed in the sentence to the
preceding and succeeding thoughts in order that the development of the
topic may be clear, and that the pupil may grasp the subject in its
entirety. In teaching the pupil to get the whole thought in the
paragraph, it is necessary to consider the whole topic treated in the
paragraph; that is, to study the unity of the paragraph; and also to
consider the relation of each thought to the one central topic; that is,
the principle of paragraph coherence. Thus, in the effort to teach the
pupil how to get the thoughts of others by reading, the essential
principles of composition are absolutely necessary. In a similar manner
all the principles of narration, description, exposition, and
argumentation may be developed inductively from the reading. By seeing
the application of the rhetorical principles in literature, the pupil
comes to realize their importance in effective writing, and is impressed
by the varied forms of their application as he is not likely to be by
selected examples isolated from their context, in text-books.
7. Use of Text-book
If the principles of composition may be developed from the masterpieces
that are studied in class, the question naturally suggests itself, “Is
it necessary to have a text-book at all in studying the principles of
rhetoric and composition?” It is entirely possible to teach composition
successfully without a text-book, but owing to difficulties in the
organization of the schools, and the not infrequent change of teachers,
it is often desirable for the sake of uniformity of work to make use of
a text-book. It is also convenient, even where these difficulties do not
exist, to have a good text-book to which the teacher may direct the
pupil for a detailed statement of the principles after they have been
developed and exemplified in the reading; that is, to use it as a
reference book. In order that it may be used thus for reference, the
text-book selected should take up the principles of composition and the
forms of discourse in a logical manner, treating each fully and
systematically in a separate division. Text-books of this character can
be used throughout the first two years at least, and some of them are
sufficiently complete to supply all the material needed for four years’
study of composition.
It is generally conceded that text-books in rhetoric and composition
have very often been used to poor advantage by having the pupils
memorize the definitions and statements of principles, and by devoting
much of the period set aside for composition to recitation upon the
subject matter of the text book. The principles of rhetoric and
composition, of course, have little value except as the pupil is able to
apply them in his own work or to recognize the application of them in
the work of others. The real test of his knowledge of the subject matter
of the text-book therefore is not made by having him recite what the
book contains, but by requiring him to apply it in his own work and to
perceive examples of it in that of others.
IV
READING
1. Methods of Teaching
The purposes already indicated for the reading are “to enable the pupil
to understand the expressed thoughts of others,” “to cultivate an
acquaintance with good literature, and to furnish him with a means of
extending that acquaintance.” It is evident that the only way to teach
the pupil to understand the expressed thoughts of others is to have him
understand each unit of that expression. The meanings of words,
allusions, and figures of speech, as the expressions of the idea, must
be clearly understood. The intelligent use of the dictionary and the
usual books of reference should therefore be taught at the very
beginning of the course of reading. Whenever the origin and history of a
word are helpful for a better understanding of its meaning, these may be
called to the pupil’s attention, and he should be encouraged to observe
in the dictionary the etymology of words as he looks for their meaning.
While the importance of knowing the significance of proper names,
allusions, etc., is to be impressed on the pupil’s mind, the preparation
of the reading lesson must not be allowed to degenerate into a mere
searching for the meaning of all unknown terms in the assignment. Pupils
should be warned against the practice of making a list of all the
unknown words in the lesson and of consulting the dictionary and other
books of reference for information, without considering the context in
which the words are used.
From the very beginning of the course in reading, the teacher should
make sure that each pupil gets a clear conception of the thought
expressed in each sentence. Without undue emphasis on grammatical
analysis, the pupil should be encouraged to note the form in which the
principal proposition is expressed, and the manner in which it is
modified by the subordinate elements, for it is only by the careful
consideration of the syntactical relations that the pupil can get
accurately the thought expressed. The development of the thought through
a series of sentences constituting a paragraph must be analyzed with
equal care, so that the pupil may see clearly the development of the
thought and the relation of each sentence to the preceding and
succeeding ones and to the paragraph topic. The amount and character of
analysis in each assignment of reading should be carefully determined by
the teacher as he prepares his work for each day, and he must beware of
having the reading lesson become merely a formal analysis of sentence
and paragraph structure, for nothing more effectively kills the pupil’s
interest in reading than too much of this formal analytical drill on
detail.
Various methods may be used to assist the pupil in grasping the thought
expressed in the literature. In narration, the retelling of the story,
paragraph by paragraph, from memory, will lead the pupils to get the
details of the story in logical groups. In description, the pupils
should be required to visualize the scene, object, or person portrayed
in words. Boys and girls can readily be interested in exercises of this
kind and will respond eagerly when asked to describe the mental pictures
which they obtain from a given piece of description. Sketches on the
blackboard to make clear the position of the details in the description
and other devices tend to emphasize to the pupil the importance of
reading carefully and accurately in order to get the whole thought of
the author.
After the pupil has been taught to get the thought accurately, the
analysis may be extended to the forms of discourse and the qualities of
style. In short stories, novels, and dramas the analysis of plot, the
delineation of character, and similar consideration of the principles of
narration and description will naturally receive due attention. In
essays and orations the study of corresponding principles of exposition
and argumentation gives the pupil a clearer conception and better
appreciation of the writer’s purpose and the means that he uses to
accomplish it. A study of metre and verse form is necessary for an
appreciation of the poetry read and studied in class. The study of all
these details, designed as it is to help the pupils to understand the
author’s thought, part by part, ought always to lead to a better
understanding and appreciation of the meaning and purpose of the whole.
A study of literature that emphasizes details to such an extent that the
theme and significance of the story, the drama, or the poem, as a whole,
is neglected, fails to bring out the vital element.
The value of the ideas and ideals which find expression in the
literature must not be overlooked in planning the work in reading. As a
portrayal of life in its various activities, literature presents to the
pupil many types of character and action, and thus gives the boys and
girls a broader view of life than their own experience affords. The
analysis of character, motives, and actions forms an interesting and
valuable part of the study of literature. Since good literature is also
an interpretation or “criticism” of life, it presents life in its true
relations and shows their significance. The author’s interpretation of
life, his judgment upon its various phases, and the emotional coloring
which he gives it, are all to be considered in a manner best adapted to
the maturity and understanding of the pupils. The formative influence
exerted upon the character of the boys and girls by the characters and
actions portrayed in their reading, as well as by the emotional element
of literature is undoubtedly of importance, and by some teachers is
emphasized in all their work. The ideals of conduct presented in good
literature, and the close relation between conduct and the emotions
aroused by the reading, are often factors in the ethical training of the
pupils, but the indirect and unconscious influence of these elements is
generally much more effective than many efforts to teach lessons in
ethics based on literature.