PART II._Lessons in chalk modeling: The new method of map drawing

LESSONS.

REMARKS.

Chalk Modeling of surface forms is the easiest and simplest method of

geographical drawing, and one of the best ways of beginning art work in

the school-room, for absolute definiteness of form and detail is not

required, and we know that generalities are represented much more easily

than details—large masses more easily than small objects.

No one need hesitate to try to draw who can write or gesture: this last

we are all doing continually, either consciously or unconsciously.

Watch the friend while telling some interesting story, or while giving a

description of some object or landscape. Note the gestures unconsciously

employed and how truthful to the subject they are. Also notice that the

more intense the desire to make you understand, the more adequate is the

gesture.

No conscious thought is required as to what motion to make, for the very

desire to express brings with it both the required word and action.

This is spontaneity, and if a pencil or crayon were in the hand of the

narrator, with paper or a blackboard near, a sketch might be the result,

and one quite adequate to its purpose.

If you are in earnest and truly desire to express your thought by drawing

or chalk modeling, you will forget yourself in your effort to be

understood. You will find a way to accomplish your object, choosing and

using the right direction of line and giving the right accentuation or

emphasis without any special attention as to the method of working.

Drawings may be made on the blackboard with common blackboard crayon of

medium softness, or with charcoal or crayon upon paper. The blackboard is

much the more serviceable, as upon that you can draw with great freedom,

without fear of wasting paper or of spoiling your work. Swing the arm out

freely from the shoulder as you work, give out that which you have to

give, without fear, generously. If it is but a line to indicate the edge

of a table, draw that line as though you were _glad_ to draw it. Express

your thought boldly regarding the fact or object you wish to make your

statement about—fear not.

REPRESENTATION OF SURFACES WITH HINTS ON THE DELINEATION OF DISTANCES.

LAND SLOPING _FROM_ THE OBSERVER. LIGHT AND SHADE.

The most convenient length of crayon to use, is a piece about an inch and

a half or two inches long, yet we may often profitably use the whole side

or length of the crayon. If we wish to represent broad surfaces, we will

naturally use the side of the crayon, as a child does. To show narrower

widths of surface press more upon the end of the crayon, also use a long

_edge_ to represent the edges or the meeting of surface planes. This

manner of using the crayon seems the most natural for the purpose, and it

certainly economizes time.

Line represents direction. When applied to surface we understand it to

indicate horizontal, vertical, oblique, and curved surface directions.

Try it and see if it is not true that lines in one direction never

indicate any other direction; the vertical can never be mistaken for the

horizontal, or the reverse. For the representation of a level plain,

make simple strokes in the horizontal direction with the side of the

crayon, and to represent a vertical surface as a cliff, make a stroke in

the vertical direction with the same broad side of the crayon. Oblique

surfaces, as slopes, are to be drawn with oblique strokes, and curved

surfaces like rounded hills, represented by continuous upward and

downward strokes. (See Fig. 1.) In the delineation of mountain masses,

that are high with abrupt declivities as well as gradual slopes, we use

the side of the crayon with an oblique stroke as in Fig. 2. We see then

that right direction of lines of themselves illustrate surface planes,

elevations or depressions.

[Illustration: 1 2 3 4 5]

Detail of structure, however, cannot be well brought out except by

effects of light and shade. Choose from which direction your map or

sketch is to be lighted, and keep it always in mind while drawing. Study

the effects of light and shade everywhere. Note the length of shadows at

different times of the day, and their relation to the position of the sun.

To represent an unbroken sweep of land or water, as of a plain or lake,

draw a broad unbroken line for the distance, as all detail of surface

forms seems to merge into one horizontal mass; nearer to us, we perceive

more detail of landscape or broken land surface, which we may represent

with broken lines. This is the most simple representation of level

distance. (Note Fig. 3.)

In Fig. 4, or the representation of a plateau (upraised mass of land),

there are horizontal, vertical, and oblique surfaces combined. The detail

of structure in the foreground is represented with some definiteness

of line, while the mountain slopes are quite indefinite. Notice that

the oblique and vertical lines are shorter in the distance than in the

foreground, and that the land seems to rise as it recedes from us. Look

out of doors and see if it is not so. Notice rows of trees, houses, or

telegraph poles, in their relative height, also in their relation to the

ground on which they stand.

In the delineation of a valley between parallel mountain ranges, keep

in mind the proportionate height of mountains to width of valley; for

example, think of the apparent width of street or railroad track at the

farther end, in comparison with the width of the same close by you, and

also notice that it decreases in definiteness as it recedes into the

distance. Note the width of the valley in Fig. 4.

Fig. 5 represents land sloping from us as it recedes. Note the more

definite lines in the foreground, indicating some detail of structure,

and the indefiniteness, or less distinct lines that indicate the distant

hills, these lines becoming more and more indistinct as the hills recede.

[Illustration: 6 7 9]

LAND SLOPING TOWARDS THE OBSERVER. QUALITY OF LINE. RELATIONS.

Each line drawn has its own characteristic meaning—its own individuality,

so to speak. It not only represents direction, but carries with it a

certain quality of effort or mentality, as indecision, fear, courage,

certainty. (See Fig. 6, _a._ _b._ _c._) We also see in it the habitual

mental attitude of the delineator. This is plainly seen in the quality

of line used by the timid, contrasted with that of the fearless—by the

unstable or changeable mind in contrast to one who is clear in his

thought (who “knows his own mind”) and positive in his expression. (_d._

_c._ _e._)

It follows, then, that to draw a firm line with ease and rapidity, one

must have a positive knowledge of what one desires to express, just the

length of the line and its relation to all other lines; that is, one

must see things or objects in their right relations. All things in the

universe are related to each other—nothing stands alone. The mountain is

closely related to the valley, it has given of its substance to build and

enrich the latter, and its streams have carried nourishment to help swell

the river at its base.

In its delineation, therefore, one must keep in mind the relation of its

height to the width of the valley, and to the plateau on which it may

stand; the declivity of its slopes, and their relation to the vertical

direction, which may be seen as an imaginary line drawn from the center

of the base to the zenith.

[Illustration: 8 10]

The trees beside the hill in Fig. 7 show the latter to be very high. In

Fig. 8 the hill becomes low because of the relation of its altitude to

the height of the trees in the foreground.

The delineation of more or less detail also helps to determine altitudes;

as, to draw grasses, boulders or out-cropping rocks on the hill side,

would show that we were near enough to the hill or knoll to see them

in detail. Hills in the far distance would be represented without much

detail, for they are too far away naturally for us to observe it.

To represent land sloping towards us as in Figs. 7, 9, and 10, the

foreground must be broken up, that is, represented in more or less of

structure detail. Fig. 9 shows low hills at the foot of the mountain

range sloping toward the level land in the immediate foreground. Fig. 10

a steep alluvial fan indicating the nature and character of its structure

by the direction and quality of line used. The crumbling sandstone

rock, showing the effects of weathering, is indicated by short nearly

vertical strokes, with the thought of stratification also in mind. The

flowing sand is represented by vertical and oblique lines drawn in the

direction in which sand would naturally flow. We have here three examples

of land sloping towards us. One represented by nearly horizontal lines,

the others by vertical or oblique lines. Grasses grow many blades from

one root. Their tendency may be vertical but many influences combine to

turn them from that direction. Use an edge of the chalk with an upward

or downward motion. Knolls of any contour may be represented by drawing

grasses in the direction of the slopes as in Fig. 8.

[Illustration: 11 12 13 14]

HIGH AND LOW WATER-PARTINGS WITH MAP.

If your subject “possesses” you, there will be no need of giving special

thought to effects or results; these will follow naturally from the state

or quality of feeling engendered in your mind by its contemplation; that

is, if one part of the surface to be represented is hard and rocky, and

another soft and yielding, and you have observed this fact in relation to

the whole, you will naturally show it in the quality of line you use. No

other hints can be given that will help you so readily to the artistic

touch as this, together with the hints given in our last lesson as to

the necessity of an adequate knowledge of form and of relationships or

proportions. Fig. 11. A water-parting high and mountainous. It shows its

rocky structure in the harsh and “liney” quality of the work as well as

in the surface contour. The paper is left white for the streams of water.

On the blackboard, when drawing maps with chalk, use charcoal for the

rivers, as in the rapid delineation of such maps it takes too much time

to save spaces for them; and at the best it is such an exaggeration of

the width of streams, that it misleads the pupil.

Fig. 12 represents a low water-parting. Notice the texture of line, soft

and yielding, produced by thinking, knowing and feeling that the surface

was not rocky, but a somewhat sandy soil, mixed with a little loam.

Perspective is shown by less of detail in the distance than in the

foreground; the trees in the latter being more accurately drawn, as well

as taller. The poplars at the right of the picture also show that the

ground is a little uneven, as the distant ones seem to be partially below

a slight rise in the surface. Fig. 13 is a map or bird’s eye view of a

height of land worn down by streams running in different directions,

leaving the water-parting sharply defined.

A little sketch of the sea shore (Fig. 14) illustrates another quality

of “touch.” In depicting water rolling irresistibly on, a mighty force

dashing against the shore and breaking into showers of spray, you will

naturally use a steady, forceful but light touch in indicating its curves

and masses. “Feeling” and “touch” are something to be experienced and not

taught mechanically.

[Illustration: 15 16 17 18 19]

MEETING OF WATER AND LAND. LAKES, SPRINGS, ISLANDS. HIGH AND LOW TIDE.

The artistic appeals to the higher or finer qualities of our nature, and

to be artistic is to show forth or make visible these qualities. Work

which is truly artistic can only be produced when we are in such harmony

with our subject that these qualities predominate. These truths are so

important that I ask you to experiment and discover them for yourselves.

How will you get the “atmospheric” effect unless you realize that a

certain volume of atmosphere is between you and the distant object?

How will you keep true values unless you see truly (correctly)? In all

drawing of any special subject it should be the aim to keep everything

subordinated to the main point of interest, just as in writing you make

every word or sentence bear upon the main point of your theme or your

argument.

The meeting of land and water can never be represented by a continuous

line; as line indicates direction of surface, and as the surface planes

of both land and water are continually changing, the direction of line is

changing or being broken, even if on the same general plane. Fig. 15 (a

lake among the hills) shows the horizontal plane of water surface meeting

the oblique surface of land. Where the water falls over the rock, the

oblique and curved lines used are broken, to represent the nature of the

rock underneath. Notice that the depth of each little fall corresponds

with the stratification of rock. The water, as it recedes, lies level,

also. You will have no difficulty in drawing ponds and lakes, if you

think of the farther shores as less distinct, and the waves, although

rough and broken in the foreground, as merged and blended together in the

distance.

[Illustration: 20 21 22 23 24]

Figs. 16 and 17 are high and low tide on the Piscataqua River. (The

ocean tides flow in for miles up the river.) These illustrations show

the broken, or short, nearly horizontal lines used to indicate the tops

of the little waves and ripples in the foreground. As the water lowers

a little in the river, the island (Fig. 16) is seen, connected with the

mainland by an isthmus, or narrow neck of land; and in Fig. 17 it is seen

as a part of the mainland. Figs. 18 and 19 are springs flowing out from

hillsides. Notice the relation the grasses and rock bear to the water.

Fig. 20 represents North Cape; Fig. 23, a coral island: both show water

in active motion, compared with that in Fig. 15, and with Fig. 21 (a

rocky island). Fig. 22 shows rapids in a New England stream. Notice the

velocity and volume of water. Fig. 24 is a map of the Mississippi River.

The upper part of the map is drawn without any lines between river and

land. The lower half has a line drawn close to the edge of the water,

to indicate the levees, which are necessary in that region, to prevent

inundation. For a map of continental islands and drowned valleys, see map

of the fiord coast of Alaska, in the Introduction.

SKETCHES ILLUSTRATIVE OF WIND AND WATER EROSION.

All who will may learn to draw. It is that which we most earnestly desire

to do, that is accomplished in every department of effort. All lesser

interests will give place to that which we consider of the greatest

importance. Therefore if we as teachers recognize the value of the habit

of sketching before our classes and greatly desire to be able to draw

with ease and rapidity, we will put ourselves into right relationship to

the work, and will undoubtedly acquire the desired skill.

We have been observing all our lives; we have made careful observations

of many details of form and color, perhaps, and close investigation of

structure, but we have not analyzed them into terms of drawing. We have

not been looking for the planes of surface, or the relative proportions

of parts, or for distance or foreground. Now, however, with the desire

to be able to sketch readily, we will observe the object or landscape

for that special purpose. One sketch will represent only what has been

observed by looking in one direction without turning the head. The most

interesting point of the view will be that at which one looks directly,

and consequently it will be the most important part of the sketch with

every other part subordinated to it.

[Illustration: 25 26 27 28 29]

In out of door sketching it will be necessary to eliminate much that is

seen, only drawing that which is chosen to be the vital or interesting

part of the picture, with that which modifies, or is necessary to show

it in its completeness. Select your point of view, standing at such a

distance that all you care to study may be comprehended in a glance.

[Illustration: 30]

Note the relation of earth to sky, and of trees to hills, streams, or

other objects to be included in the sketch. As a help to find the true

direction compare the surface planes and edges with that which you know

is vertical. Study the light and shade, choose the simple broad tones

which will best express distance, middle ground and near details. Work

simply and easily, not straining after certain preconceived effects. It

is this particular truth or fact which now appeals to you, which you are

to express, and do not hesitate to express it freely and boldly. Sketch

everything, anything, no matter how complicated it may seem to be, and

sketch often. The child does that, and learns to draw by drawing.

[Illustration: 31]

Fig. 25 shows the edge of a desert in Wyoming Territory, where the only

vegetation is sage brush. The rains have worn a little gully in the

general sandy level. Notice the steep slant of the sandy sides. Fig. 26

is a sketch of a hole in the sandy soil of a farm, on the banks of the Au

Sable River, New York. It was first worn by the rains as a little gully

on the upper edge of the bank, and with every rain-storm more sand was

washed out and carried down into the river. A part of this is deposited

lower down the river, below the bank on the right, in the sketch Fig. 30.

[Illustration: 32]

Use horizontal lines for the sandy level, and curved lines to indicate

the slow current in the water. Fig. 27 also shows the result of rain and

wind erosion of the bank behind the stump of the tree. Fig. 28 represents

a section of Yellowstone cañon, and Fig. 29 is a sketch from Monument

Park, Colorado. In both the latter are seen examples of rain and wind

erosion, more particularly in Fig. 29. Notice the hard layers of rock

that cap and protect the softer sandstone beneath, and the hard pinnacles

that jut out from among the sliding sands in Fig. 28.

[Illustration: 33]

The effects of river erosion, together with the weathering of rocks are

seen in Fig. 31, which is a sketch of a section of Wilmington Pass, in

the Adirondacks. The precipitous sides of rock, are shown with evergreens

growing wherever they can find a foothold in the soil made by the

disintegration of the rocks above. Boulders and trees have been brought

down by the loosening of masses of rock, through the action of frost,

heat, and melted snow, causing obstructions in the stream, over and

between which the waters tumble and roll. Fig. 32 is a view taken from

the beach of Arch Rock, at Mackinac Island. It is a mass of calcareous

rock, showing the result of lake erosion and weathering. The rock in Fig.

33 shows signs of disintegration from the action of wind and rain.

[Illustration: 34 36 37 38 39 40]

SCENES TYPICAL OF THE DIFFERENT ZONES.

Take the children into your confidence: that is, cause them to feel that

you are not sketching for their amusement or for their admiration, but

are trying to help them to a better understanding of the subject. They

will appreciate your motive and be stimulated to increase their own

efforts. With every attempt to sketch on your part, additional skill

will be acquired, for it is only by repeated attempts that progress is

made. By such continued efforts you not only gain the power to express

the knowledge you have, but are led to see wherein you are deficient

and require closer study of your subject. When we try to express our

knowledge of a subject by drawing, we are often greatly surprised to find

how little we know of it. It is the same with writing or speaking. Our

knowledge or ideas of a subject should be arranged in orderly sequence,

so logical and clearly defined, that we shall not be obliged to go back

and modify or correct any part of our expression. Such corrections in

connection with drawing destroy that pleasing quality which marks a

sketch as “artistic.” The teacher who appreciates the importance of

forming correct mental habits, will encourage in his pupils the practice

of accurate and thorough study of a subject, before any attempts at

expression are made.

[Illustration: 35 42 43 44 45 46 47]

In drawing from your imaginary picture, look at it closely and carefully.

Clear it up, classify its component parts into primary and secondary,

that is, decide which is the most important and interesting part of the

whole, and to what degree the other parts are to be subordinated to that,

then analyze it into terms of drawing, _i.e._, vertical, horizontal, etc.

In the scenes given in this lesson as typical of the different zones of

climate, some of the primary features were gained through observation,

some through pictures supplemented by reading. Many of the sketches

illustrating the other lessons, as well as those in the Introduction,

will also give suggestions for this lesson, such as the illustrations on

Alaska, India, and the continents. These need not be duplicated here.

In the scene from Siberia (Fig. 34), and in that of the dunes in

the Sahara desert (Fig. 35), notice the form of both snow and sand

drifts—their sharp edges and short and long slopes. The corn-field in

northern New York (Fig. 36), illustrates the law of receding parallel

lines—that they appear to converge as they recede, and if extended far

enough, would seem to meet at a point on the horizon (the “point of

sight”), a point immediately opposite the eye. A line drawn from the top

and one from the bottom of each stalk in the front row, to the point

of sight, will show this. Notice how the stalks in the foreground are

brought out with more prominence than those farther away and outside of

the direct line of vision.

[Illustration: 41 48 49]

Figs. 37 to 40, inclusive, tell the stories of a lumber camp (Northern

Michigan); logs of cotton-wood floating out into the Au Sable River

(Adirondacks); a scarred and storm-worn pine tree, also one gashed by

the axe of the wood-cutter. In contrast to the pine, notice the graceful

elm of New England, in Fig. 41, and in Fig. 42, the banana tree of hot

climates. Fig. 43 is a scene typical of the hot belt (the Amazon region,

where there is abundant rainfall), and Figs. 44 and 45 show an oasis in

the desert, also cactus, as another typical form of vegetation. Fig. 46

represents a rice-field, and Fig. 47 cotton balls and flowers.

Figs. 48 and 49, showing a factory or “mill” in New England, and the New

York State harvest scene, are typical of the cool belt, or temperate

zone.

[Illustration: 50 51]

RIVER BASINS. COASTS.

Do not copy the sketches given in these lessons. They are but suggestions

to you, who will be able to express your own thoughts and represent your

own mental pictures better than you can another’s. They are given to show

you that simple sketches will help a child to a clearer understanding of

the subject under consideration. As has been said elsewhere, all such

illustrations should be drawn as they are needed to illustrate a given

point in the development of a lesson; for they carry more weight than if

sketched beforehand, that is, outside of the class exercise.

To merely locate in your sketch a house, spring, tree or man, will often

be of great value to the pupil, though you may feel timid about trying to

draw it, or think you have not the time. The experience of many teachers

in this respect may be illustrated by supposing a case.

A sketch is to be drawn, including the figure of a man, animal or any

object which has been considered difficult and therefore somewhat avoided.

The teacher, by one or two rapid strokes in the right direction,

indicates the location and movement of this figure, and proceeds with

the lesson without any hesitation or laborious attempts to really sketch

it. The next time it is necessary to represent it (perhaps in the second

or third lesson), sufficient confidence and skill have been gained to

encourage additional strokes in the development of form, and every

succeeding attempt has resulted in the addition of details of structure,

until almost without knowing it, the necessary skill has been acquired to

make an adequate sketch. How? By _doing_, the teacher has been forced to

form the mental picture, which, once acquired, can be represented, though

it may be more or less crudely at first.

[Illustration: 52 53 54 55 56]

Fig. 50 illustrates the basin of a young river or brook, with its slopes

and system of drainage, just such an one as may be seen near many country

school-houses, and an exaggerated type, only, of what may be found in

the streets and alleys of the city. Its source (_a_) is found in a

slight depression which, in the spring or after heavy rains, becomes

a pond, from which its waters overflow and trickle down through two

channels, which they have worn for themselves. The soil brought down

by these rivulets and others which are tributaries to the main stream,

may be seen deposited at _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, as flood plains, islands,

and delta. Notice the cañon cut by one of the tributaries through the

left slope of the basin, and the cascade and waterfall where the debris

brought down at high water has formed an obstruction. In Fig. 51 is

given a typical Switzerland river basin. Figs. 52 to 55 inclusive, show

ocean wearing and rock weathering. “Hilt Rock” (Fig. 52) shows alternate

layers of trap rock and sandstone. In Fig. 53 (“Point Portal,” Pictured

Rocks, Lake Superior), is seen the effect of wave and wind wearing in

soft rock, and Fig. 54 (“Land’s End,” Cornwall, England), is an example

of wave wearing in hard rock. Fig. 55 (“Giant’s Cause-way,” Ireland),

shows the weathering and wearing of basaltic rock. Fig. 56 is Eddystone

Light-house, (England).

[Illustration: 57 58 59 60]

In the drawing of maps, the meeting of land and water can be as

accurately drawn by the new method as by the old. The following sketches

illustrate the fact that it is not necessary to use any line running

contrary to the general direction of surface, in order to represent any

contour of coast.

Figs. 57 to 60 are imaginary bird’s-eye views of coasts. Fig. 57 shows

a stretch of level land at the coast, with broken or hilly land between

it and the distant higher hills or mountains: the latter being merely

suggested in the representation. A stream winds its way through the low

land to the ocean, where the silt which it has brought down and the sands

which have been washed up by the sea, form a delta and sand-bars. Fig. 60

shows drowned valleys, fiord coasts, and continental islands.

SUGGESTIONS ON THE USE OF THE CHALK MODELED MAP OF NORTH AMERICA IN

FOURTH AND FIFTH GRADES.

It is hoped that these suggestions will aid many teachers to realize

that the Chalk Modeled maps signify much more than the simple fact of

high and low land, or a representation of structural relief: that from

them, together with suitable pictures showing typical scenes in different

parts of the world, such valuable knowledge of the real surface of the

earth may be gained by the pupil, as will enable him to appreciate the

important relation sustained by man to his environment, and also to his

fellow man.

Previous to the study of the map of North America, the pupil may be

led to imagine the character of the country to the north, south, east

and west of his own locality. He may travel in imagination across the

continent to either ocean, and may study different sections of the

country through pictures and from oral and written descriptions. Such

sections should also be chalk modeled, showing the plateaus, mountain

ranges, plains, valleys, arid and fertile regions.

These drawings should be large, sometimes extending the whole length of

the blackboard from left to right, and drawn in a semi-conventionalized

manner, that is, in a style that combines both landscape, and map

drawing. This is an essential link between the two and should play an

important part in the development of continental picturing: the motive

being (in all this) to have the pupil mentally image the real continent,

before the map or symbol is presented to him. With such preparation, when

the chalk modeled map is placed before him he readily reads its surface

contour.

He notes the great highlands, plateaus, and mountains, the plains,

valleys, slopes, river basins, lakes and rivers.

He is then led to infer the character of soil, climate and

vegetation—everything, indeed, that relates to man’s environment.

He is asked to locate the great forest regions that furnish material

for shelter and articles of household use; to point out the areas best

adapted to the growth of different kinds of food-plants, and also those

that furnish material for clothing; to indicate the grazing lands where

herds of cattle feed; the mining regions, where coal for fuel, iron,

copper, silver, gold, and other valuable metals and minerals are found.

Information necessary to inferences is given at the moment required, such

as altitudes, horizontal distances, latitude, etc. The pupil is also

encouraged to read and acquire knowledge upon certain points for himself,

that he may bring it to the class for the benefit of others.

(The following questions may have some value to the teacher in the

further study of the map, but should _by no means_ be used as a set form

or method of questioning. They are only suggestions, given to those who

may need them in assisting the pupil to think and reason for himself.)

His attention may be called to the triangular shape of the land mass,

with its greatest elevation in the west. He may be told that its length

is 5,700 and its greatest width 3,000 miles.

Questions may then be asked as follows: Into how many slopes or great

drainage systems is the continent divided? Into what ocean do the waters

of the long slope flow? Those of the short slope? Locate and give general

direction of the continental axis. Trace this from Behring Strait to

Isthmus of Panama.

Compare its length with greatest width of continent. Compare length of

long slope (2,200 miles) with length of short slope (500 to 700 miles).

Which slope has the longer coast-line? Mold in sand and chalk model,

showing the two slopes and continental axis. Compare surface of both

slopes. Which has the greater area of highlands? Which of plains? Give

number and comparative size of lakes. Compare length and direction of

rivers on each slope. What is the character of the coasts and harbors?

What of the islands? Which slope has the larger inland drainage system?

Compare with oceanic drainage system.

Locate highlands of each slope. Give the appearance of the Appalachian

Mountain System. Compare with the Rocky Mountain System. What can be

learned as to the general formation and altitude of each slope? (Show

typical pictures.) What is the effect of altitude upon the surrounding

country? What on drainage? What is the effect of large rivers upon

plateaus?

Locate great central valley of North America. What two great rivers flow

through this valley? Trace the Mississippi River from its source to its

mouth. Trace the Mackenzie River in the same way. What separates the

Mississippi basin from the Mackenzie basin? From the Saskatchawan basin?

Trace lowest line from the mouth of the Mississippi to the mouth of the

Mackenzie. Into what does this line divide the continent? (Into two land

masses.)

Compare these two. In which is the continental axis? (In the primary land

mass.) The secondary land mass is divided by the Appalachian Mountain

System into two slopes, of which the eastern is called the Atlantic

slope. Compare these slopes. Where do the Appalachian Mountains begin?

(In the St. Lawrence basin.) Nearly to what gulf do they extend? (Gulf

of Mexico.) What is their direction? What separates the secondary land

mass into two parts—northern and southern? (The St. Lawrence River.) The

northern part is the peninsula of Labrador. In this part trace the water

partings of the Hudson Bay river system.

In the primary land mass two immense mountain ranges extend over 5,000

miles—nearly the entire length of the continent. What are these mountains

called? Compare their general altitude with the low range of mountains

(100 feet high) crossing the Isthmus of Panama. How wide is this Isthmus?

(Fifty miles from coast to coast.)

What is known about a certain canal which has been begun in Panama? Is

there any other important canal in Central America?

Commencing in the southern part of Mexico, and extending northerly and

westerly, two great ranges bound the great plateau of Mexico on the east

and west. This plateau is divided by the Rio Grande, Colorado, and other

rivers, at a distance of about 500 miles north. The southern part of it

is a volcanic region, in which are Popocatapetl and other high mountains.

What can be told about the Colorado River? (Show pictures of structure,

also of ancient cliff dwellings.) What is the character of the rock

through which the river cuts? Is it in the region of much rainfall or of

no rainfall? North of the great plateau is the great basin, 600 miles

wide and 900 miles from north to south, enclosed by the Sierra Nevada,

Wasatch and Rocky Mountains.

What is the character of the large lake found here? Of what was it once

a part? (Tell of old Lake Bonneville, and the terraces which record the

height of its ancient waters, high up on the mountain sides, at the east

of Salt Lake. Show pictures of structure of country and the effect of

irrigation on the barren soil.)

What low range of mountains west of the Sierra Nevada range? Describe the

beautiful valley lying between these ranges. Why is it fertile? What are

its products? Describe the great red-wood trees.

What peninsula south of this is formed by the union of these two ranges?

Locate Mt. Shasta, 14,442 feet high, in the Cascade range (a part of

Sierra Nevada), just north of the California valley; also Mts. Tacoma,

Hood, and Ranier, in the same range. Find Mt. St. Elias, in Alaska—the

highest peak in North America, being 19,500 feet above sea level. (Show

pictures of these mountains. Tell stories of Alaskan Indians.)

Yellowstone Park is in the Rocky Mountain range, east and north of

Mt. Shasta. What do you know of this wonderful park? (Sketch geysers

of Yellowstone Park.) Can the prevailing wind of the Pacific slope be

confidently stated? What of the Atlantic slope? Compare the number and

character of rivers, also the coastal planes of these two slopes.

What relation has the structure of a region to the amount of rainfall?

Locate the region of greatest rainfall on the continent; also the region

of no rainfall, or desert region. Compare with the rainfall of the home

region. (Let the pupils chalk model the map again, showing the depressed

axis, great plateau and mountain ranges: also indicating the character

of coasts, whether high or low, and stating whether they are building or

wearing coasts, and why.)

Name the river basins of each slope. Locate the basin of the Mississippi

River, and trace its water partings. Give the general direction of the

river and the reason for its flowing in this direction.

What great rivers are in the right slope of this basin? Which is the

largest river? Why are the waters of the Missouri River colored? Which is

the largest river in the left slope? Compare the two slopes. Which is the

higher? Which has the greater number of river basins? Locate the Ozark

Mountains. Are there any lakes in this basin? In which course of the

river are the waterfalls or cascades found? (Show pictures of St. Anthony

and Minnehaha Falls.)

What is the length of the Mississippi River in a direct line? (1,275

miles, while the length by water way is 3,160 miles.) What is to be

inferred from these data as to the course of the river? What as to the

slope of the land and the character of the soil? What must be the effect

on navigation and commerce? In which course, upper, middle, or lower, are

most of the windings? (Tell of the levees built to prevent the river from

overflowing its banks.)

(The total length of the line of embankments, including those on both

sides of the river and its tributaries, is 42,500 miles.)

At what rate is the river lowering the continent? (Enough sediment is

annually carried down to cover twelve miles square of surface one foot

deep.)

Where is the soil being deposited? How far is the river navigable? What

canal is being dug to connect its waters with those of Lake Michigan?

Consider the effect of this great work on the commerce of Chicago. What

is the temperature in the northern part of the Mississippi River basin?

What is the character of its vegetation? Compare these with those of the

southern part. Where is the greatest rainfall? What besides fertile soil

and abundant rainfall, is necessary to insure luxuriant vegetation? Name

some fruits characteristic of the northern part of the basin, also of the

southern part.

Locate areas of land best adapted to the growing of food plants; as

grain, including rice; potatoes and sugar-cane; also those best for

grazing purposes; the raising of cattle, sheep, etc. What plants produce

materials for the manufacture of clothing? What areas are especially

suitable to the growth of cotton? What to the growth of flax and hemp?

Locate coal mines, and other mining districts; also lumber regions.

Where are the largest cities situated? Why are they thus located? What

localities are best adapted to manufacturing purposes? Which to commerce?

Interest the children in the discovery of the “great river.” Read

accounts of Joliet’s and Marquette’s discoveries in 1673, also LaSalle’s

discovery of its mouth in 1682.

Study the history of the early colonists and show the relation of their

environment to their social and political development.

The further study of history will require a constant review of the

geographical features of the continent, and will show their relation to

the political divisions. These may be marked off upon the map with red

chalk at the proper time.

In a similar manner each river basin of the continent may be studied

separately, and the Hudson Bay basin. Compare the Atlantic and the

Pacific, river basin systems, also Alabama and Texas systems of river

basins.

Review the whole continent. See where the boundaries of all natural

divisions coincide with the political divisions. Draw the continent,

and mark all the large political divisions on the map. Add, also, the

continental islands. How were these formed? What is a political division?

What is its use? Mention the government of each division of the continent.

As the study of other continents are taken up, they may be compared with

this one, and with each other, in regard to resemblances and differences.

[Illustration: 61]

MAP OF NORTH AMERICA.

It is supposed that in the course of their study, the pupils have been

in the habit of modeling in sand and chalk modeling on the blackboard

at every step of the way. It may now be found that they are prepared

to represent the entire continent, first in two slopes, again in land

masses, and then as an aggregation of river basins, as suggested in the

last lesson.

Such a development of the map is illustrated in the present lesson by

four stages of chalk modeling. The first stage is represented in Fig. 61.

It shows the continent of North America in two great slopes, one long one

sloping to the east, and a short one sloping to the west, from the line

of meeting of their upper edges, or what has been termed the Continental

Axis.

Fig. 62 represents the continent as sketched after a study of it as

simple land masses—a primary land mass, and a secondary land mass, with

the line of depression at the meeting of the two opposing slopes. This

line is indicated by lines slanting downwards towards the depressed axis.

[Illustration: 62]

The primary land mass is represented as one continuous unbroken land

mass extending from the Isthmus of Panama to Behring Strait, and is

itself divided into two main slopes. The secondary land mass is likewise

divided into two slopes; it is also separated by the St. Lawrence River

basin into two parts, _viz._, the northern or Labrador land mass, and

the southern or Appalachian land mass. Fig. 63 is drawn to represent the

drainage, or principal river basins; as, the Mississippi, Mackenzie, St.

Lawrence, and Saskatchawan basins, and the Hudson Bay river system. In

drawing small maps on paper it is necessary to trace the rivers with a

fine pencil point. For very large maps, four of five feet long, spaces

may be left, but great care should be taken to keep them as narrow as

possible, so as not to exaggerate the width of the rivers more than

is necessary. Fig. 64 is drawn in more detail and the great political

divisions are marked upon it. On the blackboard map these divisions

may be marked with colored chalk, and should follow the contour of the

surface as closely as possible.

For the teacher who wishes to rapidly chalk model a map for immediate use

in the class, the following hints may be of service:

Plan to draw the continent in its proper proportions within a given

space. Imagine that you see it as already drawn. Commence with the

region best known or understood, and draw as you mentally travel, to the

north, south, east or west. It may be that you will begin with the great

depressed regions, in which case draw the ascending slopes and crowning

altitudes as you mentally picture; or if the great highlands or water

partings are fixed upon as a starting-point, the descending slopes should

be drawn to the line of meeting of other slopes, or to the sea level.

Break the line to indicate broken or uneven surface. You will do this

naturally, however, if you have in mind the picture of a broken surface.

[Illustration: 63]

Keep the river basins definitely in mind, and the character of streams

and rivers: the character also of the land structure; whether it is rocky

or alluvial; sharp or hard, or soft and yielding. Knowing that line

represents direction, and having a clear and distinct picture in mind of

the real country with its surface features, it will be an easy matter

to draw or represent it. Understand, as has often been said, that the

delineator is drawing from his own mental image of a map, and not copying

the work of another. In the latter case no instructions are necessary,

as the practice is of no educative value, and should be persistently

discouraged.

While at work, always think of the continent as being lighted from

one direction, so as to show strong lights and shadows (utilize the

blackboard for shadows), this helps to show altitudes; bear in mind,

however, that these depend mainly upon direction of line corresponding to

direction of surface.

It is to be remembered also, that knowing the geological structure

prevents one from drawing level lands first, and from afterward

delineating mountains as being piled upon them. Mountains should be drawn

where they belong and valleys where they belong, with no contradictory

lines underneath to confuse the meaning.

With few exceptions, mountains are the crowning points or peaks of

slopes—their meeting place. They may be the corrugated points of mountain

ranges or of worn down plateaus.

From whatever part of the continent the work is commenced, let it be

carried out in every direction until the limit of land is reached, and

then stop. Remember that there is no line between land and water, either

at sea-shore or at lake-shore. The rivers may be drawn with charcoal,

accentuating the lower part of the river near its mouth.

[Illustration: 64]

Let me say to the beginner—do not let any crude results disturb or

discourage you. You can chalk model with an adequate amount of skill if

you will. It simply means a close study of nature, a clear knowledge of

geographical structure, and persistent effort.

[Illustration: 65 66 67 68]

NATURAL FEATURES OF INTEREST IN NORTH AMERICA.

It is the constant, persevering attempts—simply the continual doing—that

accomplishes the work of the world. Devote ten minutes a day, if you

cannot spare more time, to your preparation for sketching in to-morrow’s

classes. By expressing your mental picture again and again you clear it

up, and the increased interest of your pupils in the work will be ample

reward. The experience gained will probably show that your last attempt

is a much more complete expression than the first one; the repeated

efforts made having resulted in a more thorough knowledge of the subject

and therefore, a more complete representation.

As before stated in connection with the study of North America, natural

features of interest should be sketched while with the class, at the same

time locating them on the map.

The mental images for such sketches, as well as for all others, if not

gained by actual observations, must be acquired through the study of

pictures and descriptions, as has been remarked before, and should not be

copied line for line from another’s sketch.

[Illustration: 69 70 71 72 73]

In Fig. 65 (entrance to Mammoth Cave, Kentucky) the stratification of the

rocks is seen back of the entrance, within it, and at the right in the

rocks of the foreground. (It is estimated that 12,000,000 cubic yards

of limestone have been worn away or displaced in the excavation of the

interior of this celebrated cave.)

Fig. 66 (Natural Bridge, Virginia) also plainly shows the stratification

of rock. What is the character of the rock? What was the agency employed

in the sculpturing of both of these natural wonders?

In Fig. 67 (Niagara Falls) the general direction of the mass is oblique.

Notice how the water breaks as it falls, owing to the resistance of

the atmosphere. In the “Palisades on the Hudson” (Fig. 68) notice the

debris at the foot of the vertical wall of stone, forming what is called

the talus slope. This is mostly overgrown with vegetation. In Fig. 69

(a gorge in the cañon of the Colorado) the stratification of rock and

the almost vertical cliffs are the principal features illustrated. Fig.

70 represents a lofty peak in one of the cañons along the line of the

Colorado. Fig. 71 (Devil’s Slide, Weber Cañon, Utah) shows the mountain

side as worn back leaving the trap rock projecting. (How came the harder

rock there in this peculiar shape?) Figs. 72 and 73 are geysers in

Yellowstone Park—“Old Faithful” and “the Sponge.” In the latter, notice

the corrugated formation, and the little stream that flows from its base.

[Illustration]

MAP OF MEXICO WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADE TEACHERS.

In the study of political divisions, details of structure, climate, etc.,

that were not brought out in the work on the continent as a whole, should

precede the historical study.

Again let it be stated, that the method and questions here given are not

to be followed literally; they are merely presented as suggestive hints

to teachers, who should frame their own questions so as to best lead the

pupil in his study to a realization of what the country is in itself,

and how geographical conditions affect the history and civilization of a

people.

Having a general idea of the geographical features of Mexico, the pupil

in its closer study, may give its location as lying south of the United

States and extending from Texas on the north to central America on the

south. He may describe its general shape as triangular or cornucopia

shaped. He may notice that the Rio Grande forms its natural boundary on

the north, for nearly three fourths of the distance from gulf to ocean.

What is the length of this river? Compare with length of the Mississippi.

How far is it navigable? (About 500 miles.) What is its character?

(Swift, crooked, and obstructed by rapids and sand-bars.) Notice the

break in the great western range of mountains, forming a depression

between the Sierra Madre and Sierra Nevada Ranges.

Just north of this break and west of the Colorado River, in the state of

California, lies the great Mohave Desert, in which is the famous “Death

Valley,” 100 feet below the level of the sea.

From the Gulf of Mexico on the east and the Pacific Ocean on the west

the land rises in a succession of terraces or plateaus, with elevations

varying from 2,000 feet to 8,000 feet above sea-level.

The great central or upper plateau has an elevation of about 3,000 feet

at the north, but ascends gradually to the height of 8,000 feet in the

southern part. Compare this with the Mohave Desert. With the great

plateau of the United States. With Florida (mean elevation 30 feet). In

this part, the eastern mountain wall of the great central plateau, and

the western, which is much higher of the two, culminate in a knot of

lofty mountains. This is a volcanic region, and here a number of isolated

volcanoes tower above the uplands in a line from east to west. Of these

snow-capped volcanoes the highest are Popocatapetl and Orizaba, which are

about 17,500 feet above the sea-level.

Compare these with the highest peaks of the Rockies. From this point the

land abruptly lowers to the low Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Peninsula

of Yucatan. Mexico has an area of 744,000 square miles. Compare with area

of the United States (3,605,000).

Why are there more rivers flowing into the Gulf of Mexico than into the

Pacific Ocean? Where is the greatest rainfall? What is the direction of

the prevailing wind? Can this be known from the map? The average annual

rainfall at the Gulf Coast is 150 inches. How does this compare with

that of Florida? (60 inches.) With that of Chicago? (36 inches.) What is

the rainfall on the western coast? (There is scarcely no rain at all.)

Why? Where is the source of the rivers on the west coast? The average

rainfall of the plateau is 27 inches. May we expect to find many rivers

flowing from it? What is likely to be the character of rivers flowing

into the Gulf? (They are swift torrents bearing trees and rocks, tearing

and cutting gorges and cañons from 800 to 1,000 feet deep.) Compare

these with rivers of the Atlantic Coast. How are the sand-bars at the

mouths of the rivers on the eastern coast to be accounted for? What

effect must they have upon commerce? What may we conclude as to the

character of Mexican harbors? Would the water-ways afford an enemy means

of transportation to the heart of the country? May we conclude that the

natural structure of the country affords protection from enemies? What

influence has this isolation had upon the progress of the people? Has

Mexico a navy? Why not?

Mexico has two seasons—the dry season and the rainy season. The latter

begins in June and lasts until October. What is the prevailing wind in

each season? What influence has altitude upon climate? Mexico has three

zones of climate, according to altitude. The mean temperature of the low

lying coast zone or “Hot Lands” is 77 to 82 degrees Fah. at Acapulco on

the western coast. What is the climate? (Hot or dry.) What is the climate

on the eastern or Gulf coast, where the mean temperature is 77 degrees

Fah. rising at Vera Cruz sometimes to 110 degrees Fah.? (Hot, humid and

unhealthy. In the rainy season the land is partly under water—steaming.

In the dry season the ground is parched and the air oven-like.) What is

the character of vegetation, birds, and animals? Compare vegetation with

that of cold or cool regions as to appearance, kinds of trees, etc., and

its value or usefulness to animals and man. Which city would be the most

desirable for a home?

What must be the natural effect of the existing structure and climatic

conditions upon the inhabitants of these areas? What kind of houses would

they be apt to build? Draw type of houses with environment. The plains

rise from the coast gradually to the height of about 2,000 feet where the

hills begin, and above these we find other plains.

How does this altitude affect the climate? Vast herds of cattle, horses

and sheep roam these plains, and well stocked ranches are in the northern

part. Agriculture is the chief occupation in the southern part. The soil

being largely volcanic is extremely fertile when irrigated. From the

height of 2,000 feet to about 7,000 feet we find the “Temperate Lands.”

These combine the conditions of two zones. The heat and moisture of the

“Hot Lands” uniting with the cooler breezes of the uplands, produces one

of the most equable and delightful climates in the world.

The mean temperature is from 62 to 70 degrees Fah. Compare this with the

mean temperature of Chicago. The heaviest annual rainfall recorded is 90

inches. Air-plants and creeping vines are everywhere. Flowers are more

delicately fragrant, birds are songsters, and insects are fewer than in

the lower hot lands.

Tropical products are found at a height of 4,000 feet. Rice, coffee,

sugar-cane, tobacco and fruits like olives, oranges and lemons are all

found here.

Evergreens, oaks and cedars are here as well, while maize and beans are

seen growing all the way up from the coast.

Grains grow best at a height of 6,000 feet. Compare these conditions with

those of the Hot Lands. Would the temperate lands be a desirable place

for a home? What effect has the climate upon the people? Compare them

with inhabitants of the low lands. Draw typical scenes, including houses,

of temperate lands.

About 7,000 feet we find the “Cold Lands.” Here the amount of rainfall is

only one-sixth of that of the low lands. Many small rivers having their

source in the eternal snows of the lofty mountain peaks, disappear before

reaching the lakes or lagoons. Why? Above 8,000 feet many varieties of

the fir tree are seen climbing the mountain slopes. Only four mountain

peaks are snow-capped all the year round.

The mountains are rich in metals, especially silver. Sulphur is obtained

from the very throat of the crater of Popocatapetl. Salt is obtained

from the lakes. The pupils should chalk model the plateau of Mexico

showing what they have learned of details of structure. On this plateau

every variety of surface is seen. Here are deserts, wooded hills, quiet

valleys, and broad level plains studded with clear sparkling lakes which

have no visible outlets. What feeds these lakes? What is their character?

(Saline.) Why are they salt? Are they getting larger or smaller? Why?

Compare the surface here described with that of Yucatan.

The soil of the latter is largely limestone. The surface is low and

monotonous, with scarcely a river or brook of any considerable size.

Midway between Vera Cruz on the Gulf coast and Acapulco on the Pacific

in the valley or basin of Anahuac, on a plateau of the interior, is

situated the renowned city of Mexico, at an altitude of about 7,800 feet

above sea-level. In which climate zone is it located? The valley is about

55 miles long, and 30 miles wide, and is hemmed in by mountains with the

great volcanoes to the southeast.

Higher than any other, and the first to attract the traveler’s eye as he

enters the valley, is the mighty Popocatapetl.

In the northern half of the valley are three small lakes and a number of

towns and villages. In the southern half there are three large lakes and

the city of Mexico. The lowest part of the basin is Lake Tezcuco. This

is only 6 feet below the level of the plateau on which the city stands.

The waters of this lake are salt, while Lake Xochimilco is a fresh water

lake, situated a few miles south of the city and is 4 feet higher. It is

from this lake that the city of Mexico obtains its water supply. What is

the population of the city? What do you know of its people?

Throughout the lessons the pupil should be continually led to imagine

what the life of the people must be, from what is known of their

environment. Lead him also to infer the reasons for their present

state of advancement in civilization. Have him sketch scenery, houses,

utensils, etc., illustrative of their modes of life.

Show pictures of ancient Aztec and Toltec ruins. Tell of the people who

came from the north and settled in the marsh near Lake Tezcuco.

Speak of their great works—temples, aqueducts, dykes and causeways. Refer

to evidences of culture as shown in ruins of buildings, fountains, baths,

tapestries, etc. What was their religion? Compare them with the Indians

of northern forest regions.

What were the motives of the Spaniards in the conquest of Mexico?

Describe the landing of Cortez and his army and let the pupil infer the

difficulties and dangers encountered on their way into the country; the

hot climate, shifting sands, tropical marshes, slippery precipices,

gorges with swollen streams, and the mountains to be crossed. Through

a pass they went in single file into a sterile region where there was

no water: through a second defile, a valley, and then another and more

difficult gorge until the summit reached, they descended into the

interior valleys. Here the Spaniards rested for four days, near the

desert infested with wolves and other wild animals. Tell of Cortez’

attack on the great city—his repulse—the siege, etc. Show that the

results were largely determined by the geography of the country.

Cortez conquered because the country being broken up by mountains,

plateaus and valleys naturally divided the people into many small tribes,

some speaking different languages, who were under forced subjection to a

federation consisting of warrior bandits from the stronger cities.

Give the result of the conquest to the Mexicans, and bring their history

down to the present day if desired.

What class of people now inhabit Mexico? What regions are most densely

populated? What is the population? Compare with the population of the

United States.

What is the form of government? Where are the largest cities? Where the

greatest seaports? Describe the modifications of surface structure since

the conquest. (Lake Tezcuco has receded from the city two and one half

miles. How?) Tell of the floating gardens.

[Illustration: 74 75 76 77 78]

The page of illustrations accompanying the above suggestions include the

Map of Mexico, Fig. 74, and also a section of the map, Fig. 75, showing

more plainly the old valley of Anahuac, and Lake Tezcuco. Figs. 76 to 78

are scenes typical of the country.

MAP OF SECTION OF THE UNITED STATES, FOR USE IN PREPARATORY LESSONS ON

THE CIVIL WAR.

The section under consideration lies east of the Mississippi, and south

of the Ohio and Potomac Rivers.

The motive for its study is to trace the influence of physical

environment upon the character and motives of the inhabitants.

The following plan for the lesson is suggested:

1. _Description of Country._ (_a_) character; (_b_) altitude; (_c_)

vegetation; (_d_) productions.

2. _Division into Belts._ (_a_) mountainous; (_b_) hilly or plateaus;

(_c_) lowlands.

3. _Interests of the People in these Sections to be Subserved._ (_a_)

Protection of homes; (_b_) railroads; (_c_) factories and cattle; (_d_)

open navigation; (_e_) non-interruption of labor.

4. _Plans of Attack by the Enemy._ (_a_) To gain a stronghold in the

mountains; (_b_) destroy railroads; (_c_) obstruct rivers; (_d_) capture

cattle; (_e_) devastate the fields.

[Illustration: 79]

Locate on the map of the United States the special section of country

to be studied, and chalk model in detail large map of the same. (See

Fig. 79.) From this map, together with typical pictures of scenery,

_i.e._, mountains, rivers, valleys, vegetation, industries, etc., the

pupil may imagine the general character of the land. What will be his

mental picture? (A rolling country, broken into hills and valleys, with

mountains more or less rounded and generally clothed with vegetation.)

Passing downwards from the heights, the surface becomes more gently

undulating and finally stretches away in long level fields.

The pupil may imagine what might be seen from a great height south of

the whole section. Immediately below is the sea. Florida at the right,

low and green, widens into the mainland in front. The sandy gulf shores

broken by many rivers and blending into light greens, darken and turn

into browns in the mountains. Lines of grays and purples in the distance

indicate the farther mountain ranges. The gentle western slope, and the

more abrupt eastern one are clothed with rich foliage, through which

gleam the waters of many rivers.

What is the trend of the mountain ranges? (From northeast to southwest.

Three nearly parallel ranges are seen with long valleys between.) Which

is the most important one? What is the whole mountain system called? (The

Appalachian System.) Give the names by which the principal ridges are

known. Where is the greatest height? (In North Carolina—Mt. Mitchell,

6,710 feet high. From this point the mountains lower gradually to the

north, being in Pennsylvania from about 1,000 feet to 1,500 feet in

height. To the south they drop more rapidly, through Georgia and Alabama.)

Are there any natural divisions in the eastern slope? (The mountains,

piedmont, and tide-water regions. The piedmont or old plateau region is

hilly, while the tide-water region, having been built by the rivers,

is low and near the coast often swampy and unhealthy. The rivers are

numerous, forming low islands at their mouths.) What are the divisions of

the western slope? (Mountains, plateaus and valley country. The plateaus

are long arms of high land stretching out from the mountains, under the

names of the Cumberland and Tennessee. Rivers have cut into the plateaus

which gradually widen into the Ohio and Mississippi.) What is the nature

of the soil? (Rich, low and level, adapted to the raising of cotton. Near

the Mississippi the land is often swampy and covered with a dense rank

growth of vegetation. The strong current of the river often changes the

course of its channel, thus forming the numerous bayous or long narrow

lakes found in Arkansas, Louisiana and Mississippi.)

What is the vegetation of the mountain regions? (Wooded with pine, oak

and other mountain trees.) What would be the chief products of this

region? How could the lumber be gotten out of the country? (Tell of

mines.) (Slightly wooded and richly turfed would describe the middle

section.) What would be the chief occupations of the people? (Farming and

stock-raising. In the low valley country the products are tobacco, sugar,

rice and cotton.)

At the time of the Civil War, what were the chief interests of

the mountain people? (In consequence of their industries they had

comparatively slight interest in the questions of slavery.)

Their knowledge of passes, cross-roads, sites for forts, etc., would make

them invaluable aids to either party. Of what value might the possession

of any special point be to either side during the war? (It might be used

as a fort or arsenal. To the opposing side it might prove an entering

wedge by which other points might be gained and so divide the people.)

What would be the interest of the miners? (They would favor peace for the

sake of uninterrupted labor. If by war their work should be stopped their

families would be reduced to starvation.)

Near the mines would be found railroads. What would be the policy of the

South in regard to them? (To protect them for their own use.) That of the

North? (Destruction or possession.) What would be the farmer’s interest?

(The protection of stock and farm products.)

In the lowland section the protection of railroads would be one interest.

What other interests would be endangered by war? (Vast fields of cotton

and other southern products would be subject to trampling or burning;

fences, houses and other buildings likely to be destroyed. The desertion

of slaves would leave fields uncultivated, want in the houses and homes

unprotected.)

If crops could be raised and gathered, what of their disposal? (The

market would be smaller, their delivery uncertain. Blockaded rivers and

deserted railroads are obstacles to commerce.)

What points would be desirable to gain against the South? (_a_) (A

foothold in the mountains and control of the railroads leading thereto;

(_b_) Possession of boats to be used on the Mississippi in closing ports

and the holding of them; (_c_) Occupation of a line of points on the

Tennessee or the Cumberland River, and so push the northern line farther

down; (_d_) Possession of seaports along the Atlantic coast.)

What could be planned for the opposite side? (_a_) (To gain possession

of Washington; (_b_) To fortify the northern boundary of the Confederacy;

(_c_) To protect the Mississippi River and the coast.) Read extracts from

war letters of Grant, McClellan and others to show the relation of the

plans of the generals to the geography of the country.

MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA.

To repeat what has been said in substance again and again, in the course

of these lessons (it cannot be too often brought to mind), if you know

your subject, _i.e._, have the knowledge, and desire to give it to others

you will be able to do so; more or less crudely it may be, but one learns

to do, only by doing.

Should you be in doubt as to the direction of line to use, analyze the

gestures you would naturally make in an oral expression of the same

subject, and see just what direction you wish to represent.

Do not misunderstand in regard to the representations of elevations on

the map. These are not drawn to represent actual shape, any more than

actual size or height; they merely indicate location.

The horizontal distances of the map should never be compared with the

altitudes, but compare altitudes with altitudes, and horizontal distance

with horizontal distance. Lead the pupil also to continually compare

the altitudes given, with those within his sense grasp; _e.g._, Mt.

Chimborazo is about 20,500 feet in height. What is the height of the

highest building, hill or mountain the pupil has ever seen? How many such

elevations placed one above another would equal the height of Chimborazo?

By such comparison the pupil will be in no danger of getting a wrong idea

of the altitude from the study of the maps. Horizontal distances may be

compared in the same way. A given distance of thousands of miles may be

compared with a shorter distance within the experience of the pupil.

[Illustration: MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA]

Remember this method of drawing or chalk modeling is designed chiefly to

suggest to the mind the main characteristic features of the continent.

To those who have read Lessons VIII. and IX. it is scarcely necessary

to illustrate the four stages in the map of South America or other

continents.

Notice that the land lowers towards the north in Peru and Bolivia and

also from the Guiana highlands. Get the effect by reducing the size of

the hills and mountains as they recede, and by making them less definite.

[Illustration: 80]

MAP OF EURASIA WITH SECTIONS IN DETAIL.

Your pupils may soon excel their teacher in chalk modeling. This is

encouraging. The true teacher will rejoice at such proofs of success in

instruction and be stimulated to renewed endeavors.

It is of such vital importance that pupils acquire the habit of

expression through drawing. Fig. 80 is a map of “Eurasia” or Europe and

Asia together as one continent. It shows the highlands which divide the

waters of the northern or long slope, from those of the short slope,

i.e., the backbone of the continent or continental axis. About midway

between the extreme eastern and western coasts, note the high plateau

or center from which many mountain ranges radiate—the Pamir or “Roof of

the World” 15,000 feet in height. The plateau of Thibet is also 15,000

feet high, but towering above these are many lofty mountain peaks, some

reaching the height of 25,000 to 29,000 feet.

From these plateaus, those of Gobi and Iran, and the highlands in Europe,

the land lowers more or less abruptly as it recedes to the north, east

and south. To represent the Arctic coast, where the land is mostly low,

draw with the horizontal stroke. Between this and the highlands use

broken horizontal or slightly curved lines to indicate the broken hilly

surface. Be careful to keep the great depressions level around the Black,

the Caspian and Aral Seas.

[Illustration: 81 82 83 84 85 86]

[Illustration: 87 88 89 90 91]

The Scandinavian Peninsula (Fig. 81) is drawn more in detail to show the

fiord coast.

Fig. 82 is a typical view of the coast. A map of India, with the Himalaya

Mountains on the north, and the Hindu Kush Mountains on the west, is

seen in Fig. 83. Notice the source of its three great rivers. Fig. 84

is a typical view on the Bramahpootra River. Fig. 85 is a map of Greece

and Fig. 86 a view of the country immediately surrounding the Acropolis.

Figs. 87-91 are a map of Japan and typical scenes illustrative of the

country, houses, and costumes of the people.

[Illustration]

REVIEW OF INSTRUCTIONS. MAPS OF AFRICA AND AUSTRALIA.

In reviewing the directions for chalk modeling, the following points are

noted, (_a_) A mental picture made clearer by expression; (_b_) A desire

to express through the medium of chalk and blackboard; (_c_) Analysis

into terms of drawing, as masses and sub-masses, direction of line,

light and shade; (_d_) Quality of line, attained through “feeling” or

harmony with the subject; (_e_) Artistic expression (no modifications, as

erasures or additions); (_f_) Persistent effort.

Through the observance of the hints given on these points adequate skill

in execution may be acquired.

The plateaus of Africa and Australia are classed together in this lesson.

Little is known of the western half of the latter, but the eastern half

of Australia has its rivers and river basins.

We see also how it has been worn into mountain ranges; the highest part

being in the southeast. Africa is also wearing back from the coasts and

the plateau itself has many long river basins, the longest of which is

that of the Nile. The Nile is not only the longest river in Africa but is

the third river of the globe as to length. The valleys of the continent

are mostly very narrow, especially the valleys of this river.

[Illustration]

The Sahara Desert is represented as being broken into a number of

plateaus and depressed regions, which is expressed by short, nearly

horizontal lines.

The Abyssinian Plateau is given in detail in Fig. 92. Notice that it

lowers gradually towards the south, but abruptly towards the north and

that its surface is broken into many plateaus and deeply cut river beds

by tributaries to the Nile.

[Illustration: 92 MAP OF THE ABYSSINIAN PLATEAU.]

BOOKS OF REFERENCE.

The following books of reference may be found useful in the study of

geography as a preparation for map drawing:

Abbott. Waste-land Wanderings. _Appleton._

Agassiz. Journey in Brazil.

Appleton. Physical Geography.

Arrold. Through Persia by Caravan.

Baker. The Nile and Tributaries of Abyssinia.

Bartholomäi. Travels and Discoveries in North and Central America.

Bates. Bird’s-eye View of Central and South America.

Bates. The Naturalist of the Amazon.

Biart. The Aztecs.

Brown. Countries of the World.

Chamberlin and Salisbury. Geology. _H. E. Holt & Co._

Croll. Climate and Cosmology. _Appleton._

Croll. Climate and Time. _Appleton._

Dall. Alaska and Its Resources.

Dallas. Caves. _Humboldt Library._

Dana. Geological Stories.

Darwin. Formation of Vegetable Mould. _Humboldt Library._

Davis. Elementary Meteorology.

Encyclopædias.

Fitzgerald. Australia.

Foster. The Mississippi Valley.

Geikie. Text-book of Geology. _Macmillan & Co._

Geikie. Geological Sketches at Home or Abroad.

Geikie. Physical Geography. _Macmillan & Co._

Geikie. Text-book of Geography.

Geikie. Earth Lore.

Gilbert. Lake Bonneville. _U. S. Geological Survey._

Giberne. Ocean of Air.

Gilbert. Henry Mountains. _U. S. Geological Survey._

Guyot. Earth and Man. _Scribner._

Guyot. Physical Geography.

Guyot. Common School Geography.

Hale. Mexico.

Hart. Geology and Physical Geography of Brazil.

Hinman. Eclectic Physical Geography.

Hill. Physiography.

Huxley. Physiography.

Jackman. Nature Study for the Common Schools.

Jackman. Field Work in Nature Study.

Johnson. Surface Zones of the Globe.

Johnson. Geography—Physical, Historical and Descriptive.

Judd. Volcanoes.

Jukes-Brown. Hand-book of Physical Geography. _Bell._

Kingsley. Town Geology. _Humboldt Library._

Lawson. Geography of Coast Lines.

Le Conte. Elements of Geology. _Appleton._

Longman. School Geography.

Longman. Physical School Atlas.

Lubbock. Beauties of Nature. _Humboldt Library._

Lyell. Principles of Geology.

Mill. Realm of Nature. _Scribner._

Milner. Gallery of Geography.

Mortimer. Journey Across Australia.

Nansen. First Crossing of Greenland.

Nordenskjold. Voyage of the Vega.

Ober. Travels in Mexico.

Palgrave. Dutch Guiana.

Parker. How to Study Geography. _Appleton._

Poole. Egypt.

Reclus. Earth and Its Inhabitants. _Appleton._

Reclus. Birds’-eye View of the World. _Ticknor & Co._

Reclus. The History of a Mountain. _Harper Bros._

Reclus. The Earth.

Reclus. The Earth, the Sea and the Sky. (_2 Vols._)

Ritter. Comparative Geography. _Van Antwerp._

Ritter. Geographical Studies. _Bragg & Co._

Robert. The Earth’s History. _Scribner._

Schuyler. Turkestan.

Shaler. Aspects of the Earth. _Scribner._

Shaler. Nature and Man in America.

Shaler. Our Continent.

Squier. Peru.

Stanford. Compendiums of Geography and Travel.

Stanley. The Congo.

Stanley. In Darkest Africa.

Taylor. Arabia, India, China and Japan.

Treat. Home Studies in Nature. _Harper._

Tyler. Anahuac, or Mexico and the Mexicans.

Tyndall. Forms of Water. _Humboldt Library._

United States Geological Surveys from 4th to 12th Vols. Inclusive.

Vincent. Thirty Thousand Miles’ Travel in Australia.

Wallace. Darwinism.

— What Darwin Saw.

Williams. The Middle Kingdom.

Whymper. Travels and Adventures in Alaska.

Williams. Geography of the Ocean.

Winchell. Geological Excursions. _Griggs._

Winchell. Sketches of Creation. _Harper._