INTRODUCTION.
[Illustration]
NECESSITY FOR THE STUDY OF STRUCTURAL GEOGRAPHY PREPARATORY TO THE
DRAWING OF MAPS.
The fundamental object in the study of Geography, as we understand it,
is to acquire mental images of the present appearance of the earth’s
surface; its structure, the rocky material of which it is composed, and
the causes and effects of its changes, as a preparation for the home of
organic life.
It is a study of the earth as a material basis for the evolution of man,
and the development of civilization. It leads up to a search for the laws
and workings of the creative forces—forces relating to our planet and to
the sun, the central source of light and heat.
This study has a different meaning to different persons. To one it means
the study of all that lies between the covers of a book, or memorizing
other people’s sayings. To another it means “Connected information
regarding the condition of man’s life on this planet”—again “Geography
is a description of the earth’s surface, or anything that affects or is
affected by it.” A more common definition is, “Geography is a description
of the earth’s surface and its inhabitants.”
An ability to recognize in present environment that which leads to
an understanding of geographical conditions in general, is much to be
desired and is the aim of the teacher of the present day. Geologists
tell us that the same processes are going on now that have ever been in
operation, in the fitting of the earth for the habitation of man. That
these changes are taking place is implied in the very fact that we are
studying the earth’s present appearance.
The study of the history of these changes, and of the nature of the
earthy material as shown in rock and soil, and in vegetation, and of the
influence of heat, light, air and moisture, means the study of all the
natural sciences; not as special isolated studies, but bound together in
one great whole. So closely are they related, merging into and impinging
upon each other as they do, that there seems to be no place or line of
separation between them.
The larger part of the surface of the earth (nearly three-fourths) is
covered with water, and the action of this mighty agent, under the
influence of that great dynamic force and life-giving energy, heat, opens
an immense field for investigation.
These combined influences constitute the study of the environment of all
organic life; and knowing these in a given case, we get an approximate
idea of the stage of development. The development of man, the highest
type of organic life, depends largely upon structural, climatic,
vegetable and animal environment.
To know these is to understand his habits of life, his reasons for choice
of homes, and to judge of his probable advancement in civilization.
The powerful influence which the physical features of the earth’s
surface have exerted in shaping the current of historical events, can
hardly be realized, until thoughtful investigation of the subject
has been made. The knowledge of geographical conditions, as climate,
mountains, valleys, rivers and seas, with vegetable and animal life gives
us the theatre of action for events in history.
As the mere existence of mountain range, desert, sea or river, may
be essentially the influence which has led to the growth or downfall
of empires, it is clearly seen that a sound knowledge of structural
geography is absolutely necessary for all intelligent study of history;
no general relation of important occurrences can be traced without it.
Nearly, if not equally necessary is it in the study of literature. In
order to properly appreciate the works of our best writers, both of prose
and poetry, an acquaintance with nature, a scientific and geographical
knowledge, local and general, is very essential. It forms a basis for
the correct understanding of books, since the best writers and thinkers
of all ages have been students of nature. Their writings are filled
with lessons and illustrations, as well as generalizations drawn from
close observations of her methods. If, then, a knowledge of structural
geography is requisite to the true understanding of man’s relation to
man and the world around him, it becomes important that the subject be
presented in such a manner as to attract and hold the interest of the
pupil; and properly presented there can be nothing more interesting than
the study of his immediate environment—that which touches him in his
every day experience.
This study of his immediate environment is essential to the forming of
mental images of areas and surface forms outside and beyond his sense
grasp and to a comprehension of the structure and surface contour of the
world at large: such mental images being fundamentally a necessity to the
delineation of adequate structural maps of the whole or any part of the
earth’s surface.
NECESSITY FOR FIELD LESSONS AND IMPORTANCE OF FORMING, IN CONNECTION WITH
THEM, A HABIT OF MODELING, PAINTING AND DRAWING.
The study of geography, which in the past consisted mainly in the
memorizing of meaningless names with little or no exercise of the
reasoning faculties, or opportunities for making generalizations through
acts of comparison and inference, has been superseded by instruction of a
more rational order.
We have learned that to memorize names and locations of mountains, rivers
and lakes, without seeing their relation to a whole, or to make only
superficial observations of extended areas of land, results merely in
indefinite mental impressions, leaving out the very basis of all concise
and clearly defined geographical knowledge.
To the end that definite mental images may be acquired, field excursions
under the direction of competent leaders are now advocated, and when
entered upon with an intelligent purpose are held to be indispensable
factors in the correct study of geography.
[Illustration: SECTION OF STREAM SHOWING RAPIDS.]
Under these conditions (the intelligent purpose and the competent
leader), the pupil who visits a lake is likely to have a more adequate
mental image of old ocean, than one who has never seen a lake or other
large body of water. One who has seen low hills with their out-cropping
rock, and the action of small streams upon them, will have a better idea
of what mountains and rivers may be.
In the new education the pupils are thus in the field lesson brought face
to face with nature. Through these lessons the powers of the imagination
are quickened and strengthened by the continual observation of surface
forms, the true basis for all attempts to image the structure of the
earth.
Inferences are made at every step of the way as to the history of the
physical features observed, and the nature of the forces that have acted
upon them to shape and distribute. Areas and forms of land are constantly
being compared as to shape, size, width, length and height, and simple
generalizations, formed from direct observations, are combined with other
generalizations, to form those that are higher or more comprehensive.
This is but a brief suggestion of the part the field lesson bears to
education in general.
In the particular study of geography it must be borne in mind that no
essential knowledge can be gained except through close observation of the
earth’s surface forms. As the true teacher of science in his classes in
botany or zoology leads his pupils to an individual study of plants and
animals, and also to a study of these in their surroundings, their social
relations, so also the student of geography goes directly to nature for
all fundamental knowledge pertaining to the subject.
Field lessons, though conducted mainly as contributing to the student’s
fund of knowledge, are also a source of pleasure, and may be made the
foundation of a more healthful love for and delightful companionship
with nature. They are not alone a mine of knowledge but also a perfect
well-spring of inspiration.
In every stream, plain and valley, new beauties of form and color are
continually presenting themselves. Varying tints of landscape vistas,
drifting cloud masses, softly rounding hills, majestic mountain forms,
the play of sunlight and shadow; all make subtle appeal. Entering into
harmony with creation we are led into harmony with its source.
Everything combined, all the wealth of color, warmth of sunlight, song
of birds, hum of insects and breath of growing things, conspire to the
unfoldment of the being on all the planes of life’s expression, for,
the first and controlling impulse is toward expression; expression on
the physical, mental and emotional planes—in fulfillment of the law of
growth, for expression is a necessity to growth.
_Expression._ Geography has been said to be an analytical study of the
earth’s surface, or the study of the separate landscape elements, such as
form, color and organic structure.
Geography is emphatically a study of form, the forms of the earth’s
surface features, each to be studied in relation to other and contrasting
forms, as well as in relation to their environment.
Upon the pupils’ return from the field, the forms and areas observed
may be modeled in sand, sketched on paper, or chalk modeled on the
blackboard. Maps may be drawn of the areas studied and sketches may be
made in color of stretches of different soils and verdure, together with
the atmospheric effects observed. Tints of sea, sky and cloud, color and
shades of rock and foliage are all speaking in tones which the child may
interpret and render intelligible to others, through the medium of brush
and paints.
It is of great importance to his future growth that the student acquire
the habit of freely expressing himself through the art modes of modeling,
painting and drawing, since much of his mental power depends upon such
expression; for by holding in mind, while in the act of expression, the
images acquired through observation, more of the details of the object or
scene as well as the generalities are recalled.
[Illustration: RIVER BASIN.]
Expression thus reacts upon self, causing the mental picture to be
intensified and expression to become more definite and complete. No
other means are so adequate to this end: _i.e._, the forming of distinct
images in the mind, unless it may be the giving of oral and written
descriptions. These, of course, should be demanded of the pupil as well.
By this demand the pupil sees the necessity of closer observation and
investigation that he may give a fuller and more truthful expression,
and with careful leading he becomes a critic of his own thought and
skill, which is a step pre-eminently educative.
_Aim of Field Lesson._ A direct purpose or aim of the field lesson in
teaching geography should be to form a clear idea or mental picture of a
river basin as a basis for imaging other river basins, and as a unit for
the study of the continent, or of all land surface: and to know the river
basin is to know its history; that is, the history of the river itself,
its valley, and the story of its building and shaping.
It may not be possible for all students to make a study of the whole of
a river or brook basin, yet it may be done by sections—getting a general
idea of the slope of the river bed, water-parting, slope and valley.
The action of the forces of nature may also be seen in the changes now
going on in the different sections—the cutting back of the stream at
its source, its eroding power, its carrying power, and its building or
leveling power.
If it is not possible to take the children to the field for nature study,
they may find fruitful sources of study without.
_City Schools._ Nearly every school-house has some surroundings that may
be studied to advantage, except those in closely built city streets; but
even in such cases there is always the work of rain, heat, frost, and
wind to study, as well as insect life. The drifting of sand and snow, the
frost on the window-panes, the forming of ice around doors and windows
and the effect of heat in its melting, rain-drops, clouds, puddles of
water in the slight depressions of sills and walks, with tiny streams
flowing therefrom, are all to be observed.
Where did the dirt on the windows and sills come from, especially after
some snow-storm? Tiny seeds in the corners where the winds have left
them; insects in the spring;—where did they come from? Where were they
all winter? These and many other hints might be given for such study.
[Illustration: THE CUTTING BACK OF A STREAM AT ITS SOURCE.]
_The country_ furnishes a rich field for investigation. Around every
building and in many localities that can be easily reached, most of the
types of the earth’s surface forms may be found. Care must be taken that
they are considered as _types_, or the pupil might answer the question,
“How high are mountains?” as the child did who said in reply, “Two inches
high.”
In the lower grades of school, much of the geography work should be the
direct lesson in the field followed by lessons in school. The higher
grades, also, should continue the frequent field excursions which are
begun in the lower.
[Illustration: SOURCE OF BROOK IN NEARLY LEVEL COUNTRY.]
Visits may be made to the hills, groves, lakes and ponds of the vicinity,
and upon returning to the school-room, these and surrounding areas may
be modeled in sand or clay, painted in water-color or drawn on the
blackboard.
[Illustration: FARM IN CENTRAL NEW YORK.]
Brook basins may be studied as presenting many if not all of the features
of the river basins. Maps may also be made of these areas, as well as
detailed drawings of special features.
As has been said, the pupil should model and draw continually, in
connection with or after every lesson in the field. It is the very best
method by which to attain mental growth, and should of course, be the
genuine expression of his own mental images gained through observation.
He should model and draw all surface features or areas seen in his
excursions. He may model, in sand, putty or clay, maps of the areas of
the school-yard, farms or parks in the vicinity; or chalk model them,
then indicate upon them the boundaries of any sub-divisions they may
have, such as fields, clumps of trees, houses or other buildings.
[Illustration: MAP SHOWING ITS RELATION TO THE BROOK AND RIVER.]
_Imaginary Areas._ Let the pupil also sketch on the blackboard, imaginary
scenes and typical features of other areas and countries under the same
or contrasting climatic and other conditions; always questioning, as he
draws his mental picture—if of a river, for instance—what is the cause
of its rapidity, what its probable depth and effect on the soil, why it
cuts here or builds there, and why the slopes back of it are terraced as
they are.
If he represents islands, he should ask himself the question why they are
rocky or alluvial; _i.e._, what their origin; and never represent in any
expression that which is contradictory and so untrue to nature.
Landscapes typical of the different zones of temperature, showing
characteristic structure, vegetation, homes, habits and occupations of
inhabitants may be drawn.
Maps, also, of these areas and those adjoining, may be chalk modeled.
As the mind becomes stored with separate images acquired through actual
observation of areas of the earth’s surface, gradually, by the combining
and blending of these, a new mental image, a comprehensive picture is
formed, corresponding in the main to the general features of the whole
earth, with its uplifted masses and lower plains, its natural divisions
of continents, seas and oceans, its atmospheric and climatic conditions.
If the habit has been formed of chalk modeling imaginary areas, as well
as those within the sense grasp, it will be a comparatively easy matter
to chalk model a map of the whole continent. On this the student may mark
the boundaries of all political divisions as he studies them, and locate
the important cities and places of interest.
_Practical Suggestions._ Before we leave the subject of field lessons,
some practical suggestions in regard to them are here offered.
Actual observations may be made on the action and effects of rivers,
underground water, rain, wind, heat and frost.
The effects of glacial action, and the eruptive forces of nature may also
be seen in places.
To study river action it is not necessary to visit a river (if there
be none near); any small stream of water, any tiny rivulet beside the
roadway, tells its story of wearing and building, its vertical cutting
and its swinging from side to side. It has its miniature valley, its
basin and water-parting and possibly a delta at its mouth. It may also
have its cascade or waterfall.
[Illustration: RIVULET SHOWING FALL OF WATER AND DELTA.]
The wearing of rock, through the influence of rain, frost and heat, may
be seen in any stone building, fence or pavement.
Effects of heat and moisture on vegetation, as influencing the growth
of plants and trees, should be noticed. The growth of shrubs and trees
during a dry season can be measured and compared with that of wet seasons.
The observer should mark the effect of vegetation in the action of rain
on a grassy slope—how the grass protects the soil, preventing it from
being washed away, and how, by holding back the water so that it flows
more slowly, it is less destructive in its action.
To add to the interest, the pupil may be led to imagine the effects upon
climate and streams, of the denuding of large areas of their forests;
also how rock sculpturing, in the forming of gorges, cañons, etc., would
be modified by the volume and force of streams.
Observation should also be made on the making of soils, their
constituents and relative proportions of loam, sand, gravel and clay, and
the relation of these to plant and animal life.
The part that the common earth-worm bears in constantly uniting,
enriching and otherwise preparing the soils for the support of vegetable
life, may be seen in many areas. (It has been computed that in one year
several tons of soil are brought up and distributed by them, within an
area of an acre of land.)
A study made of the action of underground water, as shown in common and
intermittent springs, would be full of interesting suggestions.
The effect of glaciers may be seen in part and their tremendous influence
imagined, by the presence of the countless numbers of striated boulders,
pieces of rock and pebbles, which are strewn all over our prairies
hundreds of miles from any mountains which could have been their home.
It is not necessary to witness the devastation of a cyclone in order to
study the effects of wind action. The piling of sand on the sea-shore,
the drifting of snow or the whirling of dust in the street illustrate
this. The observer may notice where the dust blown from the street has
choked and buried the grasses and weeds beside it, and imagine what might
be the fate of forests in the path of encroaching sand-dunes.
[Illustration: SAND-DUNE ON THE SHORE OF LAKE MICHIGAN.]
Pupils may be told of the dunes which travel great distances: that one
way by which this is known is by noting trees and houses that were once
back of the traveling sand-hills and are now in front of them; also tell
of the sites of ancient cities long buried and now being excavated and
brought to light again.
IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING TO INTERPRET PICTURES AS AN AID TO IMAGING THE
CONTINENT.
The ability to image the continent or any part of it, from the reading
of pictures, is of great importance. It is an inexpressible aid to the
imagination in the study of areas that lie outside of the sense grasp.
Good pictures should be chosen: pictures showing several different
views of the same section of a country; pictures that are a truthful
representation of both detail and generalities. (Many wood cuts are as
good as photographs for this purpose. Great care, however, should be
taken that they are faithful transcripts.)
After a close study of them, questions may be asked the pupil as to
climate, structure, nature of rock and soil; whether it may be supposed
to be an arid or fertile region; whether the river basins are young or
old; what agents were most active in shaping its features, and what its
probable destiny: or the pupil may be led to give his own inferences as
to conditions, without direct questioning.
In this way contrasting sections of country may be studied and compared,
thus making the mental picture more vivid and complete.
[Illustration: MAP OF ABYSSINIAN HIGHLAND.
(Drawn from information gained through interpretation of pictures and
written description.)]
It is understood that these mental images gained from such study of
pictures, have as a basis, images acquired from actual observation of the
earth’s surface. From this mental picture, supplemented by images gained
by oral and written descriptions, maps may be chalk modeled which will
contain all the essential features of structure.
[Illustration: YOUNG RIVER BASIN.]
Valuable information for the making of maps has been gained in this way;
indeed, adequate maps cannot be made without this means of acquiring
the necessary knowledge, which the delineator has not been able to gain
through travel and personal investigation.
Through this study or reading of pictures a natural interest is aroused
in the mind of the pupil to see located on the map (that is, to see in
relation to the whole) countries and places of special interest; such as
natural wonders of structure, and remarkable instances of man’s skill
and power in overcoming obstacles and improving his environment.
Especially will this be the case if the teacher accompanies the
descriptions with rapid illustrations on the blackboard.
[Illustration: TEPEE OR WIGWAM OF THE SIOUX INDIANS.]
Necessity for skill in drawing on the part of the teacher, becomes very
evident as the desirability of frequent illustrations is felt, and the
fact is also realized that by it untold influence for good is exerted
over the mind of the pupil. It is an aid to correct mental picturing,
which the teacher cannot afford to omit.
[Illustration: COAST OF ALASKA.
(Showing its drowned valleys caused by the gradual sinking of the land,
also glaciers, Alaskan hut and totem pole.)]
Special features are more readily understood when drawn in detail: as
mountain peaks, stern or forbidding in outline, or lofty and grand
in their mantles of snow and rivers of ice (Mt. Blanc); valleys
with wooded slopes and streams of water; lakes, waterfalls (Niagara
Falls); glaciers and icebergs, with typical scenes of Arctic regions,
including inhabitants with their homes (Muir Glaciers), (Alaskan huts
and totem-poles); deserts and oases, with typical trees and surrounding
objects (palm trees, pyramids, camels); Indian homes and environment;
dykes of Holland, Suez Canal, St. Gothard Tunnel, Great Wall of China,
etc.
[Illustration: THE CHALK MODELED MAP.]
MAPS OF THE PAST AND PRESENT.
As it is impossible to adequately teach the surface features of a country
with only a vague idea of its structure, and with no aids in the form of
pictures, drawing or modelings by which these surface features may be
illustrated, there arises the necessity for maps.
These, to be of any real service, must be a representation of the form
and character of the area which is the subject of study, and must
indicate the relation of part to part, parts to the whole, and the whole
to parts.
As symbols and more than symbols, they must bring to the mind vivid
pictures of the real country or continent, not as too commonly taught;
“A mental picture of the map, so clear and consistent ... that he (the
pupil) can read the answers to all questions concerning it, from his
mental map, as easily as he could from the printed one, if it were before
him.”
This is to limit and cramp the mind’s action, as the pupil sees only
the map and its corresponding concept of map, its size, boundaries and
patches of colored paper. It gives no idea of relation or correspondence
between the map and the actual world of life, form and color.
_Aim of Teacher._ In using maps it should be the aim of teachers
to create in the mind a complete, harmonious picture; the blending
together of the several concepts of structure, climate, drainage, soil,
vegetation, animal life, races of men, etc., corresponding to reality,
or real life in the real world.
_The flat political maps_ of the past made no attempt to show any
structural features except those of horizontal or level plains, markings
which show the locations of mountain ranges and volcanoes, and lines
indicating rivers and outlines of continents or coasts.
These maps have had comparatively little meaning to the young pupil.
There was in them no suggestion of solidity or mass; the contents to him
seemed flat and thin, and confined between coasts which were sharply
defined. Tent-like mountains crossed ghost-like surfaces, and thread-like
rivers were made to zigzag along in an erratic and irresponsible way,
showing to him no reason whatever for their being.
Many teachers or pupils have not known how to interpret maps. They have
not realized that, where rivers rise in certain localities (especially
if more than one rises in the same place), there is a reason for their
rising just there and for their flowing in different directions; that
their source is probably at an elevation or rise of land (called a divide
or water-parting), that there is likely to be more rainfall on the side
of the mountain range that has the more rivers, and that this has a close
relation to the direction of the prevailing winds.
_Natural Boundaries._ In the past study of these maps, outlines of
political divisions have been memorized. It was not realized that many
of the boundaries of those areas were fixed in the beginning by the very
nature of the surface structure, and that they are where they are, simply
because they could not well be anywhere else. (See Mexico, India, Italy.)
[Illustration: MAP OF THE CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL.
(With larger map showing its relation to Lake Michigan and the
Mississippi River, also sections in detail.)]
_History._ We have seen that the study of history cannot be successfully
taught without a knowledge of structural geography on the part of
teacher and pupil; so we may say the same of maps, that their use is
of fundamental importance in that study, and the ability to read them
understandingly is as indispensable as it is in the study of geography.
To try to teach history otherwise would be a waste of time and effort.
The habit of locating the events recorded, of tracing upon the map
the route of an army, or the line of an important road or canal, and
observing the impediments or natural obstructions to be overcome, with
the great advantages to be derived therefrom, together with inferences
as to the time and labor required, has the effect of making the study of
history of living interest, especially if the map used indicates such
surface structure.
In the structural map the student readily sees the meaning to commerce of
the cutting of a canal which would unite two large bodies of water, or
the effect the building of roads and bridges across hitherto impassable
regions would have upon the life and growth of a people in the opening
up of new and extensive areas to civilization, and consequently the
development of their own internal resources.
The importance of this habit of usage, or constant reference to the
map, is also recognized when one realizes how it fixes in the memory
not only the location of cities and boundaries of ancient empires, but
the geographical structure and environment associated with their growth
and with important historic events; making plain the reasons for, or
causes why, certain events occurred at certain places, as the inevitable
consequence of their environment.
Light dawns upon the pupil as he studies. He sees that environment has
been an important factor in the development of the human race. He traces
step by step in imagination the growth of civilization, from the time
that man in his nomad stage first drove his herds into the valley in
search of food and water. There, finding the soil productive, water
unfailing in supply, and the valley protected from marauders by natural
barriers, as desert or mountain walls, he fixes his home; in the course
of time comfortable dwellings are constructed, land is cultivated and the
place becomes a center of civilization.
In connection with this train of thought, the student by contrast notes
the far different effects of environment as shown by life in the Arctic
or other regions, and he turns to his map with renewed interest and eager
inquiry.
_Literature._ The habit also of locating on the map every place, natural
feature or country read about, should be cultivated, as it is of
importance in obtaining a correct understanding of an author’s meaning.
If we did not have the knowledge of physical structure in mind as a stage
on which the actors move, much of our literature would lose its value,
becoming flat and uninteresting.
To know the great lake region adds to one’s interest in Longfellow’s
“Hiawatha,” and the tales of the early explorers; and a knowledge of the
Catskills and the geography of the Hudson River valley gives greater zest
to the enjoyment of Irving’s “Rip Van Winkle” and “Sleepy Hollow.”
It is also necessary to the understanding of the stories of Holland
(“Hans Brinker”) that we know the habits of the Hollanders arising from
the physical characteristics of their environment.
To read intelligently Scott, Dickens, George Elliot and others is to
understand the peculiarities of climate and structure of the British
Isles. The old Greek stories and the German Folk Lore as well, demand
for their understanding and interpretation, that we place them not only
in relation to the habits and thoughts of the people, but also to the
physical foundation of the country itself.
_Relief Map._ The nearer a map corresponds in its inherent form and
material, to the surface features of the earth which it is designed to
represent, the more of reality does it recall to the mind. The most
effective map of this kind and the one which corresponds most closely to
the reality is the modeled map of putty or plaster, showing structure in
relief.
These maps have been in use for years, and have been of incalculable
interest and benefit to those whose stock of knowledge concerning
geographical structure had been mainly gathered from the flat political
map and old modes of teaching.
On seeing a relief map of one of the continents for the first time, there
arises a sense of wonder and surprise, and as the realization dawns upon
one of the continuity of the great mass of land represented, with its
altitudes and depressions, and that it is one stupendous aggregation of
soil, rock and vegetation, surrounded by a great expanse of water, a
feeling of awe and astonishment is awakened.
As this new light comes to the student, he looks with interest and
eagerness to see the plan of it all. We do not mean to say that he
sees in the map before him an actual correspondence to the earth’s
surface structure, that is, forms that are reproductions in miniature
of mountain range and valley, but he sees a representation of them
calculated to arouse his imagination to a lively degree. He is enabled
to picture to himself great slopes crowned by lofty mountain peaks,
and the meeting of their lower edges where mighty rivers flow. He sees
in imagination how these waters have cut deep channels into the great
uplifted masses, how they have torn jagged gashes into their rugged sides
as they leaped and tumbled through dark cañons, grinding off rocks that
form sediment constantly to be deposited later on upon the plain below.
He easily understands that they must act as a source of drainage for wet
lands and as channels for the irrigation of dry areas.
In looking upon the great bodies of water, oceans, seas, lakes and gulfs,
as represented on the maps, he questions the relation of these waters
to the land, their depth and what place they fill in the economy of
nature. Indeed, the relief map has an awakening effect, quickening the
imagination and stimulating to mental effort—earnest thought.
They are invaluable in their place and have come to stay; yet on account
of their weight and general unwieldiness they are not practically as
useful as maps which are lighter and more easily handled.
_The papier mache_ maps in relief, although much lighter in weight, are
still very bulky if made large enough to be of much practical use as
wall maps, since they cannot be folded or reduced in size to facilitate
transportation, or removal from room to room.
The best of these, also, are modeled in such low relief that they are
better adapted to the use of pupils in the higher than in the lower
grades. Other maps of rather recent date are the _typographical_ map and
the _contoured_ map. The former shows general altitudes by the use of
shades of color, and is of great value to one who can interpret it, but
only a confused mass of signs and symbols to the young student, and thus
not much more helpful to him than was the old reference map.
In the contoured map, the altitudes are scientifically represented
by lines drawn to an exact scale, and such maps are most valuable to
students of the higher grades.
A structural map suitable to all grades of pupils, the lower as well as
the higher grades, seems highly essential; especially should it be one
that is adapted to the teacher’s use while before the class—one to teach
from. This should be entirely different from a reference map. It should
plainly show the great facts of physical geography or surface structure,
as well as some detail, and this in a simple form. For the lower grades
there should be no lines to mark the political divisions, neither
should there be any names of countries, states, or cities to designate
localities.
Everything should be omitted that would have a tendency to divert the
attention from the chief function of the map which is, to aid in the
formation of a mental picture or image, corresponding to the structural
features of the real country or continent.
_The Chalk Modeled Map._ These maps, following the use of the putty or
plaster relief maps, should be the only ones placed before the pupils
of the third and fourth grades, or even higher grades, until they have
gained mental power to read and understand the signs and symbols of the
map, and realize clearly the chief structural features of the whole globe.
The student should be enabled by the use of maps to picture in his mind
the configuration of the whole earth; the distribution and shape of land
and water surfaces, the great structural division of continents, the
slopes and counter-slopes with their crowned heights and level plains,
the great land masses and river basins, peninsulas, gulfs and bays,
islands and their relation to the mainland.
In fine, the whole world surface should become a reality to him if the
map is rightly taught. This will be an easy matter for a teacher who
is alive to the beauty of the world around us and who has a personal
knowledge or clearly pictured concepts of the real country. Such an one
will readily see the value of the maps as an aid to the pupil in gaining
a comprehensive mental picture of the earth’s surface.
She will remember that the mere placing of the maps before the pupil is
not enough, that they will be as unmeaning to him as the flat political
map, unless he has already in mind the primary concepts acquired through
observation of surface forms, and has made his inference as to cause from
the effects seen.
Of what value will it be to him to know that certain lines indicate a
mountain range or river, unless he has an approximate idea of what a
mountain range or river is?
For the use of the more advanced pupils of the higher grades, who see
the relation of structural environment to man in his development as
a nation, the relation of natural structural divisions to political
divisions, these maps should have lines drawn upon them to indicate the
boundaries of such divisions. Names, also, of countries, mountain and
river systems should be marked, and the large bodies of water of the
interior. Later on, the smaller divisions of states and provinces, gulfs
and bays, lakes and rivers, with their tributaries, should be shown, and
important cities may also be located; in the end, all the data needed as
a reference map.
The map devised to fulfil these conditions, and now in considerable
use in this country, is called the “Chalk Modeled Map.” It is drawn to
represent surface structure in relief, giving much of the effect of an
engraving or photograph of a relief map, yet intrinsically more truthful
and artistic than any such representation could be.
There is an immense difference between this and a drawing from a relief
map, or from a photograph of one. In this map the delineator expresses at
first hand his own concept of the continental structure, as the artist or
poet expresses in his work his own original ideas. We feel his thought in
the very quality of line used. We read how the truths have appealed to
his own consciousness. It stands where the relief map itself stands, as
representing the delineator’s own mental image of such structure.
There are no lines drawn in this map that contradict or confuse the
meaning; all is direct, truthful and clear in statement of fact. Each
line has its own particular meaning. If represents direction. Applied to
land surface, a vertical line means a perpendicular mountain or side wall
of plateau, horizontal lines indicate level areas, and oblique lines a
sloping surface.
Until recently, this map has not been available for general use, except
as each teacher made his or her own. The latter, however, is the ideal
way of teaching. To draw a map of a continent or section of it, as is
required, in order to illustrate or emphasize any particular point before
the class, adds intensely to the interest of the lesson and to the
adequacy of concept gained by the pupil.
Too often, however, the opposite course is pursued. The teacher’s
conceptions of earth structure are perhaps vague, or, teachers may not
have been in the habit of representing by drawings that which they may be
able to picture quite clearly in their own minds, even the desirability
of so doing may not have been entertained by them.
In fact, there are comparatively few who have been persistent enough to
make maps, for though there may be a good knowledge of geography, clear
mental pictures of structure and the ability, also, to draw them, yet
lack of time necessary for their proper delineation has doubtless often
compelled the busy teacher to forego their execution.
_Printed Wall Map._ The Chalk Modeled map has recently been presented to
us in a more durable and serviceable form for general use; a printed wall
map, which combines the latest geographical knowledge together with the
best available skill in delineation.
It does not embody all the desirable points of the original, yet it has
an added one, that of durability.
The introduction of “Nature Study” into the public schools has
contributed largely to the demand for such a map. Pupils brought into
close relations with nature, naturally seek to relate the knowledge
gained in this basic study of geography, to the map; as in connection
with the field lessons, after actual observation of surface areas, the
student is led to model or draw what he has seen. This he represents in
pictorial form, as it appears to him, or he charts or maps it from actual
measurements.
Sometimes he tries to combine these methods so as to show elevations as
altitudes on his map or chart, but the results are often very crude; a
mere representation of hills and mountains piled up on level ground.
He realizes that this is not a proper representation and is often
discouraged. He knows that peaks are related to level ground by
continuity of mass: that they are the corrugated tops of great uplifted
masses or swells of land, and his failure to find this illustrated in the
old maps has led him to lose much of his interest in them, and to greet
the new one with ardor.
It appeals to his reason as a symbol more nearly corresponding to the
features of the country represented. It is indeed the link needed to
connect the political map with the putty relief map.
_Mass Without Outline._ Not only can we say that the Chalk Modeled map
has been a great factor in the better understanding of the surface
contour and conditions of the continental mass, thus advancing the
true study of geography, but that it has also awakened some of the
teachers of the public schools of the country, to the lack of interest
and lifelessness in the teaching of drawing as it has prevailed in the
schools in the past. It has been the means of revealing to them the
beauty and desirability of delineating mass without a continuous hard
outline. The artist when inspired with his subject masses his material in
boldly and each stroke counts for the thing he wants to say—it tells of
the direction of surface, or edge of mass, or detail.
In the new map, the representation of solidity and land continuity as
mass, with no hard and fast limitations of land and water, such as the
outlines so prominent in the old reference maps, is a noticeable feature.
It is a well-known fact that a general or approximate shape of the coasts
of continents is all that can be known from the most careful surveys;
for in reality with every season there is more or less change in coast
line, caused by wearing and building of ocean and river, as well as by
the occasional rising or sinking of stretches of land along the coast. In
course of time these changes become very apparent.
The omitting of outlines of continents, then, in the drawing of maps
has been for a purpose. They have not been necessary to the showing
of limitation of continental mass or the meeting of the surface plane
of water with land surface; and as the direction of all lines used in
delineating have their meaning, there can be truthfully none used to
represent something lying between land and sea, as there is nothing
there. Continental coast contours may be as accurately shown as the
occasion demands without the use of any outline to confuse the eye or to
contradict the direction of line used to delineate the structure of the
land surface at the water’s edge. (See map illustrations in Part IV.)
The most prominent feature of the new map is the representation of the
relief of the earth’s surface; showing, as it does at a glance, the
great back bone of the continent, with its ragged broken line of peaks
dividing the waters of the two slopes; its great land masses, primary and
secondary; and its area or line of greatest depressions. Its river basins
also are plainly seen, and we infer the reason for the general course of
the rivers and read their history from the sculpturing they have done.
We may note also the character of the mountain ranges; whether they are
young or old; where new land is being made, and where areas are sinking.
One can often determine what the prevailing wind of a section may be
and the regions of greatest rainfall, and can judge of the climate and
vegetation; in short, very rational conclusions concerning the life and
habits of a people may be formed from a study of the map alone, and the
student can picture, in imagination, the growth or advancement of nations
under the given conditions.
He will be enabled to see, as has been remarked in substance before, that
the mighty influences bearing upon civilization have always been largely
dependent upon the geographical structure of a country; the relation of
natural divisions to existing political divisions will be noted, and the
reasons for the locations of great centers of commerce, important cities,
and military fortifications, will be understood.
_Altitudes._ In common with all relief maps, altitudes are shown in
these, greatly exaggerated in comparison with the horizontal distances,
but this is essential in order that the pupil may be able to grasp the
_general truths_ of the organization of the continent.
Relief maps in relatively exact proportions will not help to this, as the
highest elevation would appear nearly on a plane with the ocean level,
and would be of no better service for school use than the flat maps,
from which no idea of the general organism can be acquired by the young
student, if indeed it can be by one of riper years.
Also in all topographical surveys, and in the profile of vertical
sections of country found in many geographies, we find the same
exaggeration of height in relation to horizontal distances, used to
illustrate elevations and slopes.
These, with photographs or pictures of relief maps are extensively used,
as well as birds’-eye views, showing on the part of the map-makers, a
recognition of the importance of the pupil’s gaining mental concepts of
altitudes. The latter, of course, must exercise his judgment in relating
the heights, to the horizontal distances given, as he so continually does
in every-day life in regard to other matters.
The horizontal map distances should be related to the other horizontal
distances of the map, and the altitudes to other altitudes, and these
with reference, also, to the tabulated lists found in every geography, of
the heights of mountain peaks and lengths of rivers.
“All knowledge of external things comes through observation, comparison,
and judgment.” To judge of great altitudes, one must have a knowledge of
the heights within experience. To be able to gain a proper conception of
immense distances, as the distance across a continent, comparison must be
made with the distances one has already measured or traveled.
In the measurements of areas, size of fields and gardens, width of ponds,
or heights of trees and hills, the pupil has numerical facts from which
he judges of other forms and areas; as forests, marshes, plains, the
width of rivers and lakes, the heights of mountains and cliffs, or length
of rivers and mountain ranges.
Also in the measuring of the deposition of silt in small streams, he may
judge of the quantity that large rivers like the Mississippi or Nile
must carry; and from measuring the yearly growth of vegetation in his
own climate, he judges what might be the growth in other climates. Thus
through observations, inferences, and comparisons, he is enabled to read
his map with some degree of power to judge its distances and altitudes.
The aim in the preceding pages has been to show the vital importance to
the would-be delineator of Chalk Modeled maps, of the thorough study
of geography, in its truest sense, and that the foundation of such
study lies in the field lesson, with its accompanying expression of the
knowledge gained there, of surface forms, areas and structures.
The habit, also, of modeling and drawing in connection with the study
of geography, is conducive to the wished-for end; _i.e._, an adequate
knowledge and expression, of the surface contour of the continent.
The chalk modeling of maps is in itself the simplest of all modes of
drawing. It may have been inferred from what has been said on the subject
of maps, that drawing them consists merely in showing simple indications
of slopes; short or long, abrupt or gentle, and summits; broken or
rounded, river basins, character of water-partings, valleys, lakes,
rivers and coasts either bold and rocky, or low and alluvial.
It would be as unnecessary for the purposes of geographical instruction,
as it would be impossible, to draw absolutely correct maps of the earth’s
surface.
Each mountain peak cannot be shown, nor every indentation of coast-line,
but the general trend or direction of mountain ranges and rivers, and
more or less of geological structure can be portrayed in a conventional
manner.
It is not difficult to chalk model with reasonable accuracy. The ability
to do this, however, with any degree of rapidity as well as accuracy,
implies, as has just been said, an adequate knowledge of the subject
to be represented. No mere imitation, or acquisition of technique, or
copying of maps, is educational, nor has it any vital relation to the
true study of geography. Like all dead copies, it betrays in itself its
lack of life, or of real knowledge on the part of the delineator.
An instructor whose eyes are open to truth, can generally tell from a
pupil’s representation whether it is the result of his own individual
thought, the expression of his own knowledge of the subject, or the
reflex of another’s thought.
If it is an expression of his own, there will be much revealed in the
touch and in the quality of line itself, that could not be depicted in
form or put into words. The representation, also, will indicate to what
degree the subject has interested and inspired the individual, and how,
with a clear mental image, he has instinctively expressed himself in the
simplest and most direct manner possible with the medium at hand.
In the following pages will be found suggestions as to the method of
chalk modeling, given in the form of a series of lessons; the underlying
principles in the lessons being those on which is based all expression of
thought in every field of study and among all peoples.
The illustrations are not intended to be models for the teacher or pupils
to copy, but are meant to be helps or encouragement to those who desire
and have courage to attempt to express their own mental images.
Busy teachers need only to realize that comparatively little effort is
necessary in order to acquire a certain amount of success, if they have
their subject in hand, that is, if they have an adequate mental image of
the object to be sketched.
It is hoped that such success will prove a strong inducement to a
deep study of the subject of art, and especially to the psychology of
expression.