COMBINATION OF THE HUMAN VOICE WITH ORCHESTRA. THE STAGE BAND.
Orchestral accompaniment of solo voices.
General remarks.
In accompanying the voice orchestral scoring should be light enough
for the singer to make free use of all the dynamic shades of
expression without hardness of tone. In overflowing lyrical moments,
where full voice is required, the singer should be well supported by
the orchestra.
Opera singing may be divided into two general classes, lyric singing
and declamation or recitative. The full, round, _legato_ aria affords
greater facility for tone production than florid music or recitative,
and the more movement and rhythmic detail contained in the vocal part,
the greater freedom and liberty must there be given to the voice. In
such a case the latter should not be doubled by the orchestra, neither
should rhythmical figures be written for any instrument corresponding
with those in the vocal part. In accompanying the voice the composer
should bear these points in mind before turning his attention to the
choice of orchestral colour. A confused, heavy accompaniment will
overpower the singer; an accompaniment which is too simple in
character will lack interest, and one which is too weak will not
sustain the voice sufficiently.
In modern opera it is rare that orchestral writing is confined to
accompaniment pure and simple. It frequently happens that the
principal musical idea, often complex in character, is contained in
the orchestra. The voice may then be said to form the accompaniment,
exchanging musical for literary interest. It becomes subordinate to
the orchestra, as though it were an extra part, subsequently added as
an after-thought. But it is evident that great care must be taken with
orchestral writing in such cases. The scoring must not be so heavy or
complicated as to drown the voice and prevent the words from being
heard, thereby breaking the thread of the text, and leaving the
musical imagery unexplained. Certain moments may require great volume
of orchestral tone, so great that a voice of even phenomenal power is
incapable of being heard. Even if the singer is audible, such unequal
struggles between voice and orchestra are most inartistic, and the
composer should reserve his orchestral outbursts for the intervals
during which the voice is silent, distributing the singer's phrases
and pauses in a free and natural manner, according to the sense of the
words. If a prolonged _forte_ passage occurs in the orchestra it may
be used concurrently with action on the stage. All artificial
reduction of tone contrary to the true feeling of a passage, the sole
object being to allow the voice to come through, should be strictly
avoided, as it deprives orchestral writing of its distinctive
brilliance. It must also be remembered that too great a disparity in
volume of tone between purely orchestral passages and those which
accompany the voice create an inartistic comparison. Therefore, when
the orchestra is strengthened by the use of wood-wind in three's or
four's, and brass in large numbers, the division of tone and colour
must be manipulated skillfully and with the greatest care.
In previous sections I have frequently stated that the structure of
the orchestra is closely related to the music itself. The scoring of a
vocal work proves this relationship in a striking manner, and, indeed,
it may be stipulated that _only that which is well written can be well
orchestrated_.
Transparence of accompaniment. Harmony.
The group of strings is the most transparent medium and the one least
likely to overpower the voice. Then come the wood-wind and the brass,
the latter in the following order: horns, trombones, trumpets. A
combination of strings, _pizz._, and the harp forms a setting
eminently favourable for the voice. As a general rule a singer is more
easily overpowered by long sustained notes than by short detached
ones. Strings doubled in the wood-wind and brass, and brass doubled
by wood-wind are combinations liable to drown the singer. This may be
done even more easily by _tremolando_ in the kettle-drums and other
percussion instruments, which, even by themselves are capable of
overpowering any other orchestral group of instruments. Doubling of
wood-wind and horns, and the use of two clarinets, two oboes or two
horns in unison to form one harmonic part is likewise to be avoided,
as such combinations will have a similar effect on the voice. The
frequent use of long sustained notes in the double basses is another
course unfavourable to the singer; these notes in combination with the
human voice produce a peculiar throbbing effect.
Juxtaposition of strings and wood-wind which overweights _legato_ or
declamatory singing may nevertheless be employed if one of the groups
forms the harmony in sustained notes and the other executes a melodic
design, when, for instance the sustaining instruments are clarinet,
and bassoon, or bassoon and horn, and the melodic design is entrusted
to violins or violas--or in the opposite case, when the harmony is
given to violas and 'cellos _divisi_, and the harmonic [Transcriber's
Note: melodic] figure to the clarinets.
Sustained harmony in the register of the second octave to the middle
of the third does not overpower women's voices, as these develop
_outside_ this range; neither is it too heavy for men's voices, which
although opening out _within_ the range itself sound an octave higher,
as in the case of the tenor voice. As a rule women's voices suffer
more than men's when they come in contact with harmony in a register
similar to their own. Taken separately, and used in moderation, each
group of orchestral instruments may be considered favourable to each
type of voice. But the combination of two or three groups cannot be so
considered unless they each play an independent part and are not
united together at full strength. Incessant four-part harmony is to be
deprecated. Satisfactory results will be obtained when the number of
harmonic parts is gradually decreased, with some of them sustaining
pedal notes, and when the harmony, interspersed with necessary pauses
is confined to the limits of one octave, distributed over several
octaves, or duplicated in the higher register.
These manipulations allow the composer to come to the singer's aid; in
voice-modulations, when the singer passes from the _cantabile_ to the
declamatory style, the composer may reduce or eliminate some harmony
which is found to be too heavy as the vocal tone diminishes, and
conversely, support the voice by a fuller orchestral tone in broad
phrases and climaxes.
Ornamental writing and polyphonic accompaniment should never be too
intricate in character, entailing the use of an unnecessary number of
instruments. Some complicated figures are better partially entrusted
to _pizz._ strings and harp, as this combination has little chance of
overpowering the voice. Some examples of accompanying an _aria_ are
given below.
_Examples:_
_The Tsar's Bride_, Lykow's supplementary _Aria_ (Act III).
" " " [[16-19]]--Griasnov's _Aria_.
No. 277. _Snegourotchka_ [[45]].
* _Snegourotchka_ [[187-188]], [[212-213]] the two Cavatinas of Tsar
Berendey (cf. extracts, Ex. 102, 225).
No. 278. _Sadko_ [[143]].
" [[204-206]]--The Venetian's Song.
* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[39-41]], [[222-223]] (cf. Ex. 31).
* _The Golden Cockerel_ [[153-157]], [[163]].
Florid singing which limits volume of tone requires a light
accompaniment, simple in outline and colour, involving no duplication
of instruments.
_Examples:_
No. 279. _Snegourotchka_ [[42-48]]--_Snegourotchka's Aria_ (Prologue),
Fragment.
* _Sadko_ [[195-197]]--Hindoo Song (cf. Ex. 122).
* _The Christmas Night_ [[45-50]]--Oxana's _Aria_.
* _The Golden Cockerel_ [[131-136]]--_Aria_ of Queen Shémakhâ.
Doubling voices in the orchestra.
Melodic doubling of voices by orchestral instruments (in unison or
octaves) is of frequent occurrence, but incessant duplication for an
extended period of time should be avoided; it is only permissible in
isolated phrases. The most natural duplication in unison of womens'
voices is performed by violins, violas, clarinets and oboes; that of
mens' voices by violas, 'cellos, bassoons and horns. Doubling in
octaves is usually done in the upper register. Trombones and trumpets
overpower the voice and cannot be used for this purpose. Uninterrupted
or too frequent duplication should be avoided, not only because the
operation deprives the singer of full freedom of expression, but also
because it replaces by a mixed timbre the rare characteristic
qualities of the human voice. Doubling, when limited to a few special
phrases supports the voice and endows it with beauty and colour. It is
only suitable _in tempo_; to apply it, in unison or octaves to a
passage _ad. lib._ is both ineffective and dangerous.
_Examples:_
_Snegourotchka_ [[50-52]]--Snegourotchka's Arietta (cf. Ex. 41).
_Sadko_ [[309-311]]--Volkhova's Cradle-song (cf. Ex. 81).
Besides the question of doubling the voice for the object of colour
there are instances when the singer executes only part of a phrase,
allotted in its entirely to an orchestral instrument.
_Example:_
_Vera Scheloga_ [[30]], [[36]] (cf. Ex. 49).
Lyrical climaxes, _a piena voce_, or dramatic passages for the voice
situated outside its normal range should be supported melodically and
harmonically by the orchestra, in the register in which the voice is
placed. The culminating point in such passages often coincides with
the entry or sudden attack of the trombones or other brass
instruments, or by a rush of strings. Strengthening the accompaniment
in this manner will soften the tone of the voice.
_Examples:_
No. 280. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[206]].
_Servilia_ [[126-127]].
" [[232]].
No. 281. _Sadko_ [[314]].
_Vera Scheloga_ [[41]].
If the culminating point is soft in colour and outline it is better
left unsupported in the orchestra, but sometimes the wood-wind,
sustaining such passages with light transparent melody or harmony may
produce an entrancing effect.
_Examples:_
_Snegourotchka_ [[188]].
" [[318]] (cf. Ex. 119).
No. 282. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[214]].
It is a common practice to support voices in concerted numbers by
harmony and duplication; this operation makes for accuracy and
brilliance when applied to duets, trios, quartets etc.
_Examples:_
_Snegourotchka_ [[292-293]]--Duet (cf. Ex. 118).
_Sadko_ [[99-101]]--Duet (cf. Ex. 289 and 290).
No. 283. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[169]]--sextet.
" " " [[117]] quartet.
_Legend of Kitesh_ [[341]]--quartet and sextet (cf. Ex. 305).
The beautiful effect produced by a solo instrument accompanying a
_cantabile aria_ cannot be denied. In such cases the instruments used
are generally the violin, viola, and 'cello, or the flute, oboe, Eng.
horn, clar., bass clar., bassoon, horn and harp. The accompaniment is
often contrapuntal or composed of polyphonic designs. The solo
instrument either plays alone or as the leading melodic voice in the
_ensemble_. In combination with the voice, or associated with some
action on the stage, a solo instrument is a powerful expedient for
musical characterisation. Instances of this description are numerous.
_Examples:_
_Snegourotchka_ [[50]]--Soprano and oboe (cf. Ex. 41).
" [[97]]--Contralto and Eng. horn.
" [[243]], [[246]]--Baritone and bass clar.
(cf. Ex. 47-48).
No. 284. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[108]]--Soprano, 'cello and oboe.
* _The Golden Cockerel_ [[163]]--Soprano and viola (cf. Ex. 226).
It is comparatively rare for percussion instruments to take part in
accompanying the voice. The triangle is occasionally used, the cymbals
less frequently. An accompaniment may be formed by a figure or a
_tremolo_ on the kettle-drums.
_Examples:_
_Snegourotchka_ [[97]], [[224]], [[247]] (Lell's 1st and 3rd
songs).
_Tsar Saltan_, before [[5]].
* No. 285. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[135]]; cf. also [[161]], [[197]].
The following are examples of powerful and expressive orchestral
passages, the voice _tacet_:
No. 286. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[81]].
* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[282]], [[298]].
* _Servilia_ [[130]].
Recitative and declamation.
The accompaniment of recitative and melodic declamatory phrases should
be light enough to allow the voice to come through without strain, and
the words to be heard distinctly. The most convenient method is to
employ sustained chords and _tremolo_ on the strings or wood-wind,
giving free latitude to the voice from a rhythmic point of view (_a
piacere_).
Another excellent plan is to write short chords in the strings
combined with wood-wind in different ways. Sustained chords and those
entailing change of position should occur preferably when the voice is
silent, thus permitting both conductor and orchestra to keep a closer
watch over the singer's irregularities of rhythm in _a piacere_
recitatives. If the accompaniment is more complex in character,
melodic, polyphonic or ornamental in design, the recitative must be
sung _in tempo_. Any phrase which it is necessary to emphasise in
accordance with the sense of the words assumes a more _cantabile_
character, and must be reinforced by the orchestra. Opera, today,
besides demanding much greater care in the treatment of the text than
in the past, abounds in constant transition from declamation to
_cantabile_, or in the fusion of the two. The orchestra offers more
variety of texture and must be handled with greater regard to its
relationship to the words, and the action on the stage. This class of
orchestration can only be studied from lengthy examples. I refer the
reader to operatic full scores and content myself with giving one or
[Transcriber's Note: 'two' missing in original] short instances:
_Examples:_
No. 287. _Snegourotchka_ [[16]].
No. 288. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[124-125]].
The following double examples, similar from a musical point of view,
show different methods of handling an orchestra from the standpoint of
accompaniment to the voice, and the _tutti_ form.
_Examples:_
No. 289-291. _Sadko_ [[99-101]] and [[305-307]] (compare also Ex. 75).
_Vera Scheloga_ [[3-7]] and [[28]].
Care should be taken not to score too heavily when accompanying
singers in the wings.
_Examples:_
* No. 292. _Sadko_ [[316]], [[318]], [[320]].
* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[286-289]], [[304-305]].
Orchestral accompaniment of the chorus.
The chorus, possessing much greater unity and power than the solo
voice, does not demand such careful handling in the accompaniment. On
the contrary, too great a refinement of orchestral treatment will
prove harmful to the resonance of the chorus. As a general rule
orchestration of choral works follows the rules laid down for purely
instrumental scoring. It is obvious that dynamic marks of expression
must correspond in both bodies, but doubling one orchestral group with
another and coupling instruments of the same kind in unison (2 Ob., 2
Cl., 4 Horns, 3 Trombones etc.) are both possible operations, if
performed according to the requirements of the musical context.
Doubling choral parts by instruments is generally a good plan. In
_cantabile_ passages such duplication may be melodic in character,
and the design more ornamental in the orchestra than in the chorus.
_Examples:_
_Ivan the Terrible_, Act II [[3-6]]; Act III [[66-69]].
_The May Night_, Act I [[X-Y]]; Act III [[L-Ee]], [[Ddd-Fff]].
_Snegourotchka_ [[61-73]], [[147-153]], [[323-328]].
_Mlada_, Act II [[22-31]], [[45-63]]; Act IV [[31-36]].
_The Christmas Night_ [[59-61]], [[115-123]].
_Sadko_ [[37-39]], [[50-53]], [[79-86]], [[173]], [[177]], [[187]],
[[189]], [[218-221]], [[233]], [[270-273]].
_The Tsar's Bride_ [[29-30]], [[40-42]], [[50-59]], [[141]].
_Tsar Saltan_ [[67-71], [[91-93]], [[133-145]], [[207-208]].
_Legend of Kitesh_ [[167]], [[177-178]].
_The Golden Cockerel_ [[237-238]], [[262-264]].
The reader will find instances of choral accompaniment in many
examples relating to other sections of the work.
In the case of solitary exclamations or phrases in recitative, melodic
doubling is not always suitable. It is better to support the voice
simply by harmonic duplication.
The repetition of notes--required by declamation--forming no
fundamental part of the rhythmical structure of a phrase or chord
should not be reproduced in the orchestra; the melodic or harmonic
basis alone should be doubled. Sometimes the rhythmical structure of a
choral phrase is simplified in comparison with its orchestral
duplication.
_Examples:_
No. 293. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[96]].
No. 294. _Ivan the Terrible_, Act I, before [[75]].
Choral passages, the musical context of which is complete in itself,
forming a chorus _a cappella_ often remain undoubled by the orchestra,
accompanied solely by sustained notes or an independent polyphonic
figure.
_Examples:_
No. 295. _Sadko_ [[219]].
* _Tsar Saltan_ [[207]].
* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[167]] (cf. Ex. 116).
* _The Golden Cockerel_ [[236]].
Heavier scoring is required for a mixed chorus; for a male voice
chorus the orchestration should be lighter; still more so for women's
voices alone. In scoring a certain passage the composer should not
lose sight of the number of choristers he is employing, for scenic
conditions may necessitate a reduction of that figure. The approximate
number should be marked in the full score as a basis upon which to
work.
_Examples:_
No. 296. _Ivan the Terrible_, Act II [[37]].
* _Sadko_ [[17]], [[20]].
* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[61]] (cf. Ex. 198).
_Note._ It must also be remembered that a _ff_ passage on an
enlarged orchestra, comprising wood-wind in fours, and
numerous brass (sometimes in three's), is capable of
overpowering a large mixed chorus.
A chorus in the wings requires as light an accompaniment as that
employed for a solo singer on the stage.
_Examples:_
* _Ivan the Terrible_, Act I [[25-26]], [[90]]; Act III [[13-14]].
* _The May Night_, Act I, before [[X]]; Act III [[Bbb-Ccc]].
* No. 297. _Sadko_ [[102]].
* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[54-56]] (cf. Ex. 196 and 197).
Solo voice with chorus.
When an _aria_ or recitative is coupled with the chorus great care
must be taken in the choral writing. A woman's solo voice stands out
well against a male voice chorus, likewise a solo male voice against a
women's chorus, for in both cases, the timbre of the solo voice
differs from the rest. But the combination of solo voice and chorus,
of the same timbre, or mixed chorus, creates a certain amount of
difficulty. In such cases the soloist should sing in a higher register
than the chorus, the former _a piena voce_, the latter _piano_. The
soloist should stand as near to the footlights as possible; the chorus
up-stage. The orchestration should be adapted to the soloist, not to
the chorus.
_Examples:_
No. 298. _Snegourotchka_ [[143]].
_Ivan the Terrible._ Act II [[37]] (cf. Ex. 296).
When the chorus sings in the wings the soloist is always heard
distinctly.
_Examples:_
_Ivan the Terrible_, Act I [[25-26]].
* _The May Night_, Act III [[Ccc]].
* _Sadko_ [[102]], [[111]].
Instruments on the stage and in the wings.
The use of instruments on the stage or in the wings dates from distant
times (Mozart, _Don Giovanni_, string orchestra in Act I, _finale_).
In the middle of last century orchestras of brass instruments, or
brass and wood-wind combined, made their appearance on the stage
(Glinka, Meyerbeer, Gounod and others). More modern composers have
abandoned this clumsy practice, not only unfortunate from the
spectators' point of view, but also detrimental to the mediaeval or
legendary setting of the majority of operas. Only those stage
instruments are now used which suit the scene and surroundings in
which the opera is laid. As regards instruments in the wings,
invisible to the audience, the question is simple. Nevertheless, for
the musician of today the choice of these instruments must be
regulated by aesthetic considerations of greater importance than those
governing the selection of a military band. The instruments are played
in the wings, those visible on the stage are only for ornament.
Sometimes stage-instruments may be replicas of those common to the
period which the opera represents, (the sacred horns in _Mlada_, for
example). The orchestral accompaniment must vary in power according
to the characteristics of the instruments played in the wings. It is
impossible to illustrate the use of all the instruments mentioned
below, and to outline suitable accompaniments. I can only give a few
examples and refer the reader once again to the passages in the full
scores.
a) Trumpets:
_Servilia_ [[12]], [[25]].
* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[53]], [[55]], [[60]].
* _Tsar Saltan_ [[139]] and further on.
b) Horns, in the form of hunting horns:
_Pan Voyevoda_ [[38-39]].
c) Trombones, leaving the orchestra to go on the stage:
_Pan Voyevoda_ [[191]].
d) Cornets:
_Ivan the Terrible_, Act III [[3]], [[7]].
e) Sacred horns (natural brass instruments in various keys):
_Mlada_, Act II, pp. 179 onwards.
f) Small clarinets and piccolos:
No. 299-300. _Mlada_, Act III [[37]], [[39]].
g) Pipes of Pan: instruments, specially made, with many holes which
are passed over the lips. These particular pipes produce a special
enharmonic scale (_B_ flat, _C_, _D_ flat, _E_ flat, _E_, _F_ sharp,
_G_, _A_), which has the effect of a glissando:
_Mlada_, Act III [[39]], [[43]] (cf. Ex. 300).
h) Harp, reproducing the effect of an aeolian harp:
_Kashtcheï the Immortal_ [[32]] and further on (cf. Ex. 268, 269).
i) Lyres. Instruments specially made and tuned so as to be able to
perform a glissando chord of the diminished seventh:
_Mlada_, Act III [[39]], [[43]] (cf. Ex. 300).
k) Pianoforte, grand or upright:
_Mozart and Salieri_ [[22-23]].
l) Gong, imitating a church bell:
_Ivan the Terrible_, Act I [[57]] and further on.
m) Bass Drum (without cymbals) to imitate the sound of cannon:
_Tsar Saltan_ [[139]] and later.
n) Small kettle-drum, in _D_ flat (3rd octave):
_Mlada_, Act III [[41]] and later (cf. Ex. 60).
o) Bells in various keys:
_Sadko_ [[128]] and [[139]].
No. 301. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[181]] and further on. See also [[241]],
[[323]] and later.
* _Tsar Saltan_ [[139]] and further on.
p) Organ:
No. 302. _Sadko_ [[299-300]].
Wood-wind and strings are comparatively seldom used on the stage or in
the wings. In Russian opera the strings are employed in this way by
Rubinstein (_Gorioucha_), and in a splendidly characteristic manner by
Serov (_Hostile Power_): in the latter opera the _E_ flat clarinet is
used to imitate the fife in the Carnival procession.[17]
[Footnote 17: Mention should be made of the happy use of a small
orchestra in the wings (2 picc., 2 cl., 2 horns, 1 trombone,
tambourine, 4 Vns, 2 violas, 1 D-bass) in _The May Night_, Act II,
Sc. I. [[M-P]]. (Editor's note.)]