COMPOSITION OF THE ORCHESTRA.
Different ways of orchestrating the same music.
There are times when the general tone, character and atmosphere of a
passage, or a given moment in an orchestral work point to one, and
only one particular manner of scoring. The following simple example
will serve for explanation. Take a short phrase where a flourish or
fanfare call is given out above a _tremolando_ accompaniment, with or
without change in harmony. There is no doubt that any orchestrator
would assign the _tremolo_ to the strings and the fanfare to a
trumpet, never _vice versa_. But taking this for granted, the composer
or orchestrator may still be left in doubt. Is the fanfare flourish
suitable to the range of a trumpet? Should it be written for two or
three trumpets in unison, or doubled by other instruments? Can any of
these methods be employed without damaging the musical meaning? These
are questions which I shall endeavour to answer.
If the phrase is too low in register for the trumpets it should be
given to the horns (instruments allied to the trumpet); if the phrase
is too high it may be entrusted to the oboes and clarinets in unison,
this combination possessing the closest resemblance to the trumpet
tone both in character and power. The question whether one trumpet or
two should be employed must be decided by the degree of power to be
vested in the given passage. If a big sonorous effect is required the
instruments may be doubled, tripled, or even multiplied by four; in
the opposite case one solo brass instrument, or two of the wood-wind
will suffice (1 Ob. + 1 Cl.). The question whether the _tremolo_ in
the strings should be supported by sustained harmony in the wood-wind
depends upon the purpose in view. A composer realises his intentions
beforehand, others who orchestrate his music can only proceed by
conjecture. Should the composer desire to establish a strongly-marked
difference between the harmonic basis and the melodic outline it is
better not to employ wood-wind harmony, but to obtain proper balance
of tone by carefully distributing his dynamic marks of expression,
_pp_, _p_, _f_ and _ff_. If, on the contrary, the composer desires a
full round tone as harmonic basis and less show of brilliance in the
harmonic parts, the use of harmony in the wood-wind is to be
recommended. The following may serve as a guide to the scoring of
wood-wind chords: the harmonic basis should differ from the melody not
only in fullness and intensity of tone, but also in colour. If the
fanfare figure is allotted to the brass (trumpets or horns) the
harmony should be given to the wood-wind; if the phrase is given to
the wood-wind (oboes and clarinets) the harmony should be entrusted to
the horns. To solve all these questions successfully a composer must
have full knowledge of the purpose he has in view, and those who
orchestrate his work should be permeated with his intentions. Here the
question arises, what should those intentions be? This is a more
difficult subject.
The aim of a composer is closely allied to the form of his work, to
the aesthetic meaning of its every moment and phrase considered apart,
and in relation to the composition as a whole. The choice of an
orchestral scheme depends on the musical matter, the colouring of
preceding and subsequent passages. It is important to determine
whether a given passage is a complement to or a contrast with what
goes before and comes after, whether it forms a climax or merely a
step in the general march of musical thought. It would be impossible
to examine all such possible types of relationship, or to consider the
_rôle_ played by each passage quoted in the present work. The reader
is therefore advised not to pay too much attention to the examples
given, but to study them and their bearing on the context in their
proper place in the full scores. Nevertheless I shall touch upon a few
of these points in the course of the following outline. To begin with,
young and inexperienced composers do not always possess a clear idea
of what they wish to do. They can improve in this direction by
reading good scores and by repeatedly listening to an orchestra,
provided they concentrate the mind to the fullest possible extent. The
search after extravagant and daring effects in orchestration is quite
a different thing from mere caprice; _the will to achieve is not
sufficient; there are certain things which should not be achieved_.
* * * * *
The simplest musical ideas, melodic phrases in unison and octaves, or
repeated throughout several octaves, chords, of which no single part
has any melodic meaning are scored in various ways according to
register, dynamic effect and the quality of expression or tone colour
that may be desired. In many cases, one idea will be orchestrated in a
different way every time it recurs. Later on I shall frequently touch
upon this more complicated question.
_Examples:_
* _Snegourotchka_ [[58]]; [[65]] and before [[68]]--sustained note in
unison.
There are fewer possible ways of scoring more complex musical ideas,
harmonico-melodic phrases, polyphonic designs etc.; sometimes there
are but two methods to be followed, for each of the primary elements
in music, melody, harmony, and counterpoint possesses its own special
requirements, regulating the choice of instruments and tone colour.
The most complicated musical ideas sometimes admit of only one manner
of scoring, with a few hardly noticeable variations in detail. To the
following example, very simple in structure I add an alternative
method of scoring:
_Example:_
No. 175. _Vera Scheloga_, before [[35]]--a) actual orchestration,
*b)--another method.
It is obvious that the method b) will produce satisfactory tone. But a
3rd and 4th way of scoring would be less successful, and a
continuation of this process would soon lead to the ridiculous. For
instance if the chords were given to the brass the whole passage would
sound heavy, and the soprano recitative in the low and middle register
would be overpowered. If the _F_ sharp in the double basses were
played _arco_ by 'cellos and basses together it would sound clumsy, if
it were given to the bassoons a comic effect would be produced, and if
played by the brass it would sound rough and coarse, etc.
The object of scoring the same musical phrase in different ways is to
obtain variety either in tone colour or resonance. In each case the
composer may resort to the inversion of the normal order of
instruments, duplication of parts, or the two processes in
combination. The first of these is not always feasible. In the
preceding sections of the book I have tried to explain the
characteristics of each instrument and the part which each group of
instruments plays in the orchestra. Moreover many methods of doubling
are to be avoided; these I have mentioned, while there are also some
instruments which cannot be combined owing to the great difference in
their peculiarities. Therefore, as regards the general composition of
the orchestra, the student should be guided by the general principles
laid down in the earlier stages of the present work.
The best means of orchestrating the same musical idea in various ways
is by the adaptation of the musical matter. This can be done by the
following operations: a) complete or partial transference into other
octaves; b) repetition in a different key; c) extension of the whole
range by the addition of octaves to the upper and lower parts; d)
alteration of details (the most frequent method); e) variation of the
general dynamic scheme, e.g. repeating a phrase _piano_, which has
already been played _forte_.
These operations are always successful in producing variety of
orchestral colour.
_Examples:_
No. 176, 177. _Russian Easter Fête_ [[A]] and [[C]].
_The Christmas Night_ [[158]] and [[179]].
No. 178-181. _The Tsar's Bride_, Overture: beginning, [[1]], [[2]],
[[7]].
_Sadko_ [[99-101]] and [[305-307]] (cf. Ex. 289, 290, and 75).
No. 182-186. _Tsar Saltan_ [[14]], [[17]], [[26]], [[28]], [[34]].
No. 187-189. " " [[181]], [[246]], [[220]].
* No. 190-191. _Ivan the Terrible_, Overture [[5]] and [[12]].
_Spanish Capriccio_--compare 1st and 3rd movement.
* No. 192-195. _Shéhérazade_, 1st movement--beginning of the
_allegro_ [[A]], [[E]], [[M]].
" 3rd movement--beginning [[A]], [[I]].
" 3rd " [[E]], [[G]], [[O]].
* No. 196-198. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[55]], [[56]], [[62]].
* No. 199-201. " " " [[68]], [[70]], [[84]].
(Cf. also Ex. 213, 214. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[294]] and [[312]].)
* No. 202-203. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[229]], [[233]].
The process of scoring the same or similar ideas in different ways is
the source of numerous musical operations, _crescendo_, _diminuendo_,
interchange of tone qualities, variation of tone colour etc., and
incidentally throws new light upon the fundamental composition of the
orchestra.
Full _Tutti_.
The word _tutti_ generally means the simultaneous use of all
instruments, but the word "all" is used relatively, and it must not be
inferred that every single instrument must necessarily be employed to
form a _tutti_. In order to simplify the following illustrations I
will divide the word into two classes, _full tutti_ and _partial
tutti_,--independently of whether the orchestra is constructed in
pairs, in three's, or a larger number of instruments. I call _full
tutti_ the combination of all melodic groups, strings, wind, and
brass. By _partial tutti_ I mean passages in which the brass group
only takes part, whether two horns or two trumpets participate alone,
or whether two horns are combined with one or three trombones, without
tuba, trumpets, or the two remaining horns, etc.:
[4 Horns, 2 Horns 2 Horns ]
[... or 2 Trumpets, or ... etc. ]
[... ... 3 Trombones].
In both species of _tutti_ full wood-wind may be employed or not,
according to the register and musical context of the passage. For
instance, in the extreme high register it may be essential to include
the piccolo; in the low register flutes will be unnecessary, and yet
the passage can still be called _tutti_. The inclusion of
kettle-drums, harp, and other instruments of little sustaining power,
as of the percussion in general, does not come under discussion.
The variety of orchestral operations increases with the number of
instruments forming a _tutti_, in fact, so great does it become that
it is impossible to consider all combinations. I can only give a few
examples of full and partial _tutti_, and leave the reader to draw his
own conclusions. Some of these examples fall under the double heading
of full and partial _tutti_, and the student is reminded that the
_tutti_ is used essentially in _forte_ and _fortissimo_, rarely in
_pianissimo_ and _piano_ passages.
_Examples:_
_Snegourotchka_ [[61]] and [[62]]--Partial and full _Tutti_.
" [[231]] Partial _Tutti_, without the trumpets
(cf. Ex. 8).
No. 204. _Snegourotchka_ [[216]]--Full _Tutti_.
" [[325-326]]--Full _Tutti_ and chorus
(cf. Ex. 8).
_Sadko_ [[3]], [[223]], [[239]]--Full _Tutti_ (cf. Ex. 86).
No. 205-206. _Sadko_ [[173]], [[177]]--Full _Tutti_ with chorus,
differently scored.
No. 207-208. _The Christmas Night_ [[184]] and [[186]]--Full _Tutti_,
orchestrated in different ways, with and without chorus.
* _The Tsar's Bride_, Overture [[1]], [[2]], [[7]]--Full and partial
_Tutti_ (cf. Ex. 179-181).
* " " " [[141]]--Full _Tutti_.
* " " " [[177]]-- " "
_Pan Voyevoda_ [[186]] and [[188]] Full _Tutti_.
* _Antar_ [[65]]--(cf. Ex. 32).
* No. 209. _Shéhérazade_, 3rd movement [[M]]; cf. also 1st
movement [[A]], [[E]], [[H]]; 2nd movement [[K]], [[P]], [[R]];
3rd movement [[G]], [[O]]; 4th movement [[G]], [[P]], [[W]] and
further on to [[Y]] (No. 193, 194, 19, 66, 77).
* _Spanish Capriccio_ [[B]], [[F]], [[J]], [[P]], [[V]], [[X-Z]] (cf.
Ex. 3).
* _Russian Easter Fête_ [[F]], [[J]], before [[L]], [[Y]], up to the
end.
* _3rd Symphony_, 1st movement [[D]], [[R-T]], [[X]]; 2nd
movement [[A]], [[E]]; 4th movement [[A]], [[H]], [[S]].
* _Sadko_, Symphonic tableau [[20-24]].
* _Mlada_, Act III [[12]] (cf. Ex. 258).
* For examples of _Tutti_ chords, see special Tables at the end of
Vol. II.
_Tutti_ in the wind.
In many cases the wood-wind and brass groups can form a _tutti_ by
themselves for periods of varying length. Sometimes this is effected
by the wood-wind alone, but more frequently with the support of horns.
At other times the horns are found alone without the wood-wind, and,
lastly, a _tutti_ may be comprised of instruments of each group in
varying numbers. The addition of kettle-drums and the rest of the
percussion is quite common and constitutes what the Germans call
"Janitscharenmusik", or Turkish infantry music. Violoncellos and
double basses playing more or less important _pizz._ notes are often
added to wood-wind instruments (_tutti_), likewise the remainder of
the strings and the harps; this process renders the sustained notes in
the wood-wind more distinct. _Tutti_ passages in wood-wind and horns
do not produce any great amount of power in _forte_ passages, but, on
the other hand _tutti_ in the brass groups alone may attain an
extraordinary volume of tone. In the following examples the formation
of pedal notes by strings or wood-wind in no way alters the general
character of the _Tutti_:
_Examples:_
No. 210-211. _Snegourotchka_ [[149]], [[151]] (compare).
_Tsar Saltan_ [[14]], [[17]], [[26]] (cf. Ex. 182-184).
_Pan Voyevoda_ [[57]], [[186]], [[262]].
No. 212. _Ivan the Terrible_, Act II [[19]]; cf. also Act. III [[5]].
* No. 213-214. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[294]], [[312]] (compare).
* No. 215. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[116]]; cf. also [[82]] and [[84]].
* _Antar_ [[37]] (cf. Ex. 65).
_Tutti pizzicato._
The quartet of strings (_pizzicato_), reinforced occasionally by the
harp and piano, may, in certain cases constitute a particular kind of
_tutti_, which can only attain any great degree of strength by support
from the wood-wind. Without this support it is of medium power, though
still fairly brilliant in quality.
_Examples:_
No. 216. _Snegourotchka_, before [[128]]; cf. also [[153]] and before
[[305]].
* No. 217. _Russian Easter Fête_ [[K]]; cf. also [[U]] and [[V]].
* _Spanish Capriccio_ [[A]], [[C]], before [[S]], before [[P]]; cf.
also [[O]] (Ex. 56).
_Mlada_, Act II [[15]].
* _Sadko_: [[220]] (cf. Ex. 295).
* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[101]].
* No. 218. _The May Night_, Act I, The Mayor's Song--combination of
strings, _arco_ and _pizz._
_Tutti_ in one, two and three parts.
It often happens that a moderately full orchestral _ensemble_ executes
a passage composed of one or two harmonic parts, in unison or in
octaves. Such melodic phrases call for more or less simple
orchestration with the usual doubling of parts, or, in ornamental
writing, admit of contrast in tone colouring, occasionally with the
addition of sustained notes.
_Examples:_
_Snegourotchka_, before [[152]], [[174]], [[176]].
_The Tsar's Bride_ [[120-121]] (cf. Ex. 63).
_The Golden Cockerel_ [[215]].
* No. 219-221. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[142]], [[144]], [[147]]--3 part
_Tutti_, with different scoring.
* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[138]], [[139]]--_Tutti_ in one part.
_Soli_ in the strings.
Although, in any orchestral piece, numerous instances are to be found
of melodies and phrases entrusted to a solo wind instrument (generally
the first of each group, wood-wind or brass), solos for stringed
instruments, on the other hand, are extremely rare. Whilst the 1st
violin and 1st 'cello are fairly frequently used in this manner,
the solo viola is seldom found, and a solo on the double bass is
practically unknown. Phrases demanding particular individuality of
expression are entrusted to solo instruments; likewise passages that
require extraordinary technique, beyond the scope of the orchestral
rank and file. The comparatively weak tone of the solo instrument
necessitates light, transparent accompaniment. Difficult virtuoso
solos should not be written, as they attract too much attention to a
particular instrument. Solo stringed instruments are also used when
vigourous expression and technical facility are not required, but
simply in order to obtain that singular difference in colour which
exists between a solo stringed instrument and strings in unison. Two
solo instruments can be coupled together, e.g. 2 _Violins soli_, etc.
and in very rare cases a quartet of solo strings may be employed.
_Examples:_
_Violin solo:_
No. 222-223. _Snegourotchka_ [[54]], [[275]].
_The May Night_, pp. 64-78.
_Mlada_, Act I [[52]]; Act III, before [[19]].
* _A Fairy Tale_ [[W]].
* _Shéhérazade_, 1st movement [[C]], [[G]]; also the passages at
the start of each movement.
* _Spanish Capriccio_ [[H]], [[K]], [[R]], and the cadence on p. 38.
* No. 224. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[310]]--Vn. solo, on harmonic basis of
strings _sul ponticello_ and wood-wind.
_Snegourotchka_ [[274]], [[279]]--2 Vns soli (cf. Ex. 9).
_Viola solo:_
No. 225. _Snegourotchka_ [[212]].
_Sadko_ [[137]].
* No. 226. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[163]]; cf. also [[174]], [[177]].
_Violoncello solo:_
_Snegourotchka_ [[187]] (cf. Ex. 102).
_The Christmas Night_, before [[29]], [[130]].
_Mlada_, Act III [[36]].
* _The Golden Cockerel_ [[177]], [[180]] (cf. Ex. 229).
_Double bass solo:_
* No. 227. _Mlada_, Act II [[10-12]]--a special instance where the
first string is tuned down.
_Solo quartet:_
_The Christmas Night_ [[222]]--Vn., Viola, 'Cello, D. bass.
* No. 228. _Tsar Saltan_ [[248]]--Vn. I, Vn. II, Viola, 'Cello.
* The case of a solo stringed instrument doubled by the wood-wind in
unison must not be forgotten. The object is to attain great purity and
abundance of tone, without impairing the timbre of the solo instrument
(especially in the high and low registers), or to produce a certain
highly-coloured effect.
_Examples:_
* _Mlada_, Act II [[52]]--Vn. + Fl.; Act IV [[31]]--Viol. + Fl. +
Harp.
* _The Christmas Night_ [[212]]--2 Vns + Fl. + Small Cl. (cf. Ex.
153).
* _Pan Voyevoda_ [[67]]--2 Vns + 2 Ob.; 2 Violas + 2 Cl.
* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[306]]--Bass cl. + C-fag. (cf. Ex. 10).
" " " [[309]]--Vn. + Fl.
* No. 229. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[179]]--Vn. + Picc.; 'Cello + Bass
cl.
* As shown in Chap. II, 2 Vns soli or Violin solo + Fl. (Picc.) are
often sufficient to double a melody in the upper register.
_Examples:_
_Sadko_ [[207]]--cf. Chap. II, p. 42 and Ex. 24.
* No. 230. _Russian Easter Fête_, p. 32--2 Solo violins (in
harmonics).
* No. 231. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[297]]--2 Solo violins + Picc.
Limits of orchestral range.
It is seldom that the entire orchestral conception is centred in the
upper register of the orchestra (the 5th and 6th octaves), still
more rarely is it focussed wholly in the lowest range (octaves 1 and
-1) where the proximity of harmonic intervals creates a bad effect. In
the first case the flutes and piccolo should be used along with the
upper notes of the violins, _soli_ or _divisi_; in the second case
the double bassoon and the low notes of the bassoons, bass clarinet,
horns, trombones and tuba are brought into play. The first method
gives brilliant colour, the second combination is dark and gloomy. The
contrary would be fundamentally impossible.
_Examples:_
_Pan Voyevoda_ [[122]], [[137]] }
_Servilia_ [[168]], 8th bar. (cf. Ex. 62) } low
No. 232. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[220]]; } register.
cf. also [[218]], [[219]] }
* _Snegourotchka_, before [[25]] }
* _Legend of Kitesh_, before [[34]] } high
* No. 233. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[113]], [[117]] } register.
* No. 234. _Shéhérazade_, 2nd movement pp. 59-62 }
The upper and lower parts of a passage can seldom be widely separated
without the intermediate octaves being filled in, for this is contrary
to the first principles of proper distribution of chords. Nevertheless
the unusual resonance thus produced serves for strange and grotesque
effects. In the first of the following examples the piccolo figure
doubled by the harp and the sparkling notes of the _glockenspiel_ is
set about four octaves apart from the bass, which is assigned to a
single Double bass and Tuba. But in the 3rd octave, the augmented
fourths and diminished fifths in the two flutes help to fill up the
intermediate space and lessen the distance between the two extreme
parts, thus forming some sort of link between them. The general effect
is fanciful.
_Examples:_
No. 235. _Snegourotchka_ [[255]].
* No. 236. " [[315]], 5th and 6th bars.
" [[274]] (cf. Ex. 9).
_A Fairy Tale_ [[A]].
_The Golden Cockerel_ [[179]], 9th bar. (cf. Ex. 229).
Transference of passages and phrases.
A phrase or a figure is often transferred from one instrument to
another. In order to connect the phrases on each instrument in the
best possible way, the last note of each part is made to coincide with
the first note of the following one. This method is used for passages
the range of which is too wide to be performed on any one instrument,
or when it is desired to divide a phrase into two different timbres.
_Examples:_
* _Snegourotchka_ [[137]]--The melody is transferred from the violins
to the flute and clarinet (cf. Ex. 28).
* " before [[191]]--Solo violin--Solo 'cello.
_Pan Voyevoda_ [[57]]--Trombones--Trumpets; Horn--Ob. + Cl.
A similar operation is used in scoring passages covering the entire
orchestral scale, or a great portion of it. When one instrument is on
the point of completing its allotted part, another instrument takes up
the passage, starting on one or two notes common to both parts, and so
on. This division must be carried out to ensure the balance of the
whole passage.
_Examples:_
_Snegourotchka_ [[36]], [[38]], [[131]]--Strings.
_The Tsar's Bride_ [[190]]--Wood-wind.
_Sadko_ [[72]]--Strings (cf. Ex. 112).
" [[223]]--Strings.
_The Christmas Night_, before [[180]]--Strings, wind and chorus (cf.
Ex. 132).
* No. 237. _The Christmas Night_, before [[181]]--String figure.
* _Servilia_ [[111]]--Strings (cf. Ex. 88).
" [[29]], 5th bar.--Ob.--Fl.; Cl.--Bass cl., Fag.
No. 238. _The Golden Cockerel_, before [[9]]--Wood-wind.
* " " " [[5]]--Fag.--Eng. horn (+ 'Cellos
_pizz._).
Chords of different tone quality used alternately.
1. The most usual practice is to employ chords on different groups of
instruments alternately. In dealing with chords in different registers
care should be taken that the progression of parts, though broken in
passing from one group to another, remains as regular as if there
were no leap from octave to octave; this applies specially to
chromatic passages in order to avoid false relation.
_Examples:_
No. 239. _Ivan the Terrible_, Act II [[29]].
No. 240-241. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[123]], before [[124]].
* No. 242-243. " " " [[178]], [[179]].
* _Note._ The rules regulating progression of parts may
sometimes be ignored, when extreme contrast of timbre
between two adjacent chords is intended.
_Examples:_
* _Shéhérazade_, 8th bar from the beginning, (the
chromatic progression at the 12th bar is undertaken by
the same instruments, the 2nd cl. is therefore placed
above the first in the opening)--cf. Ex. 109.
* _The Christmas Night_, opening (cf. Ex. 106).
2. Another excellent method consists in transferring _the same chord
or its inversion_ from one orchestral group to another. This operation
demands perfect balance in progression of parts as well as register.
The first group strikes a chord of short value, the other group takes
possession of it simultaneously in the same position and distribution,
either in the same octave or in another. The dynamic gradations of
tone need not necessarily be the same in both groups.
_Examples:_
_Ivan the Terrible_, commencement of the overture (cf. Ex. 85).
No. 244. _Snegourotchka_ [[140]].
Amplification and elimination of tone qualities.
The operation which consists in contrasting the resonance of two
different groups (* or the different timbres of one and the same
group), either in sustained notes or chords, transforms a simple into
a complex timbre, suddenly, or by degrees. It is used in establishing
a _crescendo_. While the first group effects the _crescendo_
gradually, the second group enters _piano_ or _pianissimo_, and
attains its _crescendo_ more rapidly. The whole process is thereby
rendered more tense as the timbre changes. The converse operation--the
transition from a complex to a simple timbre, by the suppression of
one of the groups, belongs essentially to the _diminuendo_.
_Examples:_
No. 245. _Snegourotchka_ [[313]].
" [[140]] (cf. Ex. 244).
_A Fairy Tale_ [[V]].
_Shéhérazade_, 2nd movement [[D]] (cf. Ex. 74).
* " 4th movement p. 221.
No. 246. _Servilia_ [[228]]; cf. also [[44]].
_The Christmas Night_ [[165]] (cf. Ex. 143).
No. 247. _The Tsar's Bride_, before [[205]].
* No. 248. _Russian Easter Fête_ [[D]].
* No. 249-250. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[5]], [[162]].
Repetition of phrases, imitation, echo.
As regards choice of timbre, phrases in imitation are subject to the
law of register. When a phrase is imitated in the upper register it
should be given to an instrument of higher range and _vice versa_. If
this rule is ignored an unnatural effect will be produced, as when the
clarinet in its upper range replies to the oboe in the lower compass
etc. The same rule must be followed in dealing with phrases, actually
different, but similar in character; repeated phrases of different
character should be scored in a manner most suitable to each.
_Examples:_
_The Tsar's Bride_ [[157]], [[161]].
_Legend of Kitesh_ [[40-41]].
* No. 251. _Spanish Capriccio_ [[S]].
In echo phrases, that is to say imitation entailing not only decrease
in volume of tone but also an effect of distance, the second
instrument should be weaker than the first, but the two should possess
some sort of affinity. An echo given to muted brass following the same
phrase not muted produces this distant effect. Muted trumpets are
eminently suited to echo a theme in the oboes; flutes also may imitate
clarinets and oboes successfully. A wood-wind instrument cannot be
used to echo the strings, or _vice versa_, on account of the
dissimilarity in timbre. Imitation in octaves (with a decrease in
resonance) creates an effect resembling an echo.
_Examples:_
_Ivan the Terrible_, Act III [[3]].
No. 252. _Sadko_ [[264]].
* _Spanish Capriccio_ [[E]].--This example is not precisely an echo
but resembles one in character (cf. Ex. 44).
* _Shéhérazade_, 4th movement before [[O]].
_Sforzando-piano_ and _piano-sforzando_ chords.
Besides the natural dynamic process of obtaining these marks of
expression, a process which depends upon the player, they may also be
produced by artificial means of orchestration.
a) At the moment when the wood-wind begins a _piano_ chord, the
strings attack it _sforzando_, a compound chord for preference, either
_arco_ or _pizz._ In the opposite case the _sf_ in the strings must
occur at the end of the wood-wind chord. The first method is also
employed for a _sf-dim._, and the second for a _cresc.-sf_ effect.
b) It is not so effective, and therefore less frequent to give the
notes of sustained value to the strings, and the short chords to the
wood-wind. In such cases the _tenuto_ chord is played _tremolando_ on
the strings.
_Examples:_
_Vera Scheloga_, before [[35]], [[38]], 10th bar.
* No. 253. _Legend of Kitesh_, before [[15-16]].
* _Shéhérazade_, 2nd movement, [[P]], 14th bar.
Method of emphasising certain notes and chords.
In order to stress or emphasise a certain note or chord, besides the
marks of expression [music symbol: decrescendo] and _sf_, chords of 2,
3, and 4 notes can be inserted into the melodic progression by the
instruments of the string quartet, each playing a single note; short
notes in the wood-wind may also be used as well as a chain of three
or four grace notes, in the form of a scale, either in strings or
wood-wind. These unstressed notes (anacrusis), generally written very
small, form a kind of upward glide, the downward direction being less
common. As a rule they are connected to the main note by a slur. In
the strings they should not lead up to chords of three or four notes,
as this would be awkward for the bow.
_Examples:_
No. 254. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[142]]--Anacrusis in the strings.
* No. 255. _Shéhérazade_, 2nd movement [[C]]--Short _pizz._ chords.
* " " " [[P]]--Short wind chords
(cf. Ex. 19).
_Crescendo_ and _diminuendo_.
Short _crescendi_ and _diminuendi_ are generally produced by natural
dynamic means; when prolonged, they are obtained by this method
combined with other orchestral devices. After the strings, the brass
is the group most facile in producing dynamic shades of expression,
glorifying _crescendo_ chords into the most brilliant _sforzando_
climaxes. Clarinets specialise in _diminuendo_ effects and are capable
of decreasing their tone to a breath (_morendo_). Prolonged orchestral
_crescendi_ are obtained by the gradual addition of other instruments
in the following order: strings, wood-wind, brass. _Diminuendo_
effects are accomplished by the elimination of the instruments in the
reverse order (brass, wood-wind, strings). The scope of this work does
not lend itself to the quotation of prolonged _crescendo_ and
_diminuendo_ passages. The reader is referred, therefore, to the full
scores:
* _Shéhérazade_, pp. 5-7, 92-96, 192-200.
* _Antar_ [[6]], [[51]].
* _The Christmas Night_ [[183]].
* _Sadko_ [[165-166]].
* _The Tsar's Bride_ [[80-81]].
Many examples of shorter _crescendi_ and _diminuendi_ will be found in
Vol. II.
Diverging and converging progressions.
In the majority of cases, diverging and converging progressions simply
consist in the gradual ascent of the three upper parts, with the bass
descending. The distance separating the bass from the other parts is
trifling at first, and grows by degrees. On the other hand, in
converging progressions, the three upper parts, at first so far
distant from the bass, gradually approach it. Sometimes these
progressions involve an increase or a decrease in tone. The
intermediate intervals are filled up by the introduction of fresh
parts as the distance widens, so that the upper parts become doubled
or trebled. In converging progressions the tripled and doubled parts
are simplified, as the duplicating instruments cease to play.
Moreover, if the harmony allows it, the group in the middle region
which remains stationary is the group to be retained, or else the
sustained note which guarantees unity in the operation. Below, the
reader will find double examples of both descriptions. The first pair
represents a diverging progression, 1. _piano_, in which the human
voice takes part; 2. a purely orchestral _crescendo_. The second
depicts two similar diverging progressions, firstly a gradual
_crescendo_, secondly _dim._, during which the strings become more and
more divided as the wind instruments cease to play. Ex. 258
accompanies the apparition of Mlada, Ex. 259, its disappearance. The
atmosphere and colouring are weird and fanciful. The third pair of
examples forms instances of converging progressions. In the first (Ex.
260) Princess Volkhova relates the wonders of the sea. Then in the
middle of a powerful orchestral _crescendo_ the Sea-King appears (Ex.
261). Both examples include a sustained stationary chord of the
diminished seventh. The handling of such progressions requires the
greatest care.
_Examples:_
No. 256-257. _The Tsar's Bride_ [[102]] and [[107]].
No. 258-259. _Mlada_, Act III [[12]] and [[19]].
No. 260-261. _Sadko_ [[105]] and [[119]].
_Sadko_ [[72]] (cf. Ex. 112).
" before [[315]].
* _The Christmas Night_, beginning (cf. Ex. 106).
* No. 262. _Antar_, end of 3rd movement.
_Note._ A sustained note between the diverging parts does not always
allow the empty space to be more completely filled up.
_Example:_
No. 263. _The Golden Cockerel_, before [[106]].
Tone quality as a harmonic force.
Harmonic basis.
Melodic design comprising notes foreign to the harmony, passing or
grace notes, embellishments etc., does not permit that a florid
outline should proceed at the same time with another one, reduced to
essential and fundamental notes:
[Music]
If, in the above example, the upper part is transposed an octave
lower, the discordant effect produced by the contact of appoggiaturas
and fundamental notes will be diminished; the quicker the passage is
played the less harsh the effect will be, and _vice versa_. But it
would be ill-advised to lay down any hard and fast rule as to the
permissible length of these notes. There is no doubt that the harmonic
notes, the thirds of the fundamental one (_E_) are more prominent from
their proximity with the notes extraneous to the harmony. If the
number of parts is increased (for instance, if the melodic figure is
in thirds, sixths etc.), the question becomes still more complicated,
since, to the original harmonic scheme, chords with different root
bases are added, producing false relation.
Nevertheless, for the solution of such problems, orchestration
provides an element of the greatest importance: difference of timbres.
The greater the dissimilarity in timbre between the harmonic basis on
the one hand and the melodic design on the other, the less discordant
the notes extraneous to the harmony will sound. The best example of
this is to be found between the human voice and the orchestra, next
comes the difference of timbres between the groups of strings,
wood-wind, plucked strings and percussion instruments. Less important
differences occur between wood-wind and brass; in these two groups,
therefore, the harmonic basis generally remains an octave removed from
the melodic design, and should be of inferior dynamic power.
_Examples of harmonic basis in chords:_
No. 264. _Pan Voyevoda_, Introduction.
_Legend of Kitesh_, Introduction (cf. also Ex. 125 and 140).
* _Mlada_, Act III [[10]].
The harmonic basis may be ornamental in character, in which case it
should move independently of the concurrent melodic design.
_Examples:_
* No. 265-266. _Tsar Saltan_ [[103-104]], [[128]], [[149]],
[[162-165]] (cf. below).
Chords the most widely opposed in character may be used on a simple,
stationary harmonic basis, a basis, founded, for example, on the chord
of the tonic or diminished seventh.
_Examples:_
No. 267. _Legend of Kitesh_ [[326-328]]--Wood-wind and harps on a
string basis.
No. 268-269. _Kashtcheï the Immortal_ [[33]], [[43]].
No. 270. _Mlada_, Act II, before [[17]], [[18]]], [[20]].
No. 271. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[125]]--Chords of the diminished
seventh, on arpeggio basis (augmented fifth).
The effect of alternating harmony produced between two melodic
figures, e.g. one transmitting a note, held in abeyance, to the other,
or the simultaneous progression of a figure in augmentation and
diminution etc. becomes comprehensible and pleasant to the ear when
the fundamental sustained harmony is different.
_Examples:_
_Legend of Kitesh_ [[34]], [[36]], [[297]] (cf. Ex. 34 and 231).
No. 272-274. _Tsar Saltan_ [[104]], [[162-165]] (cf. also
[[147-148]]).
* _Russian Easter Fête_, before [[V]].
The whole question as to what is allowed and what forbidden in the
employment of notes extraneous to the harmony is one of the most
difficult in the whole range of composition; the permissible length of
such notes is in no way established. In absence of artistic feeling,
the composer who relies entirely on the difference between two timbres
will often find himself using the most painful discords. Innovations
in this direction in the latest post-Wagnerian music are often very
questionable; they depress the ear and deaden the musical senses,
leading to the unnatural conclusion that what is good, taken
separately, must necessarily be good in combination.
Artificial effects.
I apply this name to some orchestral operations which are based on
certain defects of hearing and faculty of perception. Having no wish
to specify those that already exist or to foretell those which may yet
be invented, I will mention, in passing, a few which have been used by
me in my own works. To this class belong _glissando_ scales or
arpeggios in the harp, the notes of which do not correspond with those
played simultaneously by other instruments, but which are used from
the fact that long _glissandi_ are more resonant and brilliant than
short ones.
_Examples:_
_Snegourotchka_ [[325]] (cf. Ex. 95).
No. 275. _Pan Voyevoda_ [[128]].
* _Shéhérazade_, 3rd movement [[M]], 5th bar (cf. Ex. 248).
* _Russian Easter Fête_ [[D]] (cf. Ex. 248).
* Enharmonic _glissando_ in the strings should also be mentioned.
No. 276. _The Christmas Night_ [[180]], 13th bar--'Cellos
_glissando_.
Use of percussion instruments for rhythm and colour.
Whenever some portion of the orchestra executes a rhythmic figure,
percussion instruments should always be employed concurrently. An
insignificant and playful rhythm is suitable to the triangle,
tambourine, castanets and side drum, a vigourous and straightforward
rhythm may be given to the bass drum, cymbals and gong. The strokes on
these instruments should almost invariably correspond to the strong
beats of the bar, highly-accented syncopated notes or disconnected
_sforzandi_. The triangle, side drum and tambourine are capable of
various rhythmic figures. Sometimes the percussion is used separately,
independently of any other group of instruments.
The brass and wood-wind are the two groups which combine the most
satisfactorily with percussion from the standpoint of colour. The
triangle, side drum, and tambourine go best with harmony in the upper
register; cymbals, bass drum and gong with harmony in the lower. The
following are the combinations most generally employed: _tremolo_ on
the triangle and tambourine with trills in wood-wind and violins;
_tremolo_ on the side drum, or cymbals struck with drum sticks, and
sustained chords on trumpets and horns; _tremolo_ on the bass drum or
the gong with chords on trombones or low sustained notes on 'cellos
and double basses. It must not be forgotten that the bass drum,
cymbals, gong and a _tremolo_ on the side drum, played _fortissimo_,
is sufficient to overpower any orchestral _tutti_.
* The reader will find instances of the use of percussion instruments
in any full score, and in several examples of the present work.
_Examples:_
* _Shéhérazade_ pp. 107-119, also many passages in 4th movement.
* _Antar_ [[40]], [[43]] (cf. Ex. 73, 29).
* _Spanish capriccio_ [[P]] (cf. Ex. 64); the cadences to be studied
in the 4th movement, where they are accompanied by various
percussion instruments.
* _Russian Easter Fête_ [[K]] (cf. Ex. 217).
* _The Tsar's Bride_ [[140]].
* _Legend of Kitesh_ [[196-197]]--"The Battle of Kerjémetz".
* _Pan Voyevoda_ [[71-72]].
Economy in orchestral colour.
Neither musical feeling nor the ear itself can stand, for long, the
full resources of the orchestra combined together. The favourite group
of instruments is the strings, then follow in order the wood-wind,
brass, kettle-drums, harps, _pizzicato_ effects, and lastly the
percussion, also, in point of order, triangle, cymbals, big drum, side
drum, tambourine, gong. Further removed stand the celesta,
_glockenspiel_ and xylophone, which instruments, though melodic, are
too characteristic in timbre to be employed over frequently. The same
may be said of the piano and castanets. A quantity of national
instruments not included in the present work may be incorporated into
the orchestra; such are the guitar, the domra, zither, mandoline, the
oriental tambourine, small tambourine etc. These instruments are
employed from time to time for descriptive-aesthetic purposes.
These instruments are most frequently used in the above-named order. A
group of instruments which has been silent for some time gains fresh
interest upon its reappearance. The trombones, trumpets and tuba are
occasionally _tacet_ for long periods, the percussion is seldom
employed, and practically never all together, but in single
instruments or in two's and three's. In national dances or music in
ballad style, percussion instruments may be used more freely.
After a long rest the re-entry of the horns, trombones and tuba should
coincide with some characteristic intensity of tone, either _pp_ or
_ff_; _piano_ and _forte_ re-entries are less successful, while
re-introducing these instruments _mezzo-forte_ or _mezzo-piano_
produces a colourless and common-place effect. This remark is capable
of wider application. For the same reasons it is not good to commence
or finish any piece of music either _mf_ or _mp_. The scope of the
musical examples in this work does not permit of illustrating by
quotation the use of economy in orchestral colour, nor the re-entry of
instruments thrown into prominence by prolonged rests. The reader must
examine these questions in full scores.