"ANNA KARÉNINA"
_Anna Karénina_ is, perhaps, considered as a whole, a more artistic
work than _War and Peace_; the very fact that its scope is less
gigantic permits Tolstoy to make it clearer and more concentrated;
everything is directed towards the one end--the tragic death of
Anna--and though the novel has an under-plot, that is very skilfully
blent with the main plot, and is everywhere kept subordinate.
_Anna Karénina_ is much less distinctively Russian and national than
_War and Peace_; it shows very plainly the influence of the French
novel, and its plot is of the type that French novelists are fond of
selecting, though the moral intensity with which Tolstoy invests it is
unusual with them.
Notwithstanding the power and beauty of its telling, it seems, however,
somewhat restricted when compared with the vast spaces and terrific
issues of _War and Peace_, where individual tragedies, however great,
are forgotten in the crisis of a nation.
_Anna Karénina_ is a very great novel, but no one would dream of saying
that it suggested Homer. It is a domestic tragedy only, but, like
Shakespeare in _Othello_, Tolstoy has known how to make his domestic
tragedy a revelation of the heights and depths, of the passionate
potentialities of the human soul.
Tolstoy openly refrains from judging his heroine, and it is a mistake
to consider _Anna Karénina_ as being essentially a protest against the
breaking of the marriage bond. Tolstoy does believe in the
indissolubility of marriage, but the book is just as much a protest
against {52} the dangers of marriage without love or the cruel
injustice of society.
The truth is that it is a picture of life, and expresses, as Tolstoy
acutely says an artistic work always should, a moral relation to life
rather than a moral judgment.
Anna Karénina, is, of all Tolstoy's heroines, the most perfect human
being; she is a mature woman, possessed of wit, grace, and beauty, and
above all, the gift of sympathy; she is one of those people who have
strong affections, who love profoundly and appreciate readily all that
is best in others, who are also possessed of keen intellectual powers,
but who live mainly from impulse and not from principle. Such people
are, perhaps, the most attractive characters in the world, and their
impulses, springing from a warm heart, are usually right: but it is
their peril that, in moments of moral stress, their emotions may be too
much for them, and may fatally mislead them. There is a certain
resemblance, though not too close, between Anna and Natasha Rostof;
both possess the poetic and emotional temperament; they add, wherever
they are, to the romance of life; it may be noted too that, though
Natasha's fate is happier, that is due mainly to accident, and not to
her own achievement, for she twice escaped the ruin of her life only by
the intervention of others, and she also came very near to death by her
own hand.
There is no surer proof of Anna's sweetness than the charm she
possesses for members of her own sex. She appreciates the beauty of
the young girl who is her unconscious rival, Kitty Shcherbatsky, and
she can enter into the family griefs and troubles of Kitty's sister
Dolly, who, although most virtuous herself, clings to Anna through all
her ostracism. Even the frivolous and immoral Betsky Tverskáia is
grieved to the heart when her own cowardice compels her to desert Anna.
Even before the heroine enters the story the effect of her presence is
felt. Her brother who, owing to a matrimonial infidelity, has
quarrelled with his wife, looks to her as his only hope; he and Dolly
both love her dearly, and they hope that she may find for them a {53}
way out of the intolerable situation; she does, in fact, prevent the
break-up of the home, though she cannot (and this is another example of
Tolstoy's quiet ironic truth) either reform her brother or leave Dolly
really happy. Tender and sympathetic as Anna at once shows herself to
be, she has yet a void in her own life. When quite a young girl she
had been married to a government official, Aleksei Karénin, who held an
important position but who was twenty years her senior, stiff, dry, and
cold; the marriage was entirely due to the intrigues of Anna's clever
and unscrupulous aunt.
Anna has one child, her son Serozha, and in the effort to fill her life
completely with her maternal affection, she has almost made it an
affectation. Though she herself hardly suspects it, the real emotional
capacities of her nature have never been developed. It is a stroke of
tragic irony that Anna, who comes to Moscow to avert the destruction of
her brother's home, should find there what is to prove the ruin of her
own. She meets Count Aleksei Vronsky--young, handsome, attractive.
Vronsky has been regarded by everyone, including Kitty herself, as the
suitor of Kitty Shcherbatsky, but he is not deeply stirred, and, the
moment he meets Anna, he yields to her far greater charm.
Had there been the slightest disrespect in Vronsky's attentions, Anna
would have known how to defend herself, but Vronsky is perfectly
reverent. His family, on discovering the intrigue, consider Anna
simply as an amusement for Vronsky, but he himself has never regarded
her in that light; from the first moment he has loved her seriously and
profoundly, with all the strength of his nature.
Against all the ordinary infidelities, the light and cheap loves of the
society in which she lives, Anna is immune, but she is helplessly
ensnared by this love, so immediate that she has no time to be on her
guard, so tender and reverent that she cannot feel insulted.
The reader is, at first, somewhat inclined to resent Anna's
overwhelming passion, and to consider Vronsky as commonplace, he seems
so much the typical military {54} dandy, his whole life's aim (as he
avows even to himself) being the desire to be _comme il faut_ in
everything--in dress, speech, manners, and sentiments. He attempts to
make his passion for Madame Karénina fit in the conventional framework,
but Vronsky is finer than he himself suspects; he really is what Anna
had, at the first glimpse, divined him to be--her nature's destined
mate; under the exterior of the St. Petersburg dandy, he conceals a
nature capable of extraordinary generosities and the most enduring
devotion. He realises all the charm of Anna's nature; he realises that
her heart is as yet unawakened and that he has the power to arouse it;
there is nothing in his moral code to hold him back; he and his society
consider the pursuit of a married woman as being quite _comme il faut_.
Our first real surprise with regard to Vronsky does not occur in his
relations to Anna, but comes when we discover that he has, with almost
quixotic generosity, sacrificed the greater part of his fortune in
favour of his younger brother, for no reason except that his brother
wished to marry into a distinguished family, and the fortune would
greatly aid.
With the same generosity, Vronsky, when he discovers the need, makes
real sacrifices for Anna. He had at first regarded his passion for her
as being only an additional joy in life, entailing no responsibility;
but Tolstoy, with his unerring accuracy, shows that the
responsibilities of an illicit love are not only as great as those of a
legal one, but far more difficult and galling, because society, having
ordained the responsibilities of marriage, assists the individual to
execute them, whereas, in the other case, it incessantly hinders and
impedes. Vronsky is compelled either to leave Anna or to sacrifice his
ambition, hitherto the dearest thing in his life, and he gives up his
ambition.
Matthew Arnold, in his criticisms on _Anna Karénina_, remarks that it
is difficult to imagine an Englishwoman yielding herself as readily as
Anna to an illicit love. But we may doubt if this is not a piece of
British Pharasaism, for an emotional Englishwoman, living in {55} a
society as corrupt as Anna's (and many periods of English society have
been as corrupt), would probably yield in the same way. Tolstoy, with
his usual insight, has shown us how natural this yielding really is.
Anna, though quite young, is well accustomed to marital infidelity; her
own brother's, though it distresses, does not shock her; moreover, in
the character of this brother, Stepan, we have a subtle side-light
thrown upon Anna's; Stepan is a far inferior type, but there is
undoubtedly a family affinity. Stepan is affectionate, kind-hearted,
and cheerful; wherever he goes he is thoroughly liked; but he
altogether fails to realise his obligations, even to those he loves,
and in Anna's nature, incomparably more refined, there is, none the
less, a touch of the same carelessness.
Anna's husband is not the person to exercise any restraining influence.
Tolstoy never agrees with the wife's conception of him as a mere
official machine, but he makes us understand how inevitable it is that
Anna should take such a view. Karénin is cold by nature, and, in her
sense of the word, he has never really loved her; her relations with
Vronsky do not so much wound and grieve his affections (Anna could
readily understand that), but they fill him with an overmastering fear
for his dignity, his place in society, and, to an idealist like Anna,
this very fear appears as contemptible.
The course of the long, ever-changing drama between these three is
traced with acutest psychological skill. Anna yields to her lover only
after long solicitation, and with an instant shame and regret; for a
time she hides the truth from Karénin, but concealment of any sort is
hateful to her candour, and soon becomes impossible; she is present at
a dangerous steeple-chase when Vronsky is thrown, and her emotion is so
manifest that her husband rebukes her; she gives way to her own
passionate desire for truth, and, notwithstanding her bitter
humiliation, acknowledges her infidelity. She hopes that the
confession will end an intolerable situation, but her hope is
disappointed; her husband simply forbids her to receive Vronsky in his
house, and {56} Anna finds that one insufferable situation has only
given place to another still worse; to deceive Karénin was a torture,
but to live on terms of cold hostility with him, seeing her lover by
stealth, is even more wretched. Karénin meditates a divorce, but
neither Anna nor he really desires it; he cannot bear to yield her
entirely to Vronsky, and Anna knows that it would mean a final
separation from her son. In the meantime Vronsky is sacrificing his
whole career in order to remain in St. Petersburg. Anna longs for
death, and nature seems about to send it; her daughter--Vronsky's
child--is born, and for a week she hangs between life and death. In
her extremity her mind is oppressed by remorse for the suffering she
has caused her husband; she entreats his forgiveness, and with great
compassion he does, really and genuinely, forgive; he even consents to
be reconciled to Vronsky, and, at Anna's bedside, they clasp hands.
But destiny reveals its customary irony (Tolstoy, we may remark, is as
firm a believer in tragic irony as any of the Greeks). The touching
reconciliation is based really upon one condition--that Anna dies--and
this does not happen. Moreover she, who had, for a moment, exalted her
husband above her lover, soon finds the balance redressed. Vronsky
discovers himself in a position for which his philosophy has no remedy;
instead of being the triumphant lover he finds himself a humiliated
offender, pardoned by the man whom he had most grievously injured;
there was also the terrible anguish of believing Anna's death
inevitable. Vronsky shoots himself, bungles it, and is wounded
seriously though not fatally. His attempted suicide is, in part, a
supreme sacrifice to his doctrine of _comme il faut_, an attempt to
escape humiliation and ridicule, in part a manifestation of the
feeling, so strong it amazes even himself, that life without Anna is
impossible.
But Anna recovers; Vronsky's attempted suicide has turned her
sympathies almost wholly to him, and when once she is convalescent
(here again is the tragic irony) she finds her husband as tiresome and
tedious as before.
{57}
Vronsky and Anna end the intolerable situation by taking flight. For a
time all seems well with them; after so many brief and stolen
interviews, so many harsh separations, they find it unalloyed bliss to
be together without let or hindrance; they spend in Italy an ideally
happy honeymoon.
But Tolstoy's art is inexorable, as inexorable as life.
Neither Vronsky nor Anna can remain content in isolation; they are both
rich and generous natures, meant for fruitful intercourse with their
fellows, and they cannot, in their position, obtain either suitable
society or suitable duties. Vronsky has resigned his military
profession, which he really loved, and for which he was admirably
adapted; he does his best to find occupation in other ways; in Italy he
attempts art, but soon discovers that he is a mere dilettante, wasting
his efforts and his time. They return to Russia, and he devotes
himself to the duties of a landed proprietor, becoming quite reasonably
successful. So far as he himself is concerned Vronsky could get along,
but he is stabbed through his affection for Anna; the really
intolerable burden of the situation falls upon her; men will associate
with her, but not her own sex; she is ostracised from the society of
good women, and even women who are, morally speaking, infinitely her
inferiors venture to insult her; moreover she knows that Vronsky's
mother tries to entice him away from her and get him married; she has
had to resign her son, and the thought of his destiny, misunderstood,
and perhaps neglected, tortures and grieves her. She attempts to
obtain a divorce from Karénin, so that her position can be regularised,
but her husband, fallen under the sway of a malevolent woman, refuses.
Thrown, as she is, entirely upon Vronsky's honour, she is desperately
jealous; every hour that he spends away from her is an anguish, and she
is continually tortured by the fear of desertion; conscious that her
jealousy exasperates and alienates him, she is still unable to control
it.
Vronsky is really a gentleman, and he has true and {58} deep love; he
shows great consideration, but the incessant scenes of jealousy
followed by passion and passion followed by jealousy strain his
patience to the breaking-point. At length, having tried, as he thinks,
everything else, he believes that the only way left is to try
indifference; Anna, however, is on the edge of the abyss, and his
coldness drives her over.
Vronsky is absent for the day; in terror at her own despair she sends
him a note, beseeching him to return; he answers coldly that he will be
back at the appointed time, and, yielding to her anguish, she flings
herself beneath a train.
All Anna's feelings at this crisis of her fate are depicted with the
deepest truth and tragedy. The unhappy creature herself knows whither
she is tending, and struggles frantically, but her views of life grow
ever more and more gloomy; hatred of herself, hatred of her lover, well
up in her heart, and, at last, her only desire is to punish him.
"'There,' she said, looking at the shadow of the carriage thrown upon
the black coal-dust which covered the sleepers, 'there, in the centre,
he will be punished and I shall be delivered from it all ... and from
myself.'
"Her little red travelling-bag caused her to miss the moment when she
could throw herself under the wheels of the first carriage, as she was
unable to detach it from her arm. She awaited the second. A feeling
like that she had once experienced just before taking a dive in the
river came over her, and she made the sign of the cross. This familiar
action awakened in her soul a crowd of memories of youth and childhood.
Life, with its elusive joys, glowed for an instant before her, but she
did not remove her eyes from the carriage, and when the centre part,
between the wheels, appeared, she threw away her red bag, lowered her
head upon her shoulders, and, with outstretched hands, threw herself on
her knees beneath the vehicle, as though prepared to rise again. She
had time to feel afraid. 'Where am I? What am I doing? Why?' thought
she, trying {59} to draw back; but a great inflexible mass struck her
head and threw her on her back. 'Lord! forgive me all,' she murmured,
feeling the struggle to be in vain. A little muzhik, who was mumbling
in his beard, leant from the step of the carriage on to the line.
"And the light--which, for the unfortunate one, had lit up the book of
life with its troubles, its deceptions, and its pains--rending the
darkness, shone with greater brightness, then flickered, grew faint,
and went out for ever."
On Vronsky the terrible punishment takes effect; he rejoins the service
a crushed and broken man, having henceforward only one desire--to lose
his life in battle.
Mingled with the main story of Anna and Vronsky is the companion one or
"under-plot" of Kitty Shcherbatsky and Konstantin Levin. We may notice
that Tolstoy's method of construction differs essentially from that of
Turgénief; Turgénief, making his work briefer and more concentrated,
omits all that is not essential to his main theme, but Tolstoy aims at
giving, not so much the drama of life as life itself.
He wishes to show us the slow, deliberate motion of reality, and when
in Anna's life there are no events, he fills up the space with the acts
and experiences of his other characters.
Kitty Shcherbatsky's story is very simple: she at first refuses Levin,
believing herself in love with Vronsky; he, however, deserts her for
Anna; she is cruelly mortified, passes through a period of ill-health
and depression, but Levin ultimately returns, she marries him, and they
are happy. Kitty is a charming girl, but her character seems slight
and even common-place beside the depth and richness and passion of
Anna's; the two heroines in this book do not balance so well as in _War
and Peace_, though Tolstoy has most skilfully used them as foils to
each other, and helped, by their mutual relations, to reveal their
characters; thus there is no stronger proof of Anna's wonderful charm
than the fact that Kitty, who has hated her, both from jealousy and
because she thinks her wicked, {60} has only to meet her in order to be
overwhelmed by love and compassion. Konstantin Levin, is, in some
ways, more interesting than Vronsky; he has a much more complex mental
development. It is agreed that Levin represents, to some extent,
Tolstoy himself. The points of resemblance are many and close; Levin
works among his peasants just as Tolstoy did, mowing and reaping in the
fields, rejoicing in the health and activity of such a life, and in the
lovely pictures of nature that it reveals. Levin's proposal to his
wife follows, detail by detail, Tolstoy's proposal to Sophie Behrs; the
death of Levin's brother from consumption is like the death of
Tolstoy's--even the name is the same--Nicolas; Levin, like Tolstoy, is
happy in his family life, but is, nevertheless, so greatly distressed
by religious doubts and difficulties that he is driven almost to
suicide.
The resemblance being so strong, it is noteworthy and significant that
Tolstoy has painted Levin as a great egoist. He is a good fellow at
heart, and the reader is thoroughly interested in his mental
development, but his egoism is so strong that it continually
exasperates and annoys. When Kitty refuses him, Levin is deeply
wounded in his affections, but still more hurt in his pride; he cannot
get over the fact that he--Levin--has been "refused by a Shcherbatsky,"
and feels as if the whole world must be cognisant of his disgrace--in
fact he becomes really comic. Again, when he hears from her sister
that Kitty's affection for Vronsky was really very slight, that her
only real regret is the alienation from him, he will not even call at
the house, and this though he knows that the whole Vronsky entanglement
was due mainly to his own eccentric behaviour. Even when he is married
he is incessantly and unnecessarily jealous of his wife, and always, on
the slightest pretext, tormenting her with this jealousy.
This irritable self-consciousness is shown no less strikingly in his
relations with men who, although they esteem his integrity and talents,
find it exceedingly difficult to like him. The same self-consciousness
{61} makes him clumsy in society, and, when he has to act with other
people in public business, he grows caustic and angry because they do
not agree with him in everything. The worst egoism of all occurs in
his attitude towards his dying brother. When he sees his brother
visibly perishing from consumption, he pities him deeply, but, none the
less, his chief concern lies in the thought that this horrible and
degrading misfortune of illness and death will one day befall himself;
he positively disturbs the invalid in the night (how terrible to break
that hard-won sleep of the consumptive!) by rising to look in the
glass, dreading to find that he has wrinkles and grey hairs and is
growing old.
When he and Kitty attend Nikolai's death-bed we see the strongest
possible contrast between the unselfish courage of the young wife,
thinking only of the sick man, and doing everything possible for him,
and the distressing egoism of Levin, who is filled with fear, disgust,
and almost anger at the sight of death.
"Levin, though terrified at the thought of lifting this frightful body
under the coverlet, submitted to his wife's influence, and put his arms
around the invalid, with that resolute air she knew so well": and
again, "The sight of the sick man paralysed him; he did not know what
to say, how to look or move about.... Kitty apparently did not think
about herself, and she had not the time. Occupied only with the
invalid, she seemed to have a clear idea of what to do; and she
succeeded in her endeavour."
_Anna Karénina_ shows already that fear of death which is such an
obsession in Tolstoy's later works. In _War and Peace_, he takes the
soldier's view of it, as something almost trifling in comparison with
greater matters; his noble Prince Andrei grieves over many things, but
neither the utmost extremity of peril, nor the anguish of his gangrened
wound, nor the immediate presence of dissolution can shake his courage
or dismay his soul. It is different with the pitiful, almost animal
terror of death shown by poor Nikolai Levin, and it plays an increasing
part in Tolstoy's mind until, as he describes {62} in _My Confession_,
it becomes an obsession which occupies the whole of his mind, and from
which he can only shake himself free by an entire conversion. Even
then, like a mediæval monk, he allows the thought of death to colour
almost the whole of life. The truth is that he thinks too much of it.
Even his pagan Homer might have taught him better; Achilles cries:
"My friend, thou too must die; why thus lamentest thou? Patroklos too
is dead, who was better far than thou. Seest thou not also what manner
of man am I for might and goodliness? and a good man was my father and
a goddess-mother bare me. Yet over me too hang death and forceful
fate."
Tolstoy had reached, more than once, the height of the heroic age. It
is a pity his soul ever condescended to our modern and craven fear of
death.
The canvas of _Anna Karénina_ is rich in minor characters, almost as
excellently drawn as the main one. Stepan, Anna's brother, has been
already referred to; he is an ironically complete portrait of the man
of the world, drawn with a Thackerayan lightness and zest. There are
not, as a rule, many resemblances between Thackeray and Tolstoy, for
Tolstoy is so much the deeper, but the portrait of Stepan might have
come from the same pen as that of Major Pendennis. Stepan is always
kind, but his kindness is as purely constitutional as a good digestion.
He is faithless to his wife, not once nor twice, but habitually; he
deserts the "adorable" women who confide themselves to his protection;
he claims an excellent post, and thinks he has fulfilled all its duties
by keeping himself invariably well-dressed; he is, of course, a
_connoisseur_ in meats and wines, and, however well-spread the table
may be, must always show his fastidiousness by ordering something else.
He is very generous, and pays all his debts of honour, but the money
for this has to be found by his unfortunate family, who economise even
in the necessities of life; one summer they spend their time in a
miserable tumble-down house; next year, as the place is positively
uninhabitable, they are driven to take refuge with the Levins. But it
does not grieve Stepan {63} that Konstantin Levin should support
Stepan's wife and six children; he doubtless thinks that Levin enjoys
that sort of thing as much as he--Stepan--the spending of money. Yet
Stepan is invariably liked, for he will do a good turn for anyone if he
can, and is always tactful and sympathetic. If Tolstoy has drawn a
candid and unflattering picture of his own type of egoism in Konstantin
Levin, he has drawn in Stepan a portrait of the other type of
egoism--the amiable, Epicurean type--which is still more drastically
complete.
Stepan's wife--Dolly, sister to Kitty Shcherbatsky--is a thoroughly
natural and lovable creature; terribly disillusioned by her husband's
infidelity, she is yet persuaded, for the children's sake, to forgive
him and reunite the family; she bears with endless patience the worries
his extravagance entails, and copes single-handed with the debts and
the six children. It is hardly surprising if, at moments, she murmurs,
and is almost inclined to think that the people who lead irregular
lives (like Anna) have the best of it; it is only after a visit to Anna
and Vronsky that she realises her own blessings, and understands that
the tortures of a dissatisfied conscience are worse even than debts and
a faithless husband. Dolly, however, stands by Anna in all her
misfortunes; while women full of secret sins insult Anna in public,
Dolly, the irreproachably virtuous, loves her to the end.
Aleksei Karénin--the husband of Anna--is brought before us in all his
reality. We see the ugliness which so exasperates Anna--the ears that
stick out straight, the habit of cracking the finger-joints--and we
realise his cold vanity. And yet it is impossible not to be sorry for
Karénin; he suffers a veritable martyrdom; that which he dreads worse
than death--ridicule--overwhelms him at all points; he is crushed by
the undeserved contempt of his fellows. Tolstoy shows us how little
Anna's persecution was dictated by morality, for the cruelty accorded
to the guiltless husband is just as great.
For a moment, when Karénin pardons Anna and {64} Vronsky, he rises to
real heroism, but it is a height to which he cannot keep; the poor man
really is, as Anna well knew, a pretentious mediocrity; he is found out
as a husband, found out as an official, found out even as a martyr; for
a brief space, after the scene of the pardon, the reader is inclined to
feel as if Karénin had been all along misjudged, but he returns to his
usual self. When Anna has left him he falls under the influence of the
stupidly sentimental Lidia Ivanovna; he becomes a convert to the most
foolish form of spiritualism, submits Anna's fate to the decision of a
medium, and refuses her a divorce because the medium pronounces against
it--a course of procedure so extravagantly silly that it amazes even
Stepan.
There are in the book many amusing and caustic portraits. One
group--Lidia Ivanovna, Betsky Tverskáia, the Princess Miagkaïa, and
Veslovsky--might have come from the pen of some eighteenth-century
satirist; they have a Sheridan-like keenness and lightness of touch.
Lidia Ivanovna, especially, is excellent: she is a sentimentalist of
the rankest type; having disgusted her own husband within a fortnight
of marriage, she has ever since been incessantly conceiving romantic
affections for one distinguished person after another; most of them are
completely unconscious of her adoration, others ignore it, and the
remainder are supremely bored; in poor deserted Karénin she finds at
last a responsive object for her sentimentality and brings about,
indirectly, Anna's tragedy.
{65}