2 Seconds 39⅛ Inches.
½ Seconds 9.8
¼ Seconds 2.45
_Length of Pendulums to vibrate 2 Seconds at every Fifth Degree of
Latitude._
+----------+---------+
|Degrees of|Length of|
|Latitude. |Pendulum.|
| |Inches. |
+----------+---------+
| 0 | 39.027 |
| 5 | 39.029 |
| 10 | 39.032 |
| 15 | 39.036 |
| 20 | 39.044 |
| 25 | 39.057 |
| 30 | 39.070 |
| 35 | 39.084 |
| 40 | 39.097 |
| 45 | 39.111 |
| 50 | 39.126 |
| 55 | 39.142 |
| 60 | 39.158 |
| 65 | 39.168 |
| 70 | 39.177 |
| 75 | 39.185 |
| 80 | 39.191 |
| 85 | 39.195 |
| 90 | 39.197 |
+----------+---------+
=Rule.=—_To find the Length of a Pendulum to make any Number of
Vibrations, and_ vice versa.
Call the pendulum, making 60 vibrations the standard length; then say,
as the square of the given number of vibrations is to the square of 60;
so is the length of the standard to the length sought. If the length
of the pendulum be given, and the number of vibrations it makes in a
minute be required; say, as the given length is to the standard length,
so is the square of 60, its vibrations in a minute, to the square of
the number required. The square root of which will be the number of
vibrations made in a minute.
_PETARDS_—are of four different sizes:—First, contain 12 lbs. 13
oz.—Second, 10 lbs. 11 oz.—Third, 1 lb. 10.—Fourth, one lb.
Blind fuze composition { mealed powder 7 lbs.
for Petards. { wood ashes 3 oz.
_Stores for One Petard._
Hooks to hang the petard 2
Gimblets 2
Brass fuze 1
Wrench to screw the fuze 1
Blue paper portfires 6
Slow match yards 4
Props or forks 2
Copper funnels 1
Tallow ounces 8
Cartridges 1
_PLATFORMS._—The common platforms for gun batteries require the
following materials for each:—5 sleepers or joists, 6 inches square, 14
feet long.—1 hunter, 8 or 10 inches square, 8 feet long, 14 planks, 1
foot wide, 11 feet long, 2½ inches thick.—20 pickets.
The usual slope of platforms for guns is one inch to every yard.
The platforms for mortar batteries are made with 3 sleepers 8 inches
square, and covered with about 11 timbers of the same thickness. They
are laid perfectly horizontal, about 15 feet asunder, and 12 feet from
the epaulment. This is the distance commonly practised for firing
only at 45 degrees elevation; but if the platforms be placed at the
undermentioned distances from the epaulment, the mortars may be fired
at the angles corresponding.
At 13 feet distance for firing at 30 degrees.
21 feet ” ” ” at 20
30 feet ” ” ” at 15
40 feet ” ” ” at 10
over an epaulment of 8 feet high.
See also the word _Battery_.
_POINT BLANK._—For the point blank ranges of different pieces of
ordnance, see the different natures.
The French _point blank_ or _but en blanc_, is what the English
artillery call the _line of metal elevation_; in most guns between one
and two degrees.
_PONTOONS._—Length at { top 21 ft. 6 in.
{ bottom, 17 2
Width, 4 feet 9 inches. Depth, 2 feet 3 inches.
_Equipage of One Pontoon._
Ft. In. Ft. In. In.
4 Baulks 22 8 long 1 0 wide 4 thick.
1 Gang-board. 22 0 ” 1 0 ” 2½ ”
6 Chesses, 11 6 ” 2 4 ” 1½ ”
2 Oars.
1 Anchor.
1 Graplin.
1 Setter.
4 Iron bolts, with keys.
2 Mounting bars.
4 Binding sticks.
4 Spring lines.
4 Faukes.
1 Cable
1 Sheer-line.
1 Boat hook.
1 Maul.
4 Pickets.
1 Small pump.
1 Windlass.
1 Pontoon carriage, complete.
_Dimensions of Colonel Congreve’s Wooden Pontoons._
feet. inches.
Length at top 26
” at bottom 23
Depth 2 8
Width 2 3
The common pontoons will support a weight of 4 or 5000 pounds. They are
generally placed, in forming a bridge, about their own width asunder.
See the word _Bridge_.
_PORTFIRES._
Composition. Saltpetre, 60 parts; sulphur, 40 parts; mealed powder, 20
parts. Length of each, 16½ inches.
One will burn from 12 to 15 minutes.
Weight of one dozen, 3 lbs. 12 oz.
Portfires were made at Gibraltar in the following manner; two ounces
of nitre was dissolved in a gallon of water, and sheets of soft brown
paper dipped in the solution: these when dry were rolled up to about
the size of common portfires.
_PROVISIONS._—See the word _Ration_.
_PROOF_—of ordnance.
All natures of ordnance undergo several kinds of proof before they are
received into his Majesty’s service; _viz._ 1st, They are guaged as to
their several dimensions, internal and external, as to the justness of
the position of the bore, the chamber, the vent, the trunnions, _&c._
2d, They are fired with a regulated charge of powder and shot, and
afterwards searched to discover irregularities or holes produced by the
firing.
3d, By means, of engines an endeavour is made to force water through
them; and,
4th, They are examined internally, by means of light reflected from a
mirror.
_Iron Guns._—The guns are first examined as to their proper dimensions,
in which, in no case more than ³/₁₀ of an inch variation is allowed;
and in the diameter of the bore only ¹/₃₀ from 42 to 18 pounders, and
¹/₄₀ from 12 to 4 pounders; but in the position of the bore ½ an inch
out of the axis of a piece from a 42 to an 18 Pr. and ⅓ of an inch
from a 12 to a 4 Pr. is allowed. They are then fired twice with the
charge in the following table, with one shot and two high junk wads;
and examined with a searcher after each round. In this examination they
must not have any hole or cavity in the bore of ²/₁₀ of an inch in
depth, behind the first reinforce ring, or ¼ of an inch in depth before
this ring.
+---------+--------------+
| Nature. |Proof Charge. |
+---------+--------------+
| Prs. | lbs. oz. |
| 42 | 25 — |
| 32 | 21 8 |
| 24 | 18 — |
| 18 | 15 — |
| 12 | 12 — |
| 9 | 9 — |
| 6 | 6 — |
| 4 | 4 — |
| 3 | 3 — |
| 2 | 2 — |
| 1½ | 1 8 |
| 1 | 1 — |
+---------+--------------+
Iron guns are scaled with ¹/₁₂ the weight of the shot.
_Brass Guns._—From 1 pounders to 12 pounders the diameter of the bore
must not vary more than ¹/₁₀ of an inch, and in no dimensions more than
²/₁₀. The following are the established charges for their proof. The
heavy and medium guns with a charge equal to the weight of the shot,
except the medium 12 pounder, which is proved with only 9 lbs. The
light guns with half the weight of the shot. The brass ordnance have
not however been proved of late with such heavy charges, but with the
following:
3 Prs. light, 3 times, with 1 lb. each round.
6 Prs. light, 3 times, with 2 lbs. each.
12 Prs. light, 2 times, with 4 lbs. each.
12 Prs. Med. 2 times, with 5 lbs. each.
Any hole .15 of an inch deep upwards or sideways in the bore, or .1 in
the bottom, between the breach and first reinforce; or .2 of an inch
upwards or side ways, or .15 in the bottom of the bore, before the
first reinforce ring, will be sufficient to condemn them.
_Brass Mortars and Howitzers._—The exterior dimensions are in no
respect to deviate more than ¹/₁₀ of an inch in an 8 inch howitzer, and
¹/₂₀ in the royals and Coehorn mortars and howitzers. Their bores and
chambers not to deviate from their true diameters or positions more
than ¹/₄₀ of an inch.
The brass mortars and howitzers are fired twice with their chambers
full of powder, and an iron shell. The mortars on their own beds, at
about 75° elevation; and the howitzers on their carriages, at about
12°. Iron mortars are proved on their iron beds; with a charge equal to
the full chamber, and an iron shot equal in diameter to the shell.
Royals, or Coehorn mortars, having a hole .1 of an inch in depth in the
chamber, or .15 in the chase, are rejected: royal howitzers the same. 8
inch howitzers having a hole .15 of an inch in depth in the chamber, or
.2 in the chase, will be rejected.
_Carronades._—The diameter and position of their bore and chamber must
not deviate ¹/₂₀ of an inch. They are proved with two rounds, with
their chambers full of powder, and 1 shot and 1 wad. A hole of ²/₁₀ of
an inch in depth in the bore, or ¹/₁₀ in the chamber condemns the piece.
_Proof Charges._
+--------+----+----+----+----+----+
|68 Prs. | 42 | 32 | 24 | 18 | 12 |
+--------+----+----+----+----+----+
|13 lbs. | 9 | 8 | 6 | 4 | 3 |
+--------+----+----+----+----+----+
All ordnance, after having undergone this proof, and the subsequent
searching, are subject to the water proof: this is done by means of a
forcing pump, having a pipe or hose fixed to the mouth of the piece:
after two or three efforts to force the water through any honeycombs
or flaws which may be in the bore, they are left to dry; and generally
the next day examined by the reflected light from a mirror. If the
bore contains any small holes or flaws which have not been discovered
by the former proofs, they are very readily found by this; the water
will continue to weep, or run from the holes, when the solid parts of
the bore are perfectly dry. Ordnance suspected of being bad are often
subject to a more severe proof: that of firing 30 rounds quick, with
the service charge and 2 shot; and in doubtful cases, where the purity
of the metal is suspected, recourse has been had to chemical trials and
analysis. A quantity of clean filings taken from a part of an iron gun
free from rust, are dissolved in the dilute sulphuric acid, and the
quantity of gas disengaged during the solution accurately ascertained.
The plumbago which remains after solution is also separated by
filtration, and carefully weighed. Now it is well known that the purer
the iron, the greater the quantify of inflammable gas obtained, and
the less the proportion of plumbago which remains after the solution;
from these two parts therefore a tolerable judgment may be formed of
the quality of the metal. When the plumbago exceeds 4½ _per_ cent. the
iron will always be found deficient in strength; and there has been no
instance of a gun bursting where the plumbago did not exceed 3 _per_
cent; that is, where 100 grains of the metal did not leave more than 3
grains of plumbago. The colour of the plumbago is also to be attended
to; when it is brown or reddish, it is an indication of hard metal, and
when in quantities and mixed with coals, there can be no doubt but that
the iron is too soft for cannon.
For the proof of _Gunpowder_, see that word.
_Proof of Iron Shells._—After the shells are guaged and examined as
to their dimensions and weight, they must be well scraped out, and
the iron pin at the bottom of the inside must be driven down or broken
off. They are then to be hammered all over, to knock off the scales,
and discover flaws, and no hole, in the large shells is allowed, of
more than ¾ of an inch deep. An empty fuze is then driven into the fuze
hole, and the shell is suspended in a tub of water, in such manner that
the shell be covered by the water, but that it does not run into the
fuze: in this situation the nose of a pair of bellows is put in at the
fuze hole, and several strong puffs given with the bellows; and if no
bubbles rise in the water, the shell is concluded to be serviceable.
Ordnance condemned as unserviceable for any of the foregoing reasons,
are marked as follows: =X D=, or =X S=, or =X W=. The first signifies
that they are found to be faulty in their dimensions, by Desagulier’s
instrument; the second, by the searcher; and the third, by the water
proof.
_RATION._—For an officer or soldier.
_Complete Ration of the Small Species._
Flour, or bread 1½ lbs.
Beef 1
Or Pork ½
Peas ¼ pint.
Butter, or cheese 1 oz.
Rice 1 oz.
When the small species are not issued, 1½ lbs. of flour or bread, with
1½ lbs. of beef, or 10 oz. of pork, forms a complete ration: or 3 lbs.
of beef; or 2 lbs. of cheese; or half a pound of rice, forms a complete
ration.
At sea the ration is different. The following table contains the
allowance for six soldiers, or four seamen on board of ship, for each
day in the week. Women are provisioned at ½, and children at ¼ of a
soldier’s allowance, but receive no rum.
(A) = Beer, Gallons, or half Pints of Spirits, or Pints of Wine.
(B) = Pint of Oatmeal.
(C) = lbs. of Butter.
(D) = lbs. of Butter.
+----------+------+---+----------+------+----+---+---+---+--------+
| | | | Beef, |Pork, |Pint| | | | |
| Days of | | | Pieces |Pieces| of | | | | |
| the Week.|Bread.|(A)| of | of |Peas|(B)|(C)|(D)|Vinegar.|
| | lb. | | 8 lbs. |4 lb. | | | | | |
+----------+------+---+----------+------+----+---+---+---+--------+
|Sunday, | 4 | 4 | | 1 | 2 | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|Monday, | 4 | 4 | | — | | 4 | ½ | 1 | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|Tuesday, | 4 | 4 | 1 | — | | | | | |
| | | |or 6 lbs. | | | | | | |
|Wednesday,| 4 | 4 | of flour,| — | 2 | 4 | ½ | 1 |1 quart |
| | | |or ½ lb | | | | | |a week. |
|Thursday, | 4 | 4 |of suet, | 1 | 2 | | | | |
| | | |& 1 lb of | | | | | | |
|Friday, | 4 | 4 |raisins | — | 2 | 4 | ½ | 1 | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|Saturday, | 4 | 4 | 1 | — | | | | | |
| | | | or as | | | | | | |
| | | | above. | | | | | | |
+----------+------+---+----------+------+----+---+---+---+--------+
The above are served out by full weights and measures.
When flour, suet and raisins are put on board, they are to be served
out in equal proportions with beef, viz. half in beef; the other half
in flour, suet, and raisins, on each beef day.
4 lbs. of flour, or 3 lbs. of flour with ½ lb. of raisins, (or ¼ lb. of
currants) and ¼ lb. of suet, are equal to 4 lbs. of beef, or 2 lbs. of
pork with peas, but are not to be issued in lieu of the latter, except
unavoidable, and then the quantities must be certified.
½ lb. of rice is equal to a pint of oatmeal; ½ lb. of sugar is equal to
½ lb. of butter; and 1 lb. of rice is equal to 1 lb. of cheese; 1 pint
of oil is equal to 1 lb. of butter, or 2 lbs. of cheese, that is, a
pint of oil for the proportion of butter and cheese.
A pint of wine, or ½ pint of brandy, rum, or arrack, is equal to a
gallon of beer; 1 lb. of fresh beef is equal to 1 lb. of salt beef; and
1½ lbs. of fresh beef is equal to 1 lb. of pork.
No wine or spirits are to be issued to the troops while in port, nor at
sea, till after all the beer is expended.
The masters of transports are to produce a certificate from the
commanding officer of the troops on board, of the quantity expended. If
any doubt be entertained of the provisions being full weight, a cask
must be weighed in the presence of the commanding officer, the master
and the mate, and the master may upon the certificate of the commanding
officer, and the oath of the mate, issue as much beef and pork as will
make up the deficiency.
The weight of each must be as follows: 14 pieces of beef, cut for 8
pound pieces taken out of the cask as they rise, and the salt shaken
off, are to weigh 112 lbs. avoirdupois. 28 pieces of pork cut for 4 lb.
pieces, are also to weigh, under like circumstances, 112 lbs.
The deductions to betaken for provisions from the pay of officers,
noncommissioned officers, or men, are the same for all ranks, and in
all corps, under the like circumstances of service, when serving out
of Great Britain, on stations where provisions are supplied by the
public: also, when embarked in transports or other vessels, (except
when serving as marines) also when prisoners of war, and maintained at
the expense of Great Britain; also when in general hospitals, whether
at home or abroad, a deduction of _Six-pence per day_.
A deduction of _three-pence half-penny_ from the pay of every
noncommissioned officer and private in Jamaica, in New South Wales, or
Gibraltar. Noncommissioned officers and soldiers serving as marines
shall not be liable to any deduction from their full pay on account of
provisions.
Ration for a horse on home service in 1796: 14 lbs. of hay, 10 lbs. of
oats, 4 lbs. of straw; for which a stoppage is made of _six-pence_.
_Army Regulations, 1799._
_RANK._—_Between Land and Sea Officers._
_Navy._ | _Army._
1. Admiral, or commander |
of his Majesty’s fleet | Field Marshal.
--------------------------------------+--------------------
2. Admirals with their flags |
at the main-top-mast head | Generals.
--------------------------------------+--------------------
3. Vice Admirals | Lieutenant Generals.
4. Rear Admirals | Major Generals.
5. Commodores, with broad pendants | Brigadiers.
--------------------------------------+--------------------
6. Captains commanding post |
ships, after 3 years | Colonels.
--------------------------------------+--------------------
7. All Captains commanding post ships | Lieutenant Colonels.
8. Captains not taking post | Majors.
9. Lieutenants | Captains.
The rank and precedence of sea officers in the classes abovementioned,
are to take place according to the seniority of their respective
commissions in the sea service. Post captains commanding ships or
vessels that do not give post, rank only as majors during the time they
command those vessels.
Nothing in this shall give any pretence to land officers to command any
of his Majesty’s squadrons; nor to any sea officer to command on shore;
nor shall either have right to demand the military honours due to their
respective ranks, unless upon actual service.
_RECOIL_—_Of Field Guns on Travelling Carriages, upon Elm Planks._
+-------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+
| | | 1 Shot, | 2 Shot |Case Shot,|
| Nature. | Charge |at 1° 30′ |at 1° 30′ |at 3° 45′ |
| | |Elevation |Elevation |Elevation |
+-------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+
| |lbs. oz.| Feet. | Feet. | Feet. |
| | | | | |
|12 Pr. Medi. | 4 — | 12 | 25 | 8½ |
| 6 Pr. Heavy | 2 — | 7 | 11 | 7½ |
| 6 Pr. Light | 1 8 | 12 | 21 | 10 |
| 3 Pr. Heavy | 1 — | 7 | 5 | 3½ |
+-------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+
_Recoil of Sea Service, Iron Guns, on Ship Carriages, upon a Horizontal
Platform._
+------------------------+----------+-------+-------+-------+
| Charges of Powder |Elevation.|32 Pr. |24 Pr. |18 Pr. |
| and Shot. | | | | |
+------------------------+----------+-------+-------+-------+
| | Deg. |Ft. In.|Ft. In.|Ft. In.|
| | | | | |
| ⅓ of Powder and 1 Shot | 2 |11 — |11 — |10 6 |
| ⅓ of Powder and 2 Shot | 4 |19 6 |18 6 |18 — |
| ¼ of Powder and 2 Shot | 7 |11 6 |12 — |12 — |
+------------------------+----------+-------+-------+-------+
_Recoil of Land Service, Iron Mortars, on Iron Beds._
Ft. In.
13 Inch, with a charge of 6 lbs. 4 2½
10 Inch, ” ” 3 lbs. 2 10
8 Inch, ” ” 1 lb. 9 oz. 3 10
_RECONNOITERING._—The following necessary observations to be made
in examining a country in a military point of view, are principally
translated from the _Aide Memoire_, but improved by some judicious
remarks from Mr. Landman’s introduction to reconnoitering.
Before an officer sets out to reconnoiter a country, he should trace
out from the best map he can procure, its principal features, which
will serve him as a guide in his progress through the principal parts
which are to be the subject of his observations, and enable him to
connect the whole into one grand plan.
His observations should be expressed by written remarks, and by
sketches. For this purpose he must be provided with a sketch book, on
the right hand page of which, he may express the appearance of the
country by sketches, and on the left, the remarks made on particular
parts, with the names of the towns, their distances asunder, &c. with
proper references to the sketches. The scale most proper for this
purpose is two inches to a mile; if therefore, the sketch book be made
six inches wide, and the leaves divided by lines into three equal
parts, each division will be one mile, which will be a sufficient scale
for the purpose.
1st. _Roads._—The principal points to be attended to in examining
roads for military purposes, are, their direction; the villages,
countries, and rivers, which they pass through; the roads which cross
them; their names and the seasons in which they are in best condition;
and if ever impassable, their breadth, whether variable or constant;
their bottoms, of what principally formed; their ascents and descents,
whether practicable for all kinds of carriages. The enclosures may
be hedges, ditches, walls, or fences. If the roads require repair
for the transport of artillery, and other heavy carriages, observe
if the necessary materials are at hand. If they pass over rivers,
remark whether by bridges or fords; if through marshes, whether by
causeways or otherwise. If two or more roads pursuing the same route,
and by which different columns may march, at any part join or cross
each other, it will be necessary to observe, whether the march of the
columns will be thereby impeded. If they only cross each other, it
will be sometimes possible in hollow ways, to throw a temporary bridge
across the deepest, by which one column may pass over and the other
under the bridge, without interrupting each others march.
2. _Fords._—A ford for cavalry ought not to be deeper than 4 feet; for
infantry not more than 3 feet. Observe the banks of the ford at each
side; their form, steepness, and height; their situation as to the
turnings of the river. Their bottom, whether passable for carriages.
Observe marks by which the ford may be readily found; points from which
it may be protected. Notice the rapidity of the water; whether its
height be variable; its direction, its breadth, and the means by which
the ford may be destroyed or rendered impassable.
3. _Inundations._—Learn the manner of working the sluices; the time in
which the inundation may be effected; its extent and depth. Observe how
the dam may be protected; its height and solidity; whether it can be
easily raised, or easily destroyed; whether it is commanded by distant
positions, and whether the inundation can be otherways drained. Notice
the adjacent country.
4. _Springs and Wells._—Attend to the quality and quantity of the
water; whether it will serve for the cavalry, as well as infantry, and
the manner of its being drawn. Observe the situation of the spring, and
of its source, whether it can be protected, and the enemy prevented
from cutting it off.
5. _Lakes, Marshes, and Swamps._—Learn their cause; if arising from
a moist soil, the overflowings of rivers or from springs. Observe
their situation, and the appearance of the surrounding country; the
best means of crossing them. If they are divided by causeways, notice
their breadth and condition; if not, remark if causeways can be easily
established, and whether the swamp can be drained, and whether it is
passable at any season of the year. Observe the points from which the
causeways can be defended against the passage of an enemy’s column.
Learn whether or not the swamps are subject to fogs; and at what
seasons they are most hurtful.
6. _Of Woods and Forests._—Remark their extent; their situation; their
thickness; whether the trees are lofty or low; whether there is much
underwood. Observe if the different clumps form openings or passes;
and their extent; whether their sides are formed of thick wood or
brush; whether their breadth is uniform, or widens at particular parts.
Remark whether the ground of the forest be level or hilly, swampy or
dry. Observe the nature and condition of the roads (for remarks to be
made on these, see the article _Roads_;) observe also the means the
forest affords of intrenching; of making fascines, abbatis, &c. Attend
to the face of the country round the forest, whether cultivated fields
or meadows: whether it affords positions; is intersected by rivulets,
swamps or ravines.
Remark the castles, villages, towns, &c. in the neighbourhood; and
their distance from the skirts of the wood.
Go round the wood and examine its principal débouchés; observe the
ravines, rivulets, roads, &c. issuing from it, and learn their
direction.
7. _Heaths._—Notice for what nature of troops they are best calculated.
The nature of hedges and brush wood; some form a good breast work.
Observe the directions of the rivulets, roads, and ravines. When the
ground of a heath is of the common colour, the roads are usually good:
but when it is blackish and mixed with white sand, the roads are
generally impassable in winter seasons.
8. _Canals._—For this article see also the observations on _Rivers_.
Observe their intention; the nature of the soil in which they are dug,
their breadth and depth; their locks; the craft found upon them; the
best means of protecting or destroying them: learn the countries they
pass through.
9. _Rivers._—Learn in what country they arise, and where empty
themselves; the nature of the countries they run through, and whether
they belong to us or the enemy. Learn the extent to which they are
navigable; and if they ever freeze over, whether strong enough to bear
troops and carriages. Notice the quality of the water, its course,
currents, depths, and breadths. The banks and the beds of the rivers.
Observe the nature and number of the craft that navigate them; and the
mills upon their banks, whether of wind or water. Visit the bridges and
fords; and make the proper remarks on their nature and situation. Learn
whether the rivers ever overflow their banks, and at what season; and
whether or not this causes inundations. Observe the most favourable
points for crossing, and the roads leading to these points. The
turnings and windings of the rivers, the form of their peninsulas; and
the most favourable situations for throwing over bridges. If there are
any wharves on the banks, observe what craft can lay along side of them.
If there are islands in the rivers, note their size; their banks;
whether inhabited, cultivated, woody, or barren; and whether they
command the channel.
Observe the mountains and high grounds near the rivers; remark their
distance from the banks, and the advantages, or disadvantages which
they offer. Learn what branches or confluence of other rivers there
are either above or below, the best situations for crossing. Examine
the positions which the adjoining country affords an army to protect
the passage of the river; and whether in a perpendicular or parallel
direction; and the routes by which 3 or 4 columns may arrive at the
place.
10. _Passes._—Observe their breadth, their length, their situation; the
nature of the adjacent country: the best positions to occupy to cover a
retreat; or to dispute the pass. How the troops would be best arranged;
and the number that would be required for this purpose.
11. _Ravines, Vallies._—Observe the nature of the soil; whether rocky,
or of loose flints. If the sides are rugged and steep, whether they can
be easily scarped off. The points that command them: whether storms or
floods are to be apprehended; and at what seasons most expected.
12. _Cultivated Lands._—Notice their state of cultivation: their
productions; their time of harvest. Learn what quantity of wheat, rye,
barley, oats, or other grain they produce, over and above the necessary
subsistance of the inhabitants. How much hay they yield _per_ acre.
13. _Orchards._—Observe whether they are thick planted and afford a
good cover: their enclosures, whether hedge, ditches, walls, &c.
14. _Bridges._—Remark their situation; their length and breadth; the
materials of which they are built; their strength, whether sufficient
to bear artillery: the roads leading to them: their situation, as
to the turnings of the river: their purpose; if to connect towns or
villages, the nature, direction, and breadth of the streets leading to
them. Observe the country around, whether flat or commanding: study the
best means of fortifying the bridge head; and observe the best and most
expeditious mode by which the bridge may be destroyed, if necessary.
15. _Mountains, Hills._—Amongst high mountains, such as the Alps, roads
are very rare; it is seldom more than the vallies that are inhabited
and accessible for troops: observe their slopes, if steep or rugged.
Examine the positions; means of gaining the summits; and note the state
of cultivation and general appearance of the vallies; the pasturage,
forage, cottages, villages, castles, roads, paths, and passes.
Distinguish the principal chains of hills and their direction. Their
relative heights; whether they are sufficiently extensive to form a
line of defence; their communications; their strong points; positions
proper for batteries, &c. Whether practicable for cavalry and artillery.
16. _Coasts._—Their nature; whether bordered by downs; surrounded by
rocks, which render their approach dangerous; or by shoals, which
make their access impracticable; note the points and headlands proper
for forts and batteries to defend the anchorage, ports, harbours, or
other accessible parts. If there are any adjacent isles, perhaps they
will serve for the erection of advanced batteries, to form a barrier
to the efforts of an enemy. Observe the nature of the shores, bays,
roads for shipping, &c. with the winds required to go in and out the
harbours; and whether they are of easy access: their advantages and
disadvantages, their size and depth of water. If a river empties
itself on the coast, observe the particular channel for shipping, and
whether it can be defended by any of the batteries. If the coast is
already fortified, observe all the batteries, forts, or intrenchments,
established for its defence, and the protection of the anchorage, _&c._
Examine the camps and other military posts, which cover the principal
points, and the interior of the country. Estimate all the dangers to
be run, and all the obstacles to be overcome in a descent, and point
out the means of augmenting them. Observe the time of the tide most
favourable for approaching the coast. Ascertain the number of artillery
and other troops constantly on the coast, and the force that can be
collected at a short notice; and how soon they can be drawn to any
particular point attacked. Examine the system of defence adopted, and
endeavour to improve it.
17. _Forts, Redoubts._—Remark their form, whether ancient or modern;
whether they are permanent or temporary; elevated or low; revetted or
demi-revetted, with stone, brick, or turf. Whether the ditch is wet
or dry; fraized or palissaded; natural or artificial. Observe their
situation; the face of the adjacent country; whether they effectually
command the passes, or protect the country intended. The defence they
are capable of making in their present state, and the improvements of
which they are susceptible.
18. _Castles, Citadels._—Their situation; their form; their extent;
their object; the protection they give the city; their connection and
communication with it. The present state of their defence, and the
improvements of which they are susceptible. Their _Souterraines_.
19. _Villages._—Observe their situation; ascertain the number of
families they contain; the nature of the land; the quality and quantity
of their crops; their markets; the suburbs that supply these markets;
their beasts of burthen: their flocks, herds, poultry, _&c._ The number
of their ovens; quality of the water; stile of houses, barns, stables,
and sheep walks. The situation of the church; the nature of the church
yard, and its enclosures. The wind and water mills. Observe whether
the village is surrounded by hedges, ditches, banks, or walls; whether
it can be easily intrenched. Its streets; roads leading to it; and the
face of the surrounding country.
20. _Cities not fortified._—Their situation; population; commerce;
commodities; manufactures; the succours that may be drawn from them,
as to men, horses, _&c._ Their squares and principal buildings. The
defence they are susceptible of; whether they are surrounded by walls,
old towers, ditches, _&c._ Their gates, and the roads leading to them.
The face of the surrounding country.
21. _Fortified Towns._—Their situation with respect to their position,
and with respect to other towns in the neighbourhood, whether in the
first or second line; the assistance which they can afford each other.
The succours that may be drawn from them, or that may be thrown into
them in case of a siege. The direction which such relief, whether of
men or provisions, ought to take, according to the side attacked;
whether they will serve as depots or hospitals. The state of the
fortifications (see the word _Fortification_ in the alphabet;) their
nature; the strength of each front. The rivers in the neighbourhood;
the surrounding country within the range of the guns. The form of
investment; what lines will be required considering the nature of
the country, and the positions; and the means the country affords of
executing them. The advantages which the ground would afford between
the glacis and the lines, either to the besiegers or besieged; the
means of establishing the most certain communications between the
different quarters of the army, and the means of cutting them off.
22. _Positions._—Every military position ought to possess decided
advantages of situation, and ought to be commanded in no part of its
front, flank, or rear. All commanding grounds ought to be without
the range of cannon. There are four principal objects to be attended
to in the choice of a position: 1st. The advantages of the ground;
2d. The supplies for the army; 3d. The objects to be attained; and,
4th. The communications with the rear. The front of a position should
be intersected by rivers, ravines, or broken ground, or any other
obstacles which can prevent the enemy advancing in order of battle,
and oblige him to pass through defilés; but a position becomes useless
when the front is so covered by obstacles that the army cannot advance
or move out of its camp when necessary; but no obstacles can be too
great on the flanks. All obstacles which cover a position, or passes
which lead to it, must be within the range of the artillery, or the
enemy will pass them unmolested. In a flat country, where the ground
does not afford commanding situations, a position is only more or less
eligible, as being covered or protected by obstacles; these are very
thick woods, in which there are very few roads; large rivulets which
cannot be forded or passed without bridges; narrow roads; deep and
broken ravines; ground much intersected with hedges, ditches, &c. but
it is essential that all these obstacles should be under the fire of
the artillery. It is always dangerous to occupy a position, which has
its rear so covered by swamps, crossed by rivers or ravines, &c. as
to render the retreat of the army difficult. The number of passes by
which an army can retire must be examined and secured, and should never
be less than 5 or 6. The rivers, brooks, &c. in front of a position,
should never be depended upon for a supply of water, as the enemy may
cut them off. The ground for a camp should not be too much intersected
by hedges, ditches, or ravines, which occasion great intervals in the
line, and obstruct the communications through the camp.
In an offensive position it is absolutely necessary that the army
should not be too much confined by obstacles, but be at liberty
to act in every direction; but in a defensive position, the fewer
accessible points there are the better: and if the natural difficulties
in front and flank are not sufficient to render an enemy’s attack
dangerous, they must be increased by redoubts, intrenchments, abbatis,
inundations, &c. The obstacles on the flanks, should also be of such
extent that they cannot be easily turned, without the enemy makes a
very great circuit; and consequently exposes his own flank, and weakens
his line of communication. In case the enemy detaches a body to attack
a defensive position in the rear; the front must be sufficiently strong
to enable the general to oppose the enemy’s detachment, by a strong
body from his own army. In short, the enemy must not be able by any
manœuvre to force the army to quit its position. The want of wood or
water, or other supplies absolutely necessary for an army, renders
every other advantage of a position useless; nor, can a position be
long tenable, that is far removed from its depots; and has not its
intermediate posts perfectly secure from the attacks of an enemy. For
further remarks upon positions, see the word _Artillery in the Field_.
_RICOCHET_—Firing is not confined to any particular charge or
elevation; each must vary according to the distance and difference of
level of the object to be fired at; and particularly of the spot on
which it is intended the shot shall make the first bound. The smaller
the angle is under which a shot is made to ricochet, the longer it will
preserve its force and have effect, as it will sink so much the less in
the ground on which it bounds and its tenacity will of course present
so much less resistance to the shot’s progress. In the ricochet of a
fortification of any kind, the angle of elevation should seldom be
more than 10°, to throw the shot over a parapet a little higher than
the level of the battery. If the works should be of an extraordinary
height, the piece must be removed to such situation, and have such
charge, that it can attain its object at this elevation, or at least
under that of 13° or 14°, otherwise the shot will not ricochet, and the
carriages will suffer very much. The first gun in a ricochet battery
should be so placed as to sweep the whole length of the rampart of the
enemy’s work, at 3 or 4 feet from the parapet, and the rest should
form as small an angle with the parapet as possible. For this purpose
the guns should be pointed about 4 fathoms from the face of the work
towards the interior. In the ricochet of ordnance in the field, the
objects to be fired at being principally infantry and cavalry, the guns
should seldom be elevated above 3 degrees; as with greater angles the
ball would be apt to bound too high, and defeat the object intended.
For ricochet practice see the different pieces of ordnance, as _Gun_,
_Mortar_, and _Howitzer_.