PHYSICAL FORM AND CHARACTER OF THE SIAMESE.--MANNERS AND
CUSTOMS.--TREATMENT OF THE DEAD, AND FUNEREAL OBSEQUIES OF
THE MONARCH.--LAWS.--ADULTERY.--THEFT.--HISTORY.--STATE OF
DEFENCE.--REVENUE.--SIAMESE NUMERALS.--KALENDAR.--ANNUAL FESTIVAL
AT THE CLOSE OF THE YEAR.--RELIGION.--LAWS OF BUDDHA.--PROVINCE
OF CHANTIBOND THE RICHEST PORTION OF THE TERRITORY OF SIAM.--ITS
PRODUCTS.--MINES OF GOLD AND OF PRECIOUS STONES.--ZOOLOGICAL
REMARKS.
I have already, on more than one occasion, briefly alluded to the
physical form of the Siamese. At present I shall make such observations
as more extensive experience has enabled me to collect.
That the Siamese are one of the numerous tribes which constitute
that great and singular family of the human race, known generally by
the appellation of Mongols, will appear to most persons sufficiently
obvious. If they do not possess, in the most acute degree, the peculiar
features of the original, they are at least stamped with traits
sufficiently just to entitle them to be considered as copies. There is,
however, one general and well-marked form, common to all the tribes
lying between China and Hindostan. Under this head are comprehended the
inhabitants of Ava, Pegu, Siam, Cambodia, and even of Cochin-China,
though those of the latter country more resemble the Chinese than
the others. This distinctive character is so strongly blended with
the Mongol features that we have no hesitation in considering these
nations as deriving their origin from that source. It appears to me
that to this source also we ought to refer the Malays[13], who cannot
be said to possess national characters, at least of physiognomy and
physical form, sufficiently distinct and obvious to entitle them to
be considered as a distinct race. Where there is a difference between
the Malays and the tribes mentioned, it is more to be referred to the
condition of the mental faculty, than to that of bodily form; to the
state of manners, habits of life, language; in short to circumstances
altogether, or in great part, produced by mind. In other respects they
would appear to differ but little from the tribes mentioned above.
Traces of a much ruder people are to be met with in the mountainous
districts of these kingdoms, particularly in the peninsula of Malacca.
Our knowledge of these is much too scanty to enable us to trace their
filiation. Though generally asserted, there are no records to prove
that they are the aboriginal inhabitants of the country, at least of
any other part of it than the wilds and impenetrable forests which they
continue to occupy. The woolly-headed race, and another resembling the
Indian, are not uncommon[14]. Their origin will probably ever remain
uncertain.
The following observations will be found to apply to the several
nations already mentioned, and in general to the Chinese also, whom I
consider as the prototype of the whole race. A multitude of forms are
to be seen in every nation, not referable to any particular family or
variety of the human race. For our present purpose, we must select
such only as possess the peculiar form in the most characteristic
degree. But as all the requisites of this form are not always developed
in a very acute degree in all, we must collect from a multitude of
instances, what appears to be the predominating tendency. In this way
we may make out a portrait of the whole.
The stature of the body would appear to be much alike in all the tribes
of the Mongol race, the Chinese being perhaps a little taller, and the
Malays lower than the others. In all it is below that of the Caucasian
race. The average height of the Siamese, ascertained by actual
measurement of a considerable number of individuals, amounts to five
feet three inches.
The skin is of a lighter colour than in the generality of Asiatics to
the west of the Ganges; by far the greater number being of a yellow
complexion, a colour which, in the higher ranks, and particularly
amongst women and children, they take pleasure in heightening by
the use of a bright yellow wash or cosmetic, so that their bodies
are often rendered of a golden colour. The texture of the skin is
remarkably smooth, soft, and shining.
Throughout the whole race there is a strong tendency towards obesity.
The nutritious fluids of the body are principally directed towards
the surface distending and overloading the cellular tissue with an
inordinate quantity of fat. The muscular textures are in general soft,
lax, and flabby, rarely exhibiting that strength or developement of
outline which marks the finer forms of the human body. In labourers and
mechanics, particularly the Chinese, the muscular parts occasionally
attain considerable volume, but very rarely the hardness and elasticity
developed by exercise in the European race. On a simple inspection,
we are apt to form exaggerated notions respecting their muscular
strength, and capacity for labour. A more close examination discovers
the reality, and we find that something more than volume is necessary
to constitute vigour of arm.
In point of size, the limbs are often equal to, if not larger than
those of Europeans, particularly the thighs, but this magnitude of
volume will be found to depend upon the cause alluded to above. The
same circumstance gives to the whole body a disproportionate bulk; and
hence they form what is called a squat race.
The face is remarkably broad and flat, the cheek-bones prominent,
large, spreading, and gently rounded. The glabellum is flat and
unusually large. The eyes are in general small. The aperture of the
eye-lids, moderately linear in the Indo-Chinese nations and Malays, is
acutely so in the Chinese, bending upward at its exterior termination.
The lower jaw is long, and remarkably full under the zygoma, so as to
give to the countenance a square appearance. The nose is rather small
than flat, the alæ not being distended in any uncommon degree; in a
great number of Malays, however, it is largest towards the point. The
mouth is large, and the lips thick. The beard is remarkably scanty,
consisting only of a few straggling hairs. The forehead, though broad
in the lateral direction, is in general narrow, the hairy scalp
descending very low. The head is peculiar. The diameter from the front
backwards is uncommonly short; and hence the general form is somewhat
cylindrical. The occipital foramen in a great number of instances is
placed so far back, that from the crown to the nape of the neck is
nearly a straight line. The top of the head is often unusually flat.
The hair is thick, coarse, and lank, in some shewing a disposition to
curl on the forehead, but this is more peculiar to the Malays. The
colour is always black.
The limbs are thick, short and stout, and the arms rather
disproportionate in length to the body.
The arms, particularly in Malays, are uncommonly long. The foot is,
in general small, but the hand is much larger than in the natives of
Bengal.
The trunk is rather square, being nearly as broad at the loins as over
the pectoral muscles. There is in this respect the greatest difference
between them and the inhabitants of either India, who are in general
remarkable for small waists. The diameter of the pelvis is particularly
large, and the dimensions of the cavity would appear to be somewhat
greater than in the other races.
From this account of their form, they would appear to be admirably
calculated to execute and to undergo the more toilsome and laborious,
but mechanical, operations which are the usual lot of the labouring
classes of mankind. They have the frame, without the energy of London
porters. The greater number of them are indeed more distinguished
for mechanical skill, and patience under laborious occupations, than
for brightness of imagination or mental capacity. Others of them are
equally remarkable for indolence and aversion to labour.
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE SIAMESE.
TREATMENT OF THE DEAD.
The treatment of the dead is not amongst the least singular of the
customs peculiar to the Siamese. It is more or less expensive according
to the rank which the individual held in the community, or the ability
of his relations. The poorest amongst them are negligently and without
ceremony thrown into the river. Those a little higher in the scale of
society are burnt; often very imperfectly, and their partially-consumed
bones are left to bleach on the plain, or to be devoured by ravenous
beasts. Children, before the age of dentition, are interred in a
superficial grave, to one end of which an upright board is attached.
Women who have died pregnant are interred in a similar manner. After
the lapse of a few months, however, their remains are taken up for the
purpose of being burnt.
With the exceptions mentioned, the practice of burning the dead
extends to all ranks. The ceremony may be witnessed almost daily in
the environs, and within the precincts of the temples. The latter are
generally provided with a lofty shed, of a pyramidal form, open on all
sides, and supported on tall wooden posts, of sufficient height to
admit of the combustion of the body without injury to the roof. Nor is
even this simple shed common to all. The avarice of the priesthood,
taking advantage of the weaker feelings of the human mind, has even
here established distinctions at which death mocks. The poorer sort,
therefore, raise the pile at a humble distance from the roof of pride.
A singular custom takes place in many instances previous to the
ceremony of combustion. It is that of cutting the muscular and soft
parts of the body into innumerable small pieces, until nothing is left
of the corpse but the bare bones. The flesh thus cut up is thrown to
dogs, vultures, and other carnivorous birds, which on this account
resort to such places in great numbers. We found one of those pyramids
covered with vultures, and the enclosure much frequented by dogs. The
scene was loathsome and disgusting in the extreme, and sufficiently
attested the prevalence of this custom. The practice is looked upon
as charitable and laudable, and the Siamese arrogate to themselves
no small share of merit in thus disposing of the body as food, the
material of life, to the beasts of the field, and to the birds of the
air. It seems probable that this singular practice is connected with
their notions of a future existence, and may have derived its origin
in some way from the ancient doctrine of Metempsychosis, so strongly
inculcated by their religion[15].
A different custom prevails among the higher orders of Siamese, which,
considering that the body is finally destined to be consumed by fire,
is as unaccountable as the other is barbarous and unfeeling. The
custom I allude to is that of embalming the dead. But what seems most
singular in this custom is, that the body has no sooner undergone that
degree of preparation which renders it capable of being preserved for
a longer period, than it is destined to be totally consumed. Were it
not for this apparent inconsistency, we should have little hesitation
in attributing the origin of this practice to that warmth of filial
affection, and the well known devotion to their ancestors, for which
the Chinese are so remarkable.
The art of embalming, as known to the Siamese, is extremely imperfect,
notwithstanding that it has been practised from very ancient times.
Its actual state is characteristic of that general ignorance of the
ornamental, as well as of the useful arts of civilized life, which I
have already hinted at on several occasions.
The process is for the most part left to the relations of the deceased,
who call in the assistance of the more experienced.
After washing the body with water, the first step is to pour a large
quantity of crude mercury into the mouth. Persons of the highest
rank alone, however, can have recourse to a material so expensive.
The others substitute honey in its stead, but it is said with a less
favourable result. The body is now placed in a kneeling posture, and
the hands are brought together before the face, in the attitude of
devotion. Narrow strips of cloth are then bound tightly round the
extremities, and the body is compressed in a similar manner. The object
of the ligatures is to squeeze the moisture out of the body. They act
also in preserving the required posture, and with this object the more
flexile tendons of the extremities are divided. In this posture the
body is next placed in an air-tight vessel of wood, brass, silver,
or gold, according to the rank of the deceased. A tube, or hollow
bamboo, inserted into the mouth of the deceased, passes through the
upper part of the box, and is conducted through the roof of the house
to a considerable height. A similar bamboo is placed in the bottom,
and terminates in a vessel placed under it to receive the draining
off from the body. If the deceased is of the rank of a prince, the
sordes thus collected is conveyed with great formality and state, in a
royal barge, highly ornamented, to be deposited at a particular part
of the river below the city. That collected from the body of the king
is put into a vessel, and boiled until an oil separates, which oil is
carefully collected, and with this they, on certain occasions, (as when
his descendants and those of his family go to pay their devotions to
his departed spirit), anoint the singular image called Sema, usually
placed in the temple after his death.
Notwithstanding the precaution of using the tubes and the tight box,
the odour, it is said, is often most offensive. In a few weeks,
however, it begins to diminish, and the body becomes shriveled and
quite dry.
The body thus prepared by this rude process is, at the proper period,
brought forth to be burnt, the relations having in the mean time made
every necessary arrangement for the solemn occasion. Early in the
morning a number of priests are assembled at the house of the deceased;
having received robes of yellow cloth, and been feasted, they repeat
prayers in the Pali language, after which the body is carried forth to
be burned. The priests receive the body as it approaches the temple,
and conducting it towards the pile, repeat a verse in the Pali
language, which has been thus interpreted to me:
Eheu! mortale corpus,
Ut fumus hic nunc ascendit, sic et
Animus tuus ascendat in cœlum[16].
After the body has been destroyed, the ashes, or rather the small
fragments of bone which remain, are carefully collected, and the use
that is made of them is somewhat singular. The priests are again called
in; prayers are again repeated in the Pali language, and various
requisite ceremonies are performed, after which the ashes which had
been collected after combustion, are reduced to a paste with water, and
formed into a small figure of Buddha, which being gilded, and finished
by the priests, is either placed in the temple, or preserved by the
friends of the deceased.
This last ceremony is attended with considerable expense, and,
therefore, the poorer orders, when unable to engage priests for its
performance, keep the ashes of their relations by them, until they are
in a condition to have it carried into effect in a becoming manner.
It must be confessed, that in matters of this sort, the Siamese shew
the greatest regard to the memory of their relations and ancestors.
Where death and its dread apparatus are thus brought daily home to
the feelings,--where the mind is accustomed to view the disgusting and
humiliating phenomena that attend the last scene of mortality, it might
be thought that a stupid insensibility, if not scornful indifference,
would be the general result. We have no reason to believe that such is
the case with the Siamese. The care and attention they have bestowed
upon the remains of their relations, seem but to endear their memory
the more to them. The fear of death is, besides, of that nature, that
neither the most deliberate reason, nor the most obtuse feeling, can
lay it altogether aside. On the minds of the multitude more especially,
this fear operates strongly, and produces effects in proportion to
their degree of intelligence. Where there is already a strong tendency
towards superstition, this bias is still more heightened, and there
are perhaps few nations more strongly imbued with this sentiment than
the Siamese; and, in general, all the tribes of Mongol origin. With
them judicial astrology still holds the rank of the most important of
sciences, and is cultivated with the most scrupulous attention. Its
pretended results are required on all important occasions, either of
a public or a private nature. Nor are the most gross and revolting
superstitions confined to the vulgar, as the following anecdote
respecting the present Pra-klang, Suree-wong Montree, will shew.
This gentleman hearing of the wonderful effects said to be produced
by mercury, became extremely desirous to make proof of the popular
belief, that this metal when reduced to a solid state, confers on its
fortunate possessor the most extraordinary power, and amongst others
that of travelling into the most distant regions of the globe, without
other effort than that of the will to do so. The prospect of seeing
neighbouring kingdoms in all their nakedness was irresistible, and the
terms were so easy, and attended with so little labour, as to be quite
inviting even to the phlegmatic imagination of the Pra-klang, whose
fat, ponderous, and unwieldy corporation was more than enough to have
excited doubts of success. A quantity of the metal was procured. The
most expert magicians, alchymists, and astrologers were assembled on
the occasion, but their united skill failed to produce the much desired
effect. They boiled, and they roasted, and they tortured in every
possible way the stubborn slippery metal, but all to no purpose. The
poor Pra-klang, ashamed and disappointed, instead of flying through the
air, saw himself reduced to the sad necessity of carrying his unwieldy
bulk about the streets of Siam for the rest of his life.
Further proofs of the superstitious nature of this people were easily
furnished. The belief in the agency of evil spirits is universal, and
though disclaimed by the religion of Buddha, they are more frequently
worshipped than the latter. Nor will the darker periods of German
necromancy and pretended divination be found to exceed, in point of the
incredible and the horrible, what is to be observed amongst the Siamese
of the present day.
It is usual to inter women that have died pregnant; the popular
belief is that the necromancers have the power of performing the most
extraordinary things when possessed of the infant which had been thus
interred in the womb of the mother: it is customary to watch the grave
of such persons, in order to prevent the infant from being carried
off. The Siamese tell the tale of horror in the most solemn manner.
All the hobgoblins, wild and ferocious animals, all the infernal
spirits are said to oppose the unhallowed deed; the perpetrator, well
charged with cabalistic terms, which he must recite in a certain fixed
order, and with nerves well braced to the daring task, proceeds to the
grave, which he lays open. In proportion as he advances in his work
the opposing sprites become more daring; he cuts off the head, hands,
and feet of the infant, with which he returns home. A body of clay is
adapted to these, and this new compound is placed in a sort of temple;
the matter is now accomplished, the possessor has become master of the
past, present, and future.
The funeral ceremonies observed on the death of a king are somewhat
different from those mentioned above, but the principle is the same.
All the people go into mourning. All ranks and both sexes shave the
head, and this ceremony is repeated a third time. An immense concourse
is assembled to witness the combustion of the body. The ceremony is
said to constitute the most imposing spectacle which the country at any
time can boast.
Within the first enclosure a line of priests are seated, reciting
prayers from the sacred books, in a loud voice. Behind them the new
king has taken his station. In the succeeding enclosures the princes
of the royal family and other persons of distinction have taken their
places. It will be seen by the manner in which the funeral-pile is
lighted, how much attention has been bestowed upon the arrangement even
of the most trivial matters. A train is laid from the pile to the place
where the king stands, others to those occupied by the princes of the
family, with this distinction in their distribution, that the train
laid to the king’s station is the only one that directly reaches the
pile. That of the next person in rank joins this at a little distance,
and so of the others, in the order of rank. These trains are fired all
at the same moment.
The outer circle of all is allotted to the performance of plays,
gymnastic exercises, and feats of dexterity, and sleight of hand. The
plays are divided into Siamese, Barman, Pegu, Laos, and Chinese; and
they are so called more from the performers being of these several
countries, than from any essential difference in the drama.
The external forms of reverence for the deceased king are impressive
and unbounded; and the image formed from his ashes, being placed
upon the altar, claims scarce less devotion than that of Buddha
himself. That during life, while he yet grasped the sceptre, and made
his subjects tremble, he should impiously assume the attributes of
divinity, and claim from the unwilling mind the adoration due only
to the Deity, seems even less strange, and less revolting, than this
shameful, because voluntary prostitution of human intellect.
LAWS.
Where the government is perfectly despotic, it will readily be
conceived that law and right are but empty names, at least, as far
as regards the king, and his under-despots; that, in fact, power is
law, and right, and justice. Yet where the interests of these are
not directly involved, we shall find in the system of laws a marked
attention to distributive justice on the part of government. Necessity
itself dictates this policy, without which no government could long
exist. Under this form of administration the laws are often strictly
equitable, and severely just. Yet though the laws are good, the
propounders of them are in general corrupt; and where the channels of
justice are tarnished, it matters little to the people that they have
derived good laws from their ancestors.
ADULTERY.
The laws regarding this crime have undergone considerable changes, and
seem to have kept pace with the state of civilization. Anciently, the
punishment was left entirely in the hands of the injured husband, the
government taking no cognizance of the affair. He could put one or both
of the offending parties to death in what manner he chose. Compensation
in money or goods often reconciled the parties. Subsequently, this
unlimited power was taken out of the hands of the individual, and the
law declared that the husband had a right to put both the offending
parties to death upon the spot, but not one alone. The punishment,
to be legal, must have been inflicted instantly, and without
deliberation. The present laws have left no part of the punishment in
the hands of individuals; the crime is punishable only by fine. The
amount of the fine, though fixed, is in proportion to the rank of the
criminal. Thus, a man of low rank, offending in this manner, his equal,
or one of superior rank, pays two catties of silver, about two hundred
Bengal rupees, or twenty-five pounds sterling. A man of rank again pays
six catties.
It is reckoned a capital crime to seduce any female belonging to the
palace.
THEFT--DEBT.
The laws regarding theft are in many instances particularly severe.
After restoring the property or its value to the rightful owner, a
fine is imposed, and the culprit is cast into prison, for a longer
or shorter period, during which he is obliged not only to maintain
himself, but he is made to pay for light, and even for his lodging. Of
the greater number of debtors, begging is the only means of existence.
They are supplied with food by the people as they pass along in chains
through the bazar. Their necessities impel them to greater crimes, and
they ultimately become involved in perpetual slavery. Yet the Siamese
are undoubtedly a very charitable people, and appear to take delight
in assisting the needy, feeding the hungry, and helping the wretched.
Nor is this virtue in them connected with ostentation. Wherever want
exists, wherever distress is observed, there their aid is freely
bestowed.
HISTORY.
My information on this subject is extremely scanty, and extends back
but a few years.
The principal event which has occurred of late years in the history
of Siam, is the capture of the old capital Yuthia, by the Barmans,
under their ambitious and enterprising leader Luong Pra, whom Captain
Symes calls by the name of Alompra. This took place in the year 1767.
The king was at the same time taken prisoner, and by this decisive
blow, the Barmans may be said to have effected the entire conquest of
the country. Yet their footing was insecure. The people were rather
dispirited than subdued, and their long-cherished hatred of the Barmans
had undergone no change. In this state of things, a leader soon started
up amongst them, who though of foreign extraction, speedily acquired
influence from success.
Pe-ya-tac, the son of a wealthy China-man, by a Siamese woman, had been
brought up as a menial in the palace of the king, who became attached
to him as he grew up. He obtained the government of the province
called Muong-tac, where he conducted himself to the satisfaction of his
master, and amassed great wealth.
The war with the Barmans was soon followed by famine. Pe-ya-tac had,
on the approach of the enemy, removed with his wealth to the province
of Chantibond. In this remote quarter, his generosity fed multitudes
who were starving. He collected around him the dispirited inhabitants,
and ventured to make head against the enemy. His first efforts were
crowned with success; his followers increased in number, victory led on
to victory, until he saw the enemy expelled, and himself at the head
of the nation. He declared himself king, and removed the capital of
the kingdom from Yuthia to Bankok. He fortified the place, and built
himself a palace which is still to be seen. Every second or third year,
he was involved in war with the Barmans, whom he always repulsed. He
not only recovered all the former dominions of the kingdom, but added
to them. Having subdued his enemies, he next turned his attention to
the peaceful arts.
He readily appreciated the superior industry of his countrymen,
and granted them peculiar privileges. He behaved with the greatest
moderation, and is still extolled for his regard of justice.
In the latter years of his reign, his conduct became greatly changed.
The combined influence of suspicion and fanaticism rendered him an
object of general dread. At the same time the most sordid avarice took
possession of his mind, and led to the commission of numerous acts of
cruelty. The father of the present king headed a conspiracy against
him, and put him to death. The massacres which took place on this
occasion were less numerous than was to have been expected from the
existing state of society and public opinion.
We know but little of the character of the successor to Pe-ya-tac,
but that the kingdom readily yielded to him. He died in 1782, and the
present king ascended the throne at the same time.
The first public act of the present king’s reign was inauspicious.
He was yet scarcely seated on his throne, before he put to death his
nephew, the Prince Chau-pha, with upwards of a hundred persons of
rank, who were supposed to be too much attached to the latter. The
pretensions of Chau-pha to the throne were, if they had any existence,
but ill-supported. His popularity was the cause of his ruin. The death
of so many persons of distinction, some of whom had rendered themselves
famous in war against the Barmans, was displeasing to the people, and
occasioned considerable discontent, which nothing but the subsequent
good conduct of the king could have overcome.
The present king has been engaged in almost constant wars with the
Barmans; and it is the boast of his reign that he has lost nothing in
the contest. The Malay and other dependent states have made no effort
to throw off the yoke. Yet the kingdom is but little indebted to the
government for the tranquillity which it has enjoyed. Nothing can be
conceived more weak, or more contemptible, than the measures instituted
for its defence.
It would seem as if it feared its own subjects as its greatest enemies;
as if it dreaded domestic sedition, more than an attack from abroad.
The country lies open in every quarter, without even a shew of defence.
Thus it must ever be with governments founded on despotism. All
confidence must be destroyed, where the interests of the people are
trampled upon.
REVENUE.
The land-tax is paid chiefly in kind. Besides this, a considerable
revenue is derived from the privilege of fishing in rivers, and
of distilling arrack. Other taxes are levied in a more odious and
oppressive manner, as in the case of commercial and other monopolies.
The principal of these are monopolies of sugar, pepper, benzoin, agila
wood, and, in short, of all valuable commodities. They are delivered
to the king at a fixed price.
Arrack is consumed almost exclusively by the Chinese, and the
manufacture of it is entirely in their hands.
The privilege of distilling arrack at Bankok, is let for eighteen
peculs of silver = 72,000 ticals[17],
At Yuthia, for 6 peculs
Sohai 1 do.
Ta Saim 1 do.
Rahain 1 do.
Camphen 1 do.
Cha-nāāt 0 20 catties
Korāāt 2
Ban-chang 3
Kan-būri 0 20 catties
Chan-pon 0 30 do.
Pat-thee 0 20 do.
Chia 0 8 do.
To-long 0 30 do.
Fruit trees, &c., are taxed as follows:--
1 Mangoe tree 1 fuang[18].
Mangosteen 1 do.
Durian 1 tical each tree.
Cocoa-nut 1 fuang for eight trees.
Areca nut 1 do. for 100 trees.
Piper betel 1 do. do.
Tobacco 2 fuangs for 100 plants.
Sugar cane 2 do. per bed.
No other fruits pay duty.
The revenue derived from fruit trees alone, is said to amount to 7000
catties of silver.
That derived from the gambling houses is said to equal that from arrack.
The privilege of fishing in rivers is said to be let for eight peculs.
NUMERALS.
The notation of the Siamese seems to be exactly similar in principle
to our own, and is evidently derived from the mode used in Sanskrit,
from some ancient form of which the notation of Arabia and the west has
branched off.
1 Nung.
2 Sōng.
3 Sāām.
4 Sēē.
5 Hāā.
6 Hōc.
7 Chāyt.
8 Pāyt.
9 Kao.
10 Seep.
11 See-bayt.
12 Seep-sōng.
13 Seep-sāām.
14 Seep-see.
15 Seep-hāā.
16 Seep-hōc.
17 Seep-chayt.
18 Seep-payt.
19 Seep-kao.
20 Y-seep.
21 Y-see-boyt.
30 Sāām-sēēp.
40 See-seep.
50 Hāā-seep.
60 Hoc-seep.
70 Chayt-seep.
80 Payt-seep.
90 Kao-seep.
100 Roy.
DAYS OF THE WEEK.
Days. Siamese name. Signification of Siamese name.
Sunday Van-a-thed Day of the sun.
Monday Van-chan do. moon.
Tuesday Van-ang-khān do. star ang-khan.
Wednesday Van-phoodh do. do. phoodh.
Thursday Van-pra-hadh Day of the star pra-hadh.
Friday Van-sookh do. sookh.
Saturday Van-sao do. sao.
NAMES OF THE MONTHS.
Months. Siamese name. Literally.
January Duan-aij. 1st. month.
February Duan-jee. 2d. do.
March Duan-sāām. 3d. do.
April Duan-see. &c. &c.
May Duan-hāa.
June Duan-hōk.
July Duan-ched.
August Duan-ped.
September Duan-kao.
October Duan-seep.
November Duan-seebet.
December Duan-seep-song.
The Siamese year commences with the first moon in December. At the
close of the year there is a grand festival, called the feast of
the souls of the dead. At this period also the Siamese propitiate
the elements; the fire, the air, the earth, and water. Water is the
favourite element. Rivers claim the greatest share in this festival.
Rice and fruits are thrown into the stream; a thousand fantastic
toys are set afloat on the water; thousands of floating lamps cast a
flickering light upon the scene, and the approach of evening is hailed
as the season of innocent amusement, as well as of religious duty.
The Siamese affect to bestow great attention upon the construction
of their calendar. There is little difference between it and that
of the Chinese; and it is very doubtful if they could construct one
without the assistance of the latter, which they procure regularly from
Pekin. Formerly a Brahman was entertained at court for the purpose of
regulating the calendar. That office is now executed by a native of the
country, by name Pra-hora.
The Siamese years are divided as below into duodecennial periods, thus:
Years. Siamese name. In English meaning.
1st. Chouat Rat’s year.
2d. Cha-lou Cows’ do.
3d. Khān Tiger’s do.
4th. Thō Hare’s do.
5th. Maron Dragon’s do.
6th. Maseng Snakes’ do.
7th. Mā-mia Horses’ do.
8th. Ma-may Goats’ do.
9th. Vock Monkey’s do.
10th. Ray-ka Fowls’ do.
11th. Chō Dog’s do.
12th. Khun Pig’s do.
RELIGION.
Our inquiries respecting the origin of the Bauddhic religion amongst
the Siamese have been attended with but little success; nor do they
leave us much ground to hope that any documents or writings they
possess are calculated to throw any certain or steady light upon this
interesting, but very obscure, subject.
The general persuasion amongst the priests, however, is, that it had
its origin in the country called Lanka[19], which they acknowledge to
be Ceylon, for which island they still entertain the highest reverence,
and imagine that there the doctrines of their faith are contained in
their greatest purity. Others maintain that it had its origin in the
country called Kabillah Path, the common name amongst the Siamese for
Europe; while others again assert it to be of domestic origin, and
taught by a man sent from God.
The person who taught them this religion is known under various names,
as,
Ong-Sam-ma, Sam Puttho, which is said to mean Omnipotens.
Sommonokodam, i. e., one who steals cattle. Phut, and Phuti. (Pati,
a lord?)
Prā-phut, the high Lord.
Pra-phuti-roop, i. e., the image of the high Lord.
Before he was considered sacred, his name was Prā-si Thāāt.
He is said to have been born of a father called Soori-soo-thoght,
and of a mother called Pra-Soori-maha-maya.
Other names of Buddha:--
Y-thee-pee-so. Pā-kā-wā. Ora-hang.
They state that 2340 years have elapsed since the religion was first
introduced; a date which is said to be stated in their sacred books,
and particularly in that called Pra-sak-ka-rah, which was written by
Buddha himself, or at least under his direction.
He commenced the task of converting men, by teaching them a more
civilized mode of life, directing them to avoid rapine and plunder;
to cultivate the soil and to lay aside their ferocious manners, and
to live in peace with each other, and with all other animals of the
creation.
His commands were, at first, but five; they were afterwards increased
to eight. The five first alone are essential to the salvation of man,
and he who observes them will assuredly merit heaven. These five are
more particularly calculated for the lower orders; but it is very
meritorious to observe the other three.
Commands of Buddha:--
1.[20]Panna Thi-bāt, ham-mi kha Satt.
You shall not kill an animal or living creature of any kind.
2. Ad thi ma than, ham-mi hai lac sab.
You shall not steal any thing.
3. Kham-mi sumi cha-chān, ham-mi hai somg sel năi phi ri yan than
puun.
You shall not have intercourse with the wives of other men.
4. Moo-sa va tha, ham mi hai phût kohoc sab plab.
You shall not speak an untruth or any falsehood on any occasion.
5. Sura me rai, hai mi hai dūūm kin sung nam maou.
You shall not drink any intoxicating liquor, or any substance
calculated to intoxicate.
6. Ka me sumitsa cham, ham-mi hai non kab mia.
During the increase of the moon, you shall not, on the 8th, or on
the 15th, have connexion with woman.
N.B. These two days are called von-prā, i. e., Dies Domini, the
days of the Pra.
7. Vi ka la po chana, ham-mi hai kin khong nōek vela.
You shall not eat after mid-day.
8. Oocha se jana, ham mi hai nōn nūa thiang an vi chit ang gnam.
It is not becoming to sleep on costly, soft, rich, and elevated
beds. You shall sleep on a clean mat.
There are, as has been already observed, set days, on which it is
proper to worship at the temples, as on the 8th and 15th of the moon.
There are also other days that are held sacred, and they are pointed
out as such by persons who profess to be acquainted with judicial
astrology. This sort of divination, however, is not cultivated by
the priests, who affect to consider it as profane and improper. Yet
when the astrologers have pointed out particular days as proper for
devotion, or as being lucky or the contrary, the priests observe them.
It is customary for every Siamese to enter the rank of priests in the
course of his life. He may remain in it or leave it at pleasure.
PROVINCE OF CHANTIBOONA, OR CHANTIBOND.
The reverses of fortune which this province has undergone, within a
comparatively short period, have been remarkable. It for a long time
belonged to the ancient kingdom of Cambodia, but on the partition of
that admired and beautiful, but unfortunate country, was seized upon by
the Cochin-Chinese. It has since passed into the hands of the king of
Siam, and has constituted an integral part of his dominions since the
reign of the Chinese king.
Chantibond is a mountainous country, forming the eastern boundary of
the kingdom of Siam, dividing it from Cambodia, and situated at the
head of the Gulf of Siam. It is said to be one of the richest and most
valuable provinces of the king of Siam. It is singularly beautiful and
picturesque, diversified by lofty mountains, extensive forests, and
fertile vallies and plains. The passage thence to Cambodia is of short
distance, a ridge of mountains dividing the two countries. It possesses
a good and convenient harbour, well protected by numerous beautiful
islands in front. The river is obstructed in a great measure at its
mouth, but affords convenient and safe navigation to small vessels and
boats. It once possessed an extensive and profitable commerce, which
has been upon the decline since the place fell into the hands of the
Siamese. The produce of the country is annually removed to Bankok, and
the commerce with foreign ships is prohibited.
The principal productions are pepper, the cultivation of which may
be increased almost to an unlimited extent, benzoin, lac, ivory,
agila wood, rhinoceros’ horns, hides of cows, buffaloes, deer, &c.,
gamboge, some cardamoms, and precious stones, the latter of inferior
quality. The forests abound in excellent timber, and afford the best
materials for ship-building: accordingly, many junks are built at this
place. Many of the islands in front of the port, and particularly that
called Bangga-cha, produce abundance of precious stones. The island
Sa-ma-ra-yat, to the east of the harbour, is said to produce gold. In
the former of these islands, there is a safe and convenient harbour.
At a short distance from the coast, there is a very high mountain,
called Bomba-soi, commanding an extensive view both of Chantibond and
of Cambodia.
The amount of population is uncertain, some stating that it amounts to
nearly one million, while others reckon it under half that number. It
is composed of Chinese, Cochin Chinese, Cambodians, and Siamese; but by
far the greater number are Chinese, in whose hands are all the wealth,
and the richest products of the country. There are also from two to
three hundred native Christians in the place, who, like those in other
parts of Siam, are placed under the care of the bishop of Metellopolis,
Joseph Florens, a Frenchman.
The place is governed by a man of Chinese extraction, appointed by the
king of Siam.
Of pepper, the principal object of culture, the annual produce, at the
present time, is said to amount to 20,000 peculs. It is sold to the
king on the spot, for eight ticals a pecul. The price in Bankok is
eighteen.
The cardamoms produced in Chantibond are reckoned of inferior quality.
Those of Cambodia are reckoned the best. They are purchased on the spot
by the king, for 120 or 140 ticals, and re-sold at Bankok for 270, 280,
and even 300. They are carried exclusively to China, where they are
held in high esteem.
The agila wood of Chantibond is reckoned among the best, and is only
equalled by that of Cochin China.
The consumption of this highly odoriferous substance is very
considerable even in Siam, but the greatest part is exported to China.
Its use is of the highest antiquity, and it has in general been
allotted chiefly for sacred purposes, for the service of the temple,
and the solemn ceremonies of funeral rites. Much of it is consumed in
the combustion of bodies of persons of distinction. The Chinese would
appear to use it chiefly in their temples, both public and private,
and as every Chinese house is furnished with a small temple for the
reception of their household gods, the consumption of this wood by them
must be very extensive. It is used in a very economical and neat mode.
A quantity of the wood is first reduced to a fine powder, which, being
mixed with a gummy substance, is laid over a small slip of soft wood,
about the size of a bull-rush, so as to form a tolerably thick coating.
These small sticks are stuck on end in the temple, and being lighted,
give out a feeble but grateful perfume, the substance burning with a
slow and smothered flame. This sort of taper is made up into bundles,
wrapt up in fine paper, and sold in almost every shop.
The odoriferous principle in agila wood resides in a black, thick,
concrete oil, resembling tar or resin while burning[21]. It is disposed
in numerous cells, and gives to the wood a blackish, dotted appearance.
It is generally asserted that this is the effect of a disease in the
tree; but the opinion may well be called in question. It would rather
seem to be the natural effect of a necessary modification of the living
principle of the plant itself, no more partaking of the nature of
disease than an inevitable and destined change and termination of life
can be said to constitute such a state.
The odoriferous part is found in comparatively few trees, and those
chiefly where the trees have either died, or have been possessed of
feeble remains of vitality. The perfect trees, those bearing leaves,
or fruit in perfection, rarely possess any part of it: neither does
it appear to depend much upon the size of the tree, small ones often
affording it in large quantity, while large ones yield very little or
none at all. Is it not probable that it proceeds from an effort of
nature to support the feeble remains of vegetable life? In this case,
the juices of the plant, like the blood of animals, retreat towards
the centre, where they still, for a time, maintain the feeble spark.
The oil, in the case of this plant, is secreted in larger quantity; and
accumulating in the thicker and central parts of the tree, and towards
the root, forms the substance in question.
The Siamese name this substance--Nuga-mai, also, Mâi-hoâm. For a
botanical description of the tree, see Loureiro, page 327. Roxburgh has
also described this tree under the title Aguillaria Agallocha. Loureiro
states, that a particular, and that the most valuable variety of this
wood, is called Colambac, or Calampac. This last is represented by the
Siamese as the produce of a tree totally different.
The cause which has been assigned above for the scantiness of my
information on matters of general interest, will apply with still
greater force to the subject of natural history. Ill health, and
the restrictions under which we were placed by the government, have
rendered this subject almost a complete blank; a circumstance the more
to be regretted, for that we had reason to expect an ample accession to
our knowledge in this quarter. The few facts which I have been enabled
to collect, I shall now briefly relate.
In speaking of the peninsula of Malacca, I have said, that its
unfrequented forests seemed to contain zoological treasures yet unknown
to us. A similar remark is no less applicable to the kingdom of Siam
generally. There seems every reason to believe that an extensive search
would be attended with the happiest results to the science of natural
history. Restricted as we were from researches of this nature, we have
discovered animals in the classes Mammalia, Aves, and Reptilia, which
are either imperfectly, or altogether unknown to the European world.
Of that uncommon variety of the elephant, the white or Albino, a
description has already been given. This, however, cannot be considered
other than a variety of the common elephant of the country, which does
not appear to differ in any considerable degree from that of Hindostan
and Ceylon. All the elephants here were less in size than the Ceylon
elephant; their tusks were also shorter, and less curved; although in
one or two of those we saw, a greater degree of symmetry was noticed
than is common in this animal.
At Bankok, the elephant is hardly available to any useful purpose, few
roads existing on which he can walk. They are kept about the palace,
and used only on state occasions. The king is said to have a great
number in his possession. They are employed as beasts of burden with
the troops in the interior of the country.
A description has also been given above, of a species of white Simia.
This, likewise, is a genuine Albino. I was informed by several persons,
that about two years ago, the king had in his possession an Albino of
the deer kind. Albinos among buffaloes are in this country very common,
often indeed the most frequent and only variety of that animal, and
generally exceeding in bulk the common or original black one. It is
of frequent occurrence in the Malay Islands, and in all agricultural
countries, from Penang as far east as Java.
This prevalence of the leucæthiopic habit among so many of the more
perfect and larger animals of the Class Mammalia is deserving of
remark. How far the habit is developed by peculiarity of climate, it is
difficult to determine; the geographical limits, however, within which
this variety of animal occurs, with unwonted frequency, are not very
extensive.
It is, perhaps, but little connected with this subject to state, that
on the coasts of Siam we saw, on two occasions, a species of Porpoise
of a white colour, with a slight cast of pink. Viewing these animals
from a distance, it is of course impossible to say whether they were
of the leucæthiopic habit or not. The fact that this distinction has
not hitherto been observed in any animal with cold blood, would seem
unfavourable to the first supposition.
The Royal Tiger is extremely common in the interior parts of the
country. Their bones, as well as skins, constitute a considerable
article of commerce with China; and, from the very great numbers in
which they are exposed for sale, we may infer their frequency. The
bones are said to be used as medicine by the Chinese, and a quantity of
them may be seen suspended in every medicine-shop. The Black Tiger is
by no means rare. Both this and the former, I consider smaller than the
Bengal Tiger.
Leopards would also appear to be common. Many of the handsomest skins
are exposed in the shops on the river. Of this animal I have observed
no variety. No Jackalls, Hares, or Rabbits were seen.
FOOTNOTES:
[13] If we compare the Malays with the more acute forms of the Tartar
race, with the Chinese on the one hand, or with the Arabs or Hindoos
that frequent their islands, on the other, we may be disposed to
consider them as forming a different race. Their affinity with the
Indo-Chinese nations, whom we have every reason to consider as of
Tartar origin, is, however, quite unequivocal; and it is through this
medium, it appears to me, that we ought to trace their filiation.
The sea-coasts of the peninsula of Malacca, Sumatra, and a few other
places in that neighbourhood, will be found to afford the best forms
illustrative of the character of this tribe; as for instance, the
people called _Orang Laut_. In the better-cultivated islands, the
physical form is much modified, as well as the manners, by intermixture
with other tribes; probably with those who preceded them in the
possession of the country. Let the inhabitants of the places referred
to be compared, not directly with the Chinese, but with the Siamese,
Barmans, &c., and little doubt will be entertained as to the probable
origin of this people.
[14] A comparison of languages, both in the grammar and vocabulary,
may yet produce much light on the interesting subject of the family
origin of nations. A comparative vocabulary of some of the Indo-Chinese
languages was published by the lamented Dr. John Leyden; to render such
a compilation perfect, it should embrace, not merely the more obvious
dialects, but those of the inland recesses. Is there any affinity
between the language of the tribes who inhabit the hilly wildernesses
of the Goand country, of Rajemahal and Malwa, and those similarly
situated on the Malay peninsula, Kassai and Asam?--or extending the
investigation, do any ancient languages of the east bear affinity to
those of Ethiopia or Africa?--_Ed._
[15] A custom somewhat similar is not unknown to the Bauddhists of
Ceylon. During the late war in that country, a chief of some rank was
sentenced to undergo the punishment of death by decapitation. It was
intimated to him that government would not prevent his relations from
rendering to his body the funeral rights of his country. He replied
that it was his desire that his body might be left to be devoured by
the jackals and other wild beasts.
[16]
Ah! mortal is the body, as now ascends this smoke,
So may thy soul ascend to heaven.
[17] The tical is about twenty-five per cent. more valuable than the
Sicca rupee.
[18] A fuang is the eighth part of a tical.
[19] The Barmans entertain the highest reverence for Magadha; a
deputation from his Majesty of Ava visited the sacred places in that
vicinity a few years ago. Possibly this veneration for localities
changes according to political circumstances.
[20] According to Loubere, this enactment suffers various
interpretations, some abstaining from feeding on vegetables so as
to hurt the seed, and so, says he, eat only fruit; others vary the
practice of the law in the opposite direction, and hang themselves out
of devotion, which action, if performed on a certain sacred tree, is
considered as having great merit.
[21] It is, perhaps, a combination of an essential oil with resin.