that of a hand; =Pot-Paper=, of a pot; =Post-paper=, of a post-horn;
=Crown-paper=, of a crown; and =Foolscap=, of a fool’s head with the
cap and bells. =India-paper= formerly came from the Far East, whereas
=Nepaul-paper= is made in the district of Nepaul, Northern India.
=Cap-paper= is so designated because, prior to being used by grocers
for wrapping up sugar and other commodities sold by weight, it is
folded into a cap-like form. Among papers of a stiffer kind, that
are chiefly intended for drawing upon, we have =Elephant=, so called
from its large size (28 inches by 23), =Cartridge-paper=, originally
manufactured for soldiers’ cartridges, and =Bristol-board=, formerly
made only at Bristol.
By the term =Folio=, derived from the Latin _folium_, a leaf, is meant
a sheet of paper folded but once, thus making two leaves or four pages;
a =Quarto= (written 4to), is a sheet folded into quarters or four
leaves, making eight pages; an =Octavo= (8vo), so styled in accordance
with the Latin _octa_, eight, one folded into eight leaves or sixteen
pages; a =Duodecimo= (12mo), the Latin for “two and ten,” one making
twelve leaves or twenty-four pages, and so forth.
When Caxton set up the first printing press in this country, in the
year 1476, there were many among the vulgar who regarded it as an
invention of the devil; and the clergy, no doubt, fostered this idea,
foreseeing that in the event of the Bible being distributed to the
masses by this means, the way would be thrown open to the production
of spurious editions of Sacred Writ, and the perversion of religious
doctrine, which up to that period had been free to all who chose to
attend daily instruction in the monasteries. Hence, printing was
popularly described as “The Black Art,” while the boys who took the
sheets off the press, from the fact of generally smearing their faces
with ink, came to be known as Imps or Devils. This will explain why a
printer’s errand-boy still bears the nickname of a =Printer’s Devil=.
Our Parliamentary Records, Debates, Reports of Meetings, and Accounts,
have received the name of =Hansards= because they are printed by
the large printing firm established by Luke Hansard in 1752; whereas
a =Blue Book= is so called on account of its stiff cover of blue
paper. The French Government reports are styled =Yellow Books= for
a similar reason. The term =Book= comes from the Danish _bog_, a
beech-tree, which abounds in Denmark and whose wood is much used for
engraving-blocks. The =Leaf= of a book is in allusion to the ancient
custom of writing on the bark of trees; while =Volume= is derived from
the Latin _volvo_, I roll, relative to the Egyptian papyri, each one of
which when rolled up formed a document or volume complete in itself.
A storehouse for books is styled a =Library=, in accordance with the
Latin _librarium_, a book-case, derived in the first instance from
_liber_, a book.
A =Pamphlet= owes its description to Pamphila, a Greek lady who left
behind her a kind of commonplace book containing notes, epitomes, and
anecdotes. The French equivalent for a pamphlet is a =Brochure=, so
called from the verb _brocher_, to stitch, because such a book consists
only of a few pages stitched together. The word =Chart= comes from the
Latin _charta_, a leaf of paper; a chart, therefore, is not printed
on canvas like a map, but on a single sheet of paper. =Map= traces
its origin from _mappa_, a Punic word which signified a signal-cloth,
also a napkin, because in ancient times military and other landmarks
were sketched upon a cloth in the absence of parchment and paper.
Nowadays, a book of maps designed for school use is called an =Atlas=,
after the fabled King of Mauritania of this name, who was believed
by the ancients to support the world on his shoulders. The figure of
Atlas with the globe first appeared as a frontispiece to “Mercator’s
Projections,” published about the year 1560.
A =Cartoon=, as we understand the term, is a representation of
political significance, usually coloured and printed on stiff paper. To
some extent this kind of publication owes its origin to the celebrated
‘Cartoons’ of Raffaelle, now in the South Kensington Museum, so called
because they were drawn upon _cartone_, the Italian for pasteboard.
A =Broadside= consists of a large sheet of paper having the matter
printed straight across, instead of in columns, so as to admit of being
read at one broad view. The reverse side of the sheet is left blank.
A =Poster= bears its name from the fact that formerly the sidewalks
of London streets, instead of being paved as now, were distinguished
from the centre, or sedan-chair and riding way, by a series of posts;
and upon these, theatrical and other announcements were _posted_.
In France, the theatre bills are exhibited upon the lamp-posts on
the Boulevards in a similar manner. In conclusion, the distinction
between BOOKSELLERS and STATIONERS was originally this: the former were
itinerant sellers of books, like hawkers, and pedlars, whereas the
latter had stalls at the corners of streets or in open market; and as
the _stationarii_, or stationary booksellers, were enabled to display
a more varied stock than the itinerants who carried books only, such
articles as writing-paper, pens, ink, and other materials in course of
time received the name of =Stationery=.
_POLITICAL NICKNAMES._
The utmost difficulty exists in reconciling the various opinions
expressed by different authors concerning the origin of the terms
=Whig= and =Tory=. And yet, if we but consider the reasons why these
nicknames were first bestowed upon the two great political factions of
this country during the reign of Charles II., we may possibly attain a
much-desired end. In the year 1648 (_temp._ Charles I.) there occurred
a rising, or sally, of the peasantry inhabiting the south-western
districts of Scotland against the Royalists. This was known as the
=Whigamore Raid=, the term _whigamore_ being applied to the teamsters
and ploughmen of those parts because they used the twin-syllabic cry of
“Whi-gam!” to drive their horses. When, therefore, in the early days of
the Restoration, the ultra-Protestant party opposed certain measures
of the Government, the Catholics reproached them with favouring the
fanatical opinions of the Scottish Covenanters and Whigamores, and
styled them =Whigs=. In return the Protestants bestowed upon their
opponents the nickname of =Tories=, the familiar designation of a band
of Irish outlaws who sought refuge in the bog districts of Ireland.
The word Tory, or rather _Toree_, is Irish, signifying a robber.
From that time down to the present =Toryism= has been considered to
denote a steadfast adherence to constitutional principles and the
maintenance of royalty and the peerage, as opposed to the progressive
and more _liberal_ views appertaining to =Whiggism=, which advocates
constitutional reform and a moderate extension of democratical powers.
The word =Liberal= was first employed by Lord Byron and his friends
as the title of a periodical intended to set forth the political aims
of the advanced Whig party in 1828. The term =Conservative= (derived
from the Latin _con_, together, and _servare_, to keep, to preserve)
first appeared in an article in _The Quarterly Review_, January, 1830,
and was permanently adopted by the Tory party on the passing of the
Reform Bill two years afterwards. The still more advanced section
of the Whig party which came into prominence in 1816 were styled
=Radicals=, or =Radical Reformers=, from their desire to institute
a _thorough_ reformation in the national policy. In our own day the
Radicals and the Democrats may be set down as one and the same party;
while the =Socialists= eminently carry out the principles of the
primitive Radicals of the time of Charles I., who styled themselves
=Levellers= because they strove to reduce society to a common level.
The word =Democrat= is derived from the Greek _demos_, people, and
_kratein_, to govern; therefore denoting one who upholds the principle
of government by the people themselves, and diametrically opposed to
an =Aristocracy= (Greek, _aristos_, best, and _kratein_, to govern), or
government by the bravest and best. These terms were first brought into
notice by the French Revolutionists of 1790.
Adverting to the protracted struggle between the =Royalists= under
Charles I. and the =Parliamentarians= under the Cromwellian Parliament,
no two nicknames could have been more suggestive of their origin than
those respectively of the =Cavaliers= and the =Roundheads=. The latter
arose out of the Puritan fashion of cropping the hair close round
the head, the former from the cavalier manner in which a number of
gentlemen offered themselves as a permanent escort to the King after
he had been subjected to insult in December, 1641. The word Cavalier
is synonymous with the French _chevalier_, a mounted knight, from
_cheval_, a horse, derived from the Latin _caballus_, and the Greek
_kaballes_, an inferior horse.
The Protestants in Ireland received the name of =Orangemen= owing to
their adherence to William III., Prince of Orange, while the Roman
Catholics were styled =Jacobites= from their adhesion to James II.,
_Jacobus_ being the Latin form of the King’s name. The =Peep o’ Day
Boys= were so called because they broke into the houses of the people
at dawn of day in quest of arms; and the =White Boys=, from the white
smocks they wore over their clothing. The depredations of both these
insurgents were finally put an end to by the Insurrection Acts, passed
in 1786-7. The secret brotherhood of the =Fenians=, organized for
the overthrow of the English rule in Ireland, derived its name from
Fiona Mac Cumhal, better known as Fingal, after whom FINGAL’S CAVE is
designated. The correct interpretation of the Gaelic word _Fenian_ is
“a hunter.” Another secret society of quite recent origin is that of
the =Irish Invincibles=, established, as was publicly stated by Carey
the Informer, for the “making of history by killing tyrants.” Their
title is due to the boast that they defy extermination. The =Ribbonmen=
take their name from the distinctive badge which they wear. =Emergency
Men= are the more active members of the Irish Defence Association.
The =Separists= and the =Parnellites= are one and the same, sworn to
support the measures of Mr. Parnell and the Irish National Party in
promoting Home Rule for Ireland. The now familiar word =Boycotting=, in
connection with Irish affairs, arose out of the troubles experienced
by Captain Boycott, of Lough Mask Farm, near Ballinrobe, County Mayo,
the land agent of Lord Erne. His house was besieged, his labourers were
threatened, his crops remained ungathered, and tradesmen refused to
supply him with goods. This occurred on the 11th and 12th of November,
1880, after which the military was despatched to his aid, and a
“Boycott Fund” subscribed for his benefit. The expression “to boycott”
a man practically means to place him beyond the pale of civilization.
The lowest order of the French Revolutionists were denominated
=Sansculottes=, literally, “without breeches,” because they rejected
those very serviceable articles of attire as being emblematical of the
aristocracy. The same term was also applied to the Republican leaders
as a reproach for the negligence of their dress; but after a time they
themselves adopted the title with pride. The =Red Republicans= were so
called for a two-fold reason. In the first place, they did not hesitate
to steep their hands in human blood to accomplish their political
aims; and, secondly, they wore the red cap, symbolical of Liberty from
the days of the Romans downwards. The two antagonistic parties of the
Revolution were styled =The Mountain= and =The Plain= for the reason
that the former sat upon the most elevated benches in the Hall of
Assembly, while the latter occupied the ground floor. The Plain was
for the most part composed of the =Girondists=, or deputies from the
Department of the Gironde.
The =Hats= and the =Caps= were the two great political factions in
Sweden, so called on account of the French _chapeaux_ worn by the
partisans of the French interest on the one side, and the Russian caps
worn by the partisans of the Russian interest on the other. _Apropos_
of Russia, the word =Nihilist= (derived from the Latin _nihil_,
nothing), originally denoted a social rather than a political party
opposed to the tyranny of custom. Its significance is well expressed
by Turgeneff, who first introduced it in his novel “Fathers and Sons,”
published in 1862:--“A Nihilist is a man who bows before no authority,
who accepts no principle without examination, no matter what credit
the principle has.” At the present day a Nihilist is a revolutionary
Socialist of the most pronounced degree.
The Italian =Carbonari=, being the plural of _carbonaro_, a coal-man,
a charcoal-burner, who first came into notice in 1820, assumed their
designation from the fact of their meetings being originally held
in the huts of the charcoal-burners, and because they held charcoal
to be the symbol of purification. The =Black Cloaks= were the upper
classes of Naples, distinguished by the colour and quality of their
cloaks from the =Lazzari=, or beggars. Regarded as a political party,
the Neapolitan Black Cloaks no longer exist; but the =Lazzaroni=, so
called from the Hospital of St. Lazarus, which serves for their refuge,
are still to be met with in all quarters of the city. Then, again, we
must not omit mention of the =Guelphs= and the =Ghibellines=, names of
two powerful families whose rival partisanship of the Papal and the
Imperial supremacy in Italy threatened the peace of Europe during the
long period embraced between the years 1250 and 1500.
The word =Federal= comes from the Latin _fœdus_, a league or compact. A
federal form of government is one under which a number of States, while
retaining their individual institutions and autonomy, unite together
for purposes of defence and for a larger national existence, delegating
to a representative national government certain specified powers.
The most noteworthy examples in history of this form of government
are the Achaean League, the Swiss Republic, and the United States of
America. In the early history of the United States the term “Federal”
was applied to that one of the two great political parties which was
supposed to be more particularly in sympathy with English standards
and to favour an English alliance, and which desired a strong central
government. Their opponents, who preferred a French alliance, and who
opposed a strong central government, were then termed “Republicans.”
About 1830 the “Federals” became =Whigs=, and in 1856 they assumed
the name of =Republicans= (from _res publica_, the State), the
States-rights party having in the meantime taken the name of
“Democrats” (from _demos_, the people). During the civil war of
1861-1865 the Northerners were all termed “Federals” (or by their
opponents “Yankees” or “Yanks”), while the Southerners had taken the
name of =Confederates=, because their Constitution instituted a weaker
central government and favoured the independent action of the several
States.
The Southerners were also given the nickname of “Corn-feds,” in
allusion to the chief article of their diet. The term =Yankee= above
alluded to dates back to the seventeenth century, and is a modification
of the name “Yengees,” an attempt by the Massachusetts Indians to
pronounce the name “English.”
By the residents of the Northern States, the term is limited to the
inhabitants of the six States of New England. During the civil war of
1861-1865, the members of a political faction in the North received the
name of =Copperheads=, because they were regarded as secret foes to the
national cause. The allusion was to the poisonous copperhead serpent,
which gives no warning of its approach. The =Know-nothings= were a
secret political party in the United States (1848-1860), whose chief
aim was the checking of foreign immigration and the political influence
of foreigners by the repeal of the Naturalization Laws, and the
reserving of public appointments for native-born Americans. The answer
given by its members to all questions about the party organization was,
“I don’t know.”
The =Tammany Ring= was the name used to designate an organization
among certain officials and their backers in the city of New York in
1870-1871, who succeeded for a time in enriching themselves at the
expense of the city. The ring was overthrown in 1871, and its leaders
imprisoned or banished. The name of the ring arose from Tammany
Hall, the headquarters of a society originally founded (in 1805) for
benevolent purposes, but which had become a political power, and which
is again (1892) controlling the government of New York.
The term =Mugwump= first came into political use in 1884. It was then
applied to voters who had been “Republicans,” but who, on various
grounds, preferred the Democratic candidate Cleveland to the Republican
Blaine, and who succeeded in electing the former. It has since been
given generally to citizens, who, while actively interested in
politics, refuse to be bound closely by party ties, considering causes
such as free trade, civil service reform, honest money, &c., as more
important than party labels or party success. The name “Mugwump” is
said to be derived from an Indian word signifying “wise chief.”
The =Chartists= constituted an enormous body of the people of this
country who, soon after the passing of the Reform Bill in 1832, loudly
clamoured for “The People’s Charter,” of which the six principal points
were these:--Universal Suffrage, Vote by Ballot, Annual Parliaments,
Payment of the Members, Abolition of the Property Qualification, and
the Equalization of Electorial Rights. William Lovett, the author
of this document, died in August, 1877. The English war party, who
sided with the Turks in the Russo-Turkish struggle of 1878 received
the nickname of =Jingoes=, or =The Jingo Party=, from the chorus of
Macdermott’s famous music-hall song, commencing--
“We don’t want to fight, but, _by Jingo_, if we do!”
“Jingo” is a corruption of _Jainko_, the Basque term for God. Hence the
expression, “By Jingo!” is properly a direct appeal to the Deity. A
=Protectionist= is one who advocates the protection of home-produce and
manufactures against foreign competition by the imposition of import
duties.
_FLOWERS._
The name of =Forget-me-not= originated in the following legend:--A
German knight and his lady were walking on the bank of the Danube, when
the fair one saw a beautiful tuft of _Myosotis palustris_ growing in
the water, and expressed a wish to have it. With chivalrous alacrity
the knight at once plunged into the river and gathered his prize; but
before he could regain the steep and slippery bank, encumbered as he
was by his heavy armour, he was drawn by the treacherous eddy into a
deep pool. Finding he could not save himself, he threw the flowers
ashore to his mistress as he sank, and uttered with his last breath the
words “_Vergess mein nicht!_” (“Forget-me-not!”) Hence this flower has
come to be universally regarded as the emblem of fidelity.
=Mignonette=, the diminutive of _Mignon_, the French for “darling,”
is so called on account of its delicate fragrance. The =Carnation=
owes its name to the Latin _caro_, flesh, in relation to its colour.
=Geranium= comes from the Greek and Latin _geranos_, a crane; this
genus of plants having a beak-like torus, or receptacle. It is also
known as =Crane’s-bill= for the same reason. =Pansy= is an Anglicized
form of the French _pensée_, “thoughts,” this being the sentiment
expressed by the flower.
The =Camellia= was named after G. J. Camelli, the German botanist and
missionary (died 1690), by whom it was introduced into Europe from
the East; the =Dahlia=, after Andrew Dahl, the Swedish botanist, who
discovered it in Mexico in 1784; and the =Fuchsia=, after Leonard
Fuchs, who brought it from Mexico about the year 1542. The =Victoria
Regia= was so called because it was introduced into this country from
British Guiana soon after the accession of Queen Victoria. The =Adonis=
is said to have sprung out of the blood of Adonis, the beautiful youth
who was gored to death by a boar; and the =Hyacinth= is supposed
to have originated in a similar manner after Hyacinth had fallen a
victim to the jealousy of Zephyr. The =Aspasia= bears the name of
Aspasia of Miletus, the mistress of Pericles. The term =Orchid= comes
from the Greek _orchis_, a testicle, all plants of this family being
distinguished by double testicles. The =Sweetbriar= is literally a
“fragrant thorn”; the =Lilac= betrays its Eastern origin in the Turkish
_leilak_, and Persian _lilaj_; while the term =Lavender= is derived
from the Latin _lavere_, to wash, because the essential oil obtained
from this shrub enters into the composition of a favourite scent.
The =Dog-rose= was so called by the Greeks from the belief that the
root of this particular rose-tree was efficacious in curing the bite
of a mad dog. The =Damask-rose= was brought to England from Damascus
by Dr. Linacre in 1540. The =Cabbage-rose= is thick and compact
like a cabbage. The =Christmas-rose= makes its appearance about
Christmas-time. The word =Primrose=, agreeably to the Latin _prima
rosa_, signifies the first rose, or flower, of spring.
The =Mayflower=, otherwise the =Hawthorn=, the Anglo-Saxon for
“hedge-thorn,” appears in flower in the month of May, while
=Gilly-flower= is merely a corruption of “July flower.” The
=Tiger-flower= is streaked like a tiger. =Daffodil= is a corruption of
“d’Asphodele,” the French name of this flower. =Hollyhock= is not “Holy
Oak,” but the Anglo-Saxon _holi-hoc_, or marsh mallow. The =Noon-tide=,
or =Noon-flower=, closes its petals at noon; the =Convolvulus=, so
called from the Latin _con_, together, and _volvere_, to roll, does the
like at sunset, in common with the ordinary field =Daisy=, which owes
its name, a corruption of the Anglo-Saxon _doeges-eaye_, literally “the
day’s eye,” to this circumstance. The =Buttercup= was originally so
designated in accordance with an old-established idea that the yellow
hue of butter was attributable to the fact of these flowers being eaten
by cattle. However, as the buttercups are invariably avoided by the
cattle, the proverbial wisdom of our forefathers must for once in a way
be discredited. =Cowslip= is a corruption of “cows’ leek.”
The very common supposition that the =Sunflower= inclines towards the
sun is entirely erroneous, as has been proved by observation. This
flower merely takes its name from its form and colour. On the other
hand, if its etymology be correct, the =Heliotrope= does actually turn
towards the sun, the word _helios_ being Greek for sun, and _tropos_,
to turn. The =Goldylocks= is so called on account of its tufts of
yellow flowers; whereas the =Marigold=, which bears yellow flowers, was
named in honour of Queen Mary. Both these, with the Sunflower, belong
to the =Chrysanthemum= (Greek _chrusos_, gold, and _anthemos_, flower)
family. The word =Rhododendron=, we may add, comes from the Greek
_rhodon_, rose, and _dendron_, tree.
The =Passion-flower= symbolizes in its tints and several parts the
various attributes of Christ’s Passion, as follows:--The white tint,
purity; the blue tint, heaven; the leaf, the spear; the five anthers,
the five wounds; the tendrils, the whips and cords; the column of the
ovary, the pillar of the cross; the stamens, the hammers; the three
styles, the nails; the fleshy thorns within the flowers, the crown of
thorns; the calyx, the nimbus, or glory. In addition to the foregoing
the passion-flower remains open for three days, and this is supposed to
correspond with the three years’ ministry of the Redeemer.
Lastly, the flower known as the =Stock= received its name from the fact
that it was principally sold in the old STOCKS MARKET displaced by the
building of the present Mansion House in the year 1737; the market
itself having derived its title from a pair of stocks that stood there.
_THE BIBLE._