boycott. The history of the use of both of these should be followed
briefly. Then should come the consideration of the counterblast which
the corporations and the consumer have recently called to their aid:
the judicial injunction (study the history of the Debs case and the
more recent Bucks Stove Case), and the application of the Sherman
Anti-Trust Act of 1890 to the labor unions as associations in restraint
of trade (study the Danbury Hatters’ Case, in which the decision of the
Court was issued only a few months ago).
The Railroad Problem.
In studying the history of the large corporations, it pays in the
beginning to indicate clearly the difference between (1) public service
corporations, those which enjoy partial or complete monopoly under
franchises granted by the government, and (2) industrial corporations,
whose operations do not differ essentially from the enterprises of
single individuals, except in the amount of capital which they command.
Public service corporations may again be divided into two classes: (1)
the interstate railroads, and (2) those corporations whose business is
local in its nature, such as the street railroad, the water companies
and the gas companies.
Attacking the problem of the interstate railroads first, the class
must begin its work by studying the history of the growth of the great
trunk lines, like the New York Central and the Pennsylvania, and of the
transcontinental railroads, like the Union Pacific and the Northern
Pacific. Next in order will come the story of the vicious practices
which grew out of the excessive competition among these railroads:
rate wars, unfair discriminations against localities and against
individual shippers, overcapitalization, etc.
Early in the ’80’s the railroads themselves attempted to remedy these
evils by forming the famous pooling associations, but these pooling
associations were later prohibited by law. Next the individual states
attempted to improve conditions by passing special railroad codes
and by creating state railroad commissions. Finally, in 1887, the
national government, by the Interstate Commerce Act attempted to better
conditions, but improvement came but slowly. Since then, by numerous
Court decisions, the most important of which was the decision in
the Northern Securities Case, and by at least two amendments to the
Interstate Commerce Act, the Elkins Act of 1903 and the Hepburn Act of
1907, the national government has attempted to improve the situation.
Conditions to-day are much better than they have ever been in the past,
but there is still room for much improvement.
Municipal Public Service Corporations.
In discussing local public service corporations, it is well for the
teacher to develop in the beginning the fact that there are two
possible ways of dealing with them: (1) municipal ownership, and (2)
state regulation. Even in this country the first method has been
tried to some extent; most of our largest cities now own their own
water supply, and some of them are in possession of their own gas and
electric light plants. Thus far, however, most American states and
cities have been content to confine their activities in dealing with
public service corporation to regulating their functions and privileges
by special legislation and by establishing special commissions. Still,
the history of the regulation of public service corporations in this
country is as yet in its beginnings; the teacher can therefore go but
little farther than to set his students thinking upon the question as
to which is the better method of dealing with the problem.
Industrial Corporations.
Like the trunk lines and the transcontinental railroads, the great
industrial corporations had their origin in the years following the
period of the Civil War and Reconstruction. Among these corporations,
the Standard Oil Company is, of course, the most famous; still, the
teacher will do well to attempt to follow with his class the history
of some other industrial corporation as well--if possible, some
corporation whose operations have not stirred up so much opposition
as the Standard Oil Company. In estimating the effect of these
corporations upon the economic history of the country, one should
attempt to bring out the benefits which they have bestowed upon the
people as well as the evils which have resulted from their operations.
In attempting to regulate the activities of these corporations most
states have passed special laws and established special commissions.
In consequence, the newspapers are full of accounts of prosecutions
under these laws and by these commissions and the student should be
encouraged to read them. The national government, too, has passed
at least one law, the famous Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890, with a
view to regulating these great corporations. More recently still, the
Bureau of Corporations was established, while at the present time new
legislation on this subject is pending in Congress. Yet with all the
agitation and with all the legislation, it cannot be said that the
problem is even on the verge of being settled. That will take, in all
probability, at least another generation.
The Literature of the Subject.
To recommend one or two, or even half a dozen books on this period of
American history is impossible. Most of the discussion is evanescent,
and books are antiquated almost before they have been printed. For
much of the subject matter to be discussed the student should be sent
to such manuals as (1) the American Annual Cyclopedia, and (2) the
Statesman’s Year Book. Much valuable material can also be gleaned from
(3) the annual almanacs published by many of the larger daily papers.
For statutes and government regulations, the student should consult (4)
MacDonald’s “Select Statutes,” 1861-1898.
Comprehensive and comparatively recent discussions of these subjects
will be found: (a) on trade unions, in (1) Ely’s, “The Labor Movement
in America;” (2) Adams and Sumner’s “Labor Problems,” and (3) Commons’
“Trade Unionism and Labor Problems;” (b) on railroads, in (1)
Hadley’s “Railroad Transportation;” (2) Haines’ “Restrictive Railroad
Legislation,” and (3) Ripley’s “Railroad Problems;” (c) on municipal
public service corporations, in (1) Bemis’ “Municipal Monopolies,” and
(2) Foote’s “Municipal Public Service Industries;” (d) on industrial
corporations, in (1) Jenks’ “The Trust Problem;” (2) Ely’s “Monopolies
and Trusts;” (3) Ripley’s “Trusts, Pools and Corporations,” and (4)
Tarbell’s “History of the Standard Oil Company.” Beside all these the
student will find much that is valuable in the current reviews and
journals, at least one of which should be in every school library.
English History in the Secondary School
C. B. NEWTON, Editor.
VIII. THE LATER HANOVERIANS.
The Industrial Revolution.
“The period which opened with Arkwright’s mechanical inventions has
been the commencement of a new era in the economic history, not only of
England, but of the whole world”--a new era indeed! The mind stumbles
over the multitude of forms which this introduction of new agencies
into human endeavor took, the infinite ramifications of influences
set in motion by machinery. The young of to-day, satiated, glutted
though they are with machinery, take an interest they could hardly
be expected to feel in more remote matters in the genesis of the age
on whose still advancing crest we ride: an interest, however, which
is very superficial, very unconscious of the deeper significance of
the industrial revolution. Some of the “leads” of that significance
are surely to be established as we approach the subject in the latter
part of the eighteenth century. Text-books vary greatly in the amount
of information they give as to the first inventions and the spread of
water power devices, followed by the still greater developments in the
stationary steam engine. In fact much of the history of invention is
obscure, and the details are entirely too numerous to give in a school
history. Nevertheless I think the teacher may improve on the accounts
in most of the school books, both in the way of lucidity and of
vividness. Try a careful study of pp. 505-519 of Beard’s Introduction
(which will take comparatively little of a busy man’s time), and see
how lively and realistic a tale you can weave out of it--you will
surprise yourself at the improvement you can make on your text-book! I
say this not that I honor the text-book less, but the freedom of oral
expression more. Then, too, one may lead naturally from a sketch of the
changed face of the land to the changes these new factories wrought in
old England, so stable since the days of the Conqueror, invaded at last
by a ruthless force irreverent of tradition, triumphing in disturbing
the established order.
But let us beware of resting on generalizations. “A new era in economic
history” is perfectly worthless as an entrant into the youthful mind.
As well speak of the cosmic forces in conflict with new physical
entities, or other “Olympian” abstractions. No, we must descend to
the hard pan of concrete things--the massing of population, the rise
of a new kind of commerce and a new kind of market, the making of
roads and canals to serve that commerce and that market, the changed
conditions of the laborer, and so on. Here, too, is a chance for “vivid
narration,” as the old rhetorics used to call it, and of all the wiles
of a _wise simplicity_ in instruction.
The Political Revolution.
From all of which the next step takes us to the revolution in politics
which made England for the first time a really democratic country. I
suppose it is more than possible to exaggerate the influence of the
industrial changes upon these political changes, but the tendency does
not seem to be in that direction. The Wilkes episode with all its
significance, the influence of the French Revolution pro and con, the
general trend of the age, are factors usually well built upon. The
agitations which shook the nation in the early nineteenth century,
the focussing of great areas of population in the new centers of
manufacture, the combination of the sense of industrial injustice such
as was evidenced in the excesses of the “Luddites,” with the sense of
political injustice of which the Manchester riots were a symptom--all
this not only wrought profound differences in the social fabric of
England, but was, I believe, the greatest single factor in bringing
about the great reform bill. Whether superlative or comparative there
is room for difference of opinion; but unquestionably this effect of
the actual machine upon the political machine is to be made a point of
in presenting to the class the drama of that peaceful (compared with
that of other countries) and salutary transition from a government
altogether of the land holders to an aristocratic democracy.
This revolution, which crowned the slow evolution of the British
Constitution, which was so unlike the cataclysm across the narrow
seas, was caused by a series of events stretching over the backward
centuries. That is a mere truism to our mature “grown-up” mentality
which has a taste for poking its nose into the roots of things and for
generalizing therefrom.
But not so with the fledgling mentalities before us--enough for them
that the very old time struggles helped along; that seeds of a free
spirit were not lacking in the teutonic blood; and that the events
of the seventeenth century did much to down the pride and power of
royalty. With this much for a foundation, the ultimate effects of the
new order of industry are comparatively simple to comprehend, and easy
to view, like the superstructure of the building which the unseen base
supports.
The Napoleonic Era.
There is a fascination which all of us feel, I suppose, both in the
French Revolution and in the looming figure of Napoleon. It is natural
enough, and needs no apology, but does need some curbing. I should
say, judging from my own experience, when one must keep sternly in
mind that English history is after all the prescribed route one is
pursuing, and to wander from it is as reprehensible as for the tourist
to deviate a hair’s breadth from his itinerary. The temptation to
digress is only heightened by the fact that English matters were quite
nearly concerned in the former, and might have been said to have been
thoroughly involved in the career of Napoleon. Then, too, none of the
class know anything worth speaking of about European history, and here
for once, at least, the various streams of national histories melt
into one river, and Europe becomes a vast theater for a single drama.
All very plausible, but nevertheless we must not dwell on the alluring
prospect too long or we shall be lost. The “Continental System,” with
its direct bearing upon England, is less interesting but perfectly
legitimate food for the English historian or historée. A fairly full
account of it taken from an article by Professor Sloane is quoted
pp. 520 to 537 of Beard’s Introduction. Much is of course available
on the Peninsular campaign and Waterloo, not to mention Aboukir Bay
and Trafalgar. Creasy’s account of Waterloo in the “Fifteen Decisive
Battles” is of course good; but for a bit of reading to the class for
purposes of ignition, nothing that I know of can equal Victor Hugo’s
fiction (somewhat adorning fact!) in Les Miserables.
A fascinating book on this period if one can get hold of it (it
is expensive, alas, so I advise borrowing) is Lord Broughton’s
“Recollections of a Long Life,”[3] which covers a considerable stretch
of time, for a single life, from 1786 to 1822, and is delightfully
intimate and realistic. I refrain from suggesting anything concerning
Napoleon having in mind the afore-mentioned temptation. Nelson and
Wellington, on the other hand, deserve portraits. The later appearance
of the “great Duke,” when he made so poor a hand at statesmanship is
one of the not infrequent examples of the soldier out of place in the
councils of state. The extracts pp. 656 to 662 of Cheyney’s Readings
are interesting in this connection.
Personalities.
The later eighteenth century teems with personalities, so that it
is difficult not to crowd the canvas and to nullify all individual
impression by the force of numbers. George III himself, much blackened
by American semi-traditions of thought is not as uninteresting or
as stupid or as objectionable as your pupil probably thought him. A
just view of King George is a worthy aim to set up for at least one
lesson. Lord North, too, always has an interest for Americans. But far
above these are Pitt and Burke and Fox. O for the chance to deal with
these men as we ought in the class room; to read what they said and to
examine what they did! Green has drawn William Pitt the younger in his
best style, pp. 790-791. For Burke one should go to Augustine Birrell’s
“Obiter Dicta” for an essay that is light in its touch but keen.
Trevelyan gives us Fox, though at too great length for busy men, and
Macaulay--well, no class has entirely received its due unless it has
heard the passage from “The Impeachment of Warren Hastings,” beginning
“The place was worthy of such a trial. It was the great hall of William
Rufus,” etc.
Time and space fail us, and the age of reform must wait for discussion
until next number, as well as the methods of review pertinent to the
otherwise pleasant month of May.
FOOTNOTE:
[3] Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909.
Reports from the Historical Field
WALTER H. CUSHING, Editor.
HIGH SCHOOL RALLY DAY.
An interesting instance of the influence of universities upon state
high schools is to be seen in Louisiana. The Louisiana State University
has arranged for an annual high school rally which this year will be
held on April 29th and 30th. At the rally there are literary contests
in English composition, in debating, in declamation, in vocal music, in
spelling, in English composition for the eighth grade, and in history.
There are also many athletic events. Prizes offered for the literary
contests are usually scholarships in the University. The following is a
description of the exhibit in history:
“Exhibit of Work in History. The exhibits may consist of any or all of
the following: Individual notebooks (containing topical outlines or
summaries based upon the text or upon collateral reading); papers or
reports to be read in the class; illustrations (pictures and maps);
map work of students (single maps traced or based on outline maps, or
atlases or wall outline maps filled in).
“No prescribed notebook or map work is suggested. It is desired that
the teacher use his or her own judgment as to the kind of work suited
to the class.
“The contest is limited to the tenth grade in each high school. The
work of the entire class is to be exhibited. The grade must contain not
less than five pupils. The teacher’s certificate as to the number in
class should accompany the exhibit.
“Neatness, accuracy, and good English will be considered as well as
evidence of proficiency in historical studies.
“It is advised that loose-leaf notebooks be used. Each should bear the
owner’s name and that of the school. The exhibit should be in place in
the University Library not later than 10 a.m. of the first day of the
rally.”
For the best exhibit of work in history a set of Woodrow Wilson’s
“History of the United States,” five volumes, published by Harper &
Bros., will be given to the school by Dr. Walter L. Fleming, Professor
of History in the Louisiana State University.
HISTORY TEACHING IN LONDON.
A committee of university and training college instructors and school
teachers is now preparing a report on history teaching in the London
elementary schools. One chapter of the report, “Aims and Scope of
History Teaching,” has already been prepared by the sub-committee of
which Mr. E. Bruce Forrest is chairman. The report, when completed,
will be published by the London County Council.
HISTORY TEACHERS’ EXAMINATION.
On May 21st there will be held at the Barringer High School Building,
Newark, N. J., an examination for high school teachers of history. The
subjects included will be Ancient history, American history, Medieval
and Modern European history, English history, and the principles
and methods of teaching history. Graduates of approved colleges and
universities will be required to take examinations only in these
subjects. Those not college graduates will be required to pass
examinations for the highest grade elementary certificate. Examinations
are open to both men and women. The schedule of salaries for positions
are for men $1,400 to $2,500, and for women from $900 to $1,800,
according to experience and fitness.
INDIANA ASSOCIATION.
The annual meeting of the History Section of the Indiana State
Teachers’ Association will be held at Indianapolis on Friday and
Saturday, April 29th and 30th. The program will begin on Friday
afternoon with a discussion of the Teaching of History in the
Elementary Schools. Professor H. E. Bourne, a member of the Committee
of Eight, will explain the principles of the committee’s report.
Criticisms of present methods in teaching history will be made by
City Superintendent Charles F. Patterson, of Tipton, and by County
Superintendent, Mr. Jesse Webb, of Franklin. On Friday evening will
be a joint meeting of the Teachers’ Association with the Indiana
Historical Society. Professor Bourne will speak upon “Our Early
Republic as French Travelers Saw It.” Mr. D. C. Brown, of the Indiana
State Library, will give an address upon “An Early Indian War.” On
Saturday morning the following problems of history teaching in the high
school will be discussed:
1. What can be done with the sources? Miss Minnie Blanche Ellis,
Bloomington High School.
2. Shall a history note book be required? Mr. W. C. Gerichs, principal,
Elwood High School.
3. How secure results with the collateral reading? Mr. W. O. Lynch,
Department of History, Indiana State Normal School.
4. Preparation and use of maps and charts. Mr. J. R. H. Moore, Manual
Training High School, Indianapolis.
This will be followed by the regular business meeting of the
Association. On Friday evening a subscription dinner will be given at
the Claypool Hotel.
ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NORTH CENTRAL HISTORY TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION,
CHICAGO, APRIL 1 AND 2, 1910.
REPORTED BY ALBERT H. SANFORD.
It is impossible to convey to one who was not present an adequate
idea of the spirit that pervaded the first session of the Twelfth
Annual Meeting of the North Central History Teachers’ Association;
this was the dinner at Reynolds’ Club, University of Chicago, in honor
of Professor Frederick J. Turner. The menu was simply “Food--a la
Hutchinson Café.” The “Refreshments” were talks given by Professors
James A. James, Albion W. Small, Guy S. Ford, James A. Woodburn, Thomas
F. Moran, and Dr. Reuben G. Thwaites, closing with remarks by Professor
Turner. The printed program was besprinkled with quotations from the
writings of Professor Turner, beginning with “The true point of view in
the history of this nation is not the Atlantic Coast; it is the great
West.”
Professor Andrew C. McLaughlin, the presiding genius of this occasion,
pitched the key at a point somewhere between gay and sad, running
readily from one extreme to the other. It was, of course, Professor
Turner’s departure from Wisconsin to enter upon duties at Harvard
that called the one hundred guests to assemble about this table.
Among them were some who had been students with him in Johns Hopkins’
University, many who had been students under his instruction, and still
others who are his colleagues in the field of history throughout the
Central West. Here was spontaneous testimony to the force and charm of
Professor Turner’s personality, and to the inspiration of his teaching.
Underneath the gayety of the after-dinner sentiments ran the note of
deep regret that the Central West loses the presence of this master
mind. No more fitting theme for a session of the Association could have
been selected.
Following the dinner came an address by Professor Paul S. Reinsch,
of the University of Wisconsin, upon “The Life of the State and the
Teaching of Government.” Preparation for the duties of citizenship is
less effective in the United States, said Professor Reinsch, than in
other advanced countries; hence the duty of placing more emphasis upon
the proper teaching of government. Local government should receive
fuller treatment. There should be more concrete study of the actual
operations of government and less committing to memory of the clauses
of constitutions that are only vaguely comprehended. Civil government
should be taught separately from history, else some of its most
important topics will never be reached; for instance, problems of city
and state organizations. Such, briefly stated, were some of the points
made in this interesting address.
The session on Saturday morning, April 2d, was fully attended, and
interest in the program which had been arranged by the president, Carl
E. Pray, of the State Normal School at Milwaukee, held the audience
until a late hour. Miss Lillian Thompson, of the Englewood High
School, Chicago, gave a spirited and practical talk upon “The Use of
Pictures in History Instruction.” That Miss Thompson has made a study
of child nature, as well as of pictures, was evident. She said, the
teacher must put herself in the pupil’s attitude and must realize his
poverty of ideas and mental images. She must be tactful and sympathetic
in satisfying the pupil’s curiosity, and in leading him to see the
essentials in pictures. Besides, the teacher must study the pictures
and plan carefully the presentation of them. Not the lecture but the
question method is the best for lower high school classes.
Much wisdom, drawn from experience, was packed into a brief paper read
by Professor G. C. Sellery, of the University of Wisconsin. This paper
cannot be adequately summarized in a few words. The old method of
teaching history insisted upon the learning of certain facts by force
of memory. Now we have a higher ideal--we ask pupils to understand,
rather than to remember. But we have gone too far in this direction:
pupils gain much discipline, but little knowledge. What is the remedy?
Treatment that will yield discipline requires time; hence, teach fewer
topics and teach them in detail, but emphasize the essentials. Then by
reviews drill upon the facts that should be remembered. Discipline and
knowledge are the two sides of the shield of history teaching.