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[Illustration: KELLY MILLER, A.M., LL.D.
Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, Howard University, Washington
D.C.]
KELLY MILLER'S HISTORY
OF
The World War
FOR
Human Rights
An Intensely Human and Brilliant Account of the World War; Why America
Entered the Conflict; What the Allies Fought For; And a Thrilling
Account of the Important Part Taken by the Negro in the Tragic Defeat of
Germany; The Downfall of Autocracy, and Complete Victory for the Cause
of Righteousness and Freedom.
INCLUDING
A Wonderful Array of Striking Pictures Made from Recent Official
Photographs, Illustrating and Describing the New and Awful Devices Used
in the Horrible Methods of Modern Warfare, together with Remarkable
Pictures of the Negro in Action in Both Army and Navy.
BY
KELLY MILLER, A.M., LL.D.
The Well-Known and Popular Author of "Race Adjustment," "Out of the
House of Bondage" and "The Disgrace of Democracy."
ALSO
Important Contribution by JOHN J. PERSHING, the Famous General,
FREDERICK DRINKER, the Noted War Correspondent, and E.A. ALLEN, Author
of "The History of Civilization."
Copyright, 1919
By
A. JENKINS
Copyright, 1919
By
O. KELLER
THE NEGRO'S PART IN THE WAR
BY PROFESSOR KELLY MILLER, THE WELL-KNOWN THINKER AND WRITER.
This treatise will set forth the black man's part in the world's war
with the logical sequence of facts and the brilliant power of statement
for which the author is famous. The mere announcement that the author of
"Race Adjustment," "Out of the House of Bondage," and "The Disgrace of
Democracy" is to present a history of the Negro in the great world
conflict, is sufficient to arouse expectancy among the wide circle of
readers who eagerly await anything that flows from his pen.
In this treatise, Professor Miller will trace briefly, but with
consuming interest, the relation of the Negro to the great wars of the
past. He will point out the never-failing fount of loyalty and
patriotism which characterizes the black man's nature, and will show
that the Negro has never been a hireling, but has always been
characterized by that moral energy which actuates all true heroism.
The conduct of the Negro in the present struggle will be set forth with
a brilliant and pointed pen. The idea of three hundred thousand American
Negroes crossing three thousand miles of sea to fight against autocracy
of the German crown constitutes the most interesting chapter in the
history of this modern crusade against an unholy cause. The valor and
heroism of the Afro-American contingent were second to none according to
the unanimous testimony of those who were in command of this high
enterprise.
The story of Negro officers in command of troops of their own color will
prove the wisdom of a policy entered upon with much distrust and
misgiving. It is just here that Professor Miller reaches the high-water
mark. Here is a story never told before, because the world has never
before witnessed Negro officers in large numbers participating in the
directive side of war waged on the high level of modern science and
system.
Professor Miller's treatise carries its own prophecy. He logically
enough forecasts the future of the race in glowing colors as the result
of his loyal and patriotic conduct in this great world epoch.
The author wisely queries: "When, hereafter, the Negro asks for his
rights as an American citizen, where can the American be found with the
heart or the hardihood to say him, Nay?"
The work will be profusely illustrated.
PUBLISHERS.
March 27, 1919.
GENERAL PREFACE
While the underlying causes of the greatest war in all history must be
traced far back into the centuries, the one great object of the conflict
which was precipitated by the assassination of the Archduke Francis
Ferdinand of Austria, in Bosnia, at the end of June, 1914, is the
ultimate determination as to whether imperialism as exemplified in the
government of Germany shall rule the world, or whether democracy shall
reign.
Whenever men or nations disregard those principles which society has
laid down for their conduct in modern civilized life, and obligation and
duty are forgotten in the desire for self-advancement, conflict results.
Since the days of Athens and Sparta the world's greatest wars have in
the main been conflicts of ideals--democracy being arrayed against
oligarchy--men fighting for individual rights as against militarism and
military domination.
In the World War, which terminated with the signing of the armistice,
November 11, 1918, which painted the green fields of France and Belgium
red with blood, and swept nations into the most significant and bitter
struggle in all history, the fight was against the Imperial Government
of Germany, by men and nations who claim that humanity the world over
has rights that must be observed.
Germany has brought upon herself the destruction of her government by
ruthlessly trampling upon her neighbors and assuming that "might is
right."
The Imperial Government, led by the House of Hohenzollern, was suffering
from an exaggerated ego. Her trouble was psychological. The men who
study the strange workings and twists of the human mind which land some
men in the institutions for the criminal insane, agree that when any man
becomes obsessed with an idea and "rides a hobby" to the exclusion of
all else, he loses his balance and develops an obliquity of view which
makes him a dangerous creature.
Germany was obsessed with the spirit of militarism and almost everything
else had been sacrificed to this idol. The very first appearance of
Germans in history is as a warlike people. The earliest German
literature is of folk-tales about war heroes, and these stories tell of
the manly virtues of the heroes.
It is true that there are many scientists, poets, and musicians among
the Germans, but their warlike side must never be forgotten. The entire
race is imbued with the military spirit, the influence reaching to every
phase of national life. All that was best in the nation was raised to
its highest efficiency through military training, but in the
accomplishment of its purposes the House of Hohenzollern, which is
responsible for the development of the national fighting arm, neglected
much and produced millions of creatures who are but human machines,
taught to obey orders without consideration as to the effect their acts
might produce, whether right or wrong.
In their criticisms of the Prussian militarism the world democracies
defined militarism as an arrogant, or exclusive, professional military
spirit, developed by training and environment until it became despotic,
and assumed superiority over rational motives and deliberations.
This attitude was reflected in the conduct of the Kaiser, who, as
illustrative of the point, is quoted at the dedication of the monument
to Prince Frederick Charles at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder in 1891, as having
said, "We would rather sacrifice our eighteen army corps and our
forty-two millions inhabitants on the field of battle than surrender a
single stone of what my father and Prince Charles Frederick gained."
His speeches were filled with similar bombastic and extravagant
expressions which were the subject of international comment for many
years. Other countries besides Germany have maintained great armies, but
their maintenance has been but an incidental part of the general
business of the nation and there was no submerging of the spirit which
seeks and demands appropriate public ideals in government and action. So
that while other elements have always tended to produce friction between
neighboring countries, it was adamant, stubborn, military Prussianism
which asserted itself in the middle of 1914 and set the world afire.
Enough is known at this writing to show that the cost in lives, money,
morals and weakening of humanity as a whole, is staggering, and yet the
whole truth can not be realized for years to come. In our own great
struggle, which had for its object the liberation of the Negro, the
scars which our country received have not yet been entirely eliminated.
Portions of the country devastated by the soldiers still bear the marks
of the invasion, but what was lost in money and material things was made
up by the welding together of the two sections of the country. The Union
was made a concrete, humanitarian body of citizens. The battle was for
the right and liberty triumphed. And by the defeat of Germany liberty
again triumphs and the world is made a safe place in which to live.
And just as America fought for liberty in the stirring days of 1776, and
her peoples fought one another in the trying days of 1861-65, so America
was drawn into the World's War that the principles of liberty, for which
she has ever stood, might be perpetuated throughout the world, and that
an international peace might be established, which has for its purposes
the ending of such convulsions as have shaken the world since August,
1914, since the first shots were fired in fair Belgium by German
invaders.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
CIVILIZATION AT ISSUE--THE GERMAN EMPIRE--CHARACTER OF WILLIAM II--THE
GREAT CONSPIRACY--THE WAR BY YEARS--UNITED STATES IN THE WAR--TWO
HUNDRED AND FIFTY MILES OF BATTLE--THE DOWNFALL OF TURKEY--THE
DEMOCRATIC CLOSE OF THE WAR 17
CHAPTER II
GEN. PERSHING'S OWN STORY
ORGANIZATION OF HIS GENERAL STAFF--TRAINING IN FRANCE--IN THE AISNE
OFFENSIVE--AT CHATEAU THIERRY--THE ST MIHEIL SALIENT--MEUSE-ARGONNE,
FIRST PHASE--THE BATTLE IN THE FOREST--SUMMARY 49
CHAPTER III
PRESIDENT WILSON'S REVIEW OF THE WAR
TROOP MOVEMENT DURING THE YEAR--TRIBUTE TO AMERICAN SOLDIERS--SPLENDID
SPIRIT OF THE NATION--RESUME THE WORK OF PEACE--OUTLINE OF WORK IN
PARIS--SUPPORT OF NATION URGED 79
CHAPTER IV
THE FLASH THAT SET THE WORLD AFLAME
TEUTON FIND IN A MURDER THE EXCUSE FOR WAR--GERMANY INSPIRED BY
AMBITIONS FOR WORLD CONTROL--THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL SUPREMACY A
FACTOR--THE UNDERLYING MOTIVES 89
CHAPTER V
WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR
THE IRON HAND OF PRUSSIANISM--THE ARROGANT HOHENZOLLERN
ATTITUDE--SECRETARY LANE TELLS WHY WE FIGHT--BROKEN PLEDGES--LAWS
VIOLATED--PRUSSIANISM THE CHILD OF BARBARITY--GERMANY'S PLANS FOR A
WORLD EMPIRE 97
CHAPTER VI
THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD
GERMANY'S BARBARITY--THE DEVASTATION OF BELGIUM--HUMAN FIENDS--FIREBRAND
AND TORCH--RAPE AND PILLAGE--THE SACKING OF LOUVAIN--WANTON
DESTRUCTION--OFFICIAL PROOF 113
CHAPTER VII
THE SLINKING SUBMARINE
A VORACIOUS SEA MONSTER--THE RUTHLESS DESTRUCTIVE POLICY OF
GERMANY--STARVATION OF NATIONS THE GOAL--HOW THE SUBMARINES
OPERATE--SOME PERSONAL EXPERIENCES 135
CHAPTER VIII
THWARTING THE U-BOAT
NETS TO ENTANGLE THE SEA SHARKS OF WAR--"CHASERS" OR "SKIMMING DISH"
BOATS--"BLIMPS" AND SEAPLANES--HUNTING THE SUBMARINE WITH "LANCE" BOMB
AND GUN--A SAILOR'S DESCRIPTION 154
CHAPTER IX
THE EYES OF BATTLE
AEROPLANES AND AIRSHIPS--THEY SPY THE MOVEMENTS OF FORCESON LAND OR
SEA--LEAD DISASTROUS BOMB ATTACKS--VALUABLE IN "SPOTTING"
SUBMARINES--THE BOMBARDMENT AT MESSINES RIDGE 170
CHAPTER X
WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES
CHEMISTRY A DEMON OF DESTRUCTION--POISON GAS BOMBS--GAS MASKS--HAND
GRENADES--MORTARS--"TANKS"--FEUDAL "BATTERING RAMS"--STEEL
HELMETS--STRANGE BULLETS--MOTOR PLOWS--REAL DOGS OF WAR 185
CHAPTER XI
WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS
THE TERRIBLE RAPID-FIRE GUN--ARMORED AUTOMOBILES AND AUTOMOBILE
ARTILLERY--HOWITZERS--MOUNTED FORTS--ARMORED TRAINS--OBSERVATION
TOWERS--WIRELESS APPARATUS--THE ARMY PANTRY 205
CHAPTER XII
THE WORLD'S ARMIES
THE EFFICIENT GERMAN ORGANIZATION--THE LANDWEHR AND LANDSTURM--GENERAL
FORMS OF MILITARY ORGANIZATION--THE BRAVE FRENCH TROOPS--THE PICTURESQUE
ITALIAN SOLDIERY--THE PEACE AND WAR STRENGTH--AVAILABLE FIGHTING
MEN--FORTIFICATIONS 224
CHAPTER XIII
THE WORLD'S NAVIES
GERMANY'S SEA STRENGTH--GREAT BRITAIN'S IMMENSE WAR FLEET--IMMENSE
FIGHTING CRAFT--THE UNITED STATES' NEW BATTLE CRUISERS--THE FASTEST AND
BIGGEST OCEAN FIGHTING SHIPS--THE PICTURESQUE MARINES: THE SOLDIERS OF
THE SEA 243
CHAPTER XIV
THE NATIONS AT WAR
UNEXPECTED DEVELOPMENTS--HOW THE WAR FLAMES SPREAD--A SCORE OF
COUNTRIES INVOLVED--THE POINTS OF CONTACT--PICTURESQUE AND RUGGED
BULGARIA, ROUMANIA, SERVIA, GREECE, ITALY AND HISTORIC SOUTHEAST EUROPE
259
CHAPTER XV
MODERN WAR METHODS
INDIVIDUAL INITIATIVE AS AGAINST MASS MOVEMENTS--TRENCH WARFARE A GAME
OF HIDE AND SEEK--RATS AND DISEASE--SURGERY'S TRIUMPHS--CHANGED
TACTICS--ITALIAN MOUNTAIN FIGHTING 281
CHAPTER XVI
WOMAN AND THE WAR
SHE HAS WON "HER PLACE IN THE SUN"--RICH AND POOR IN THE MUNITIONS
FACTORIES--NURSE AND AMBULANCE DRIVER--KHAKI AND TROUSERS--ORGANIZER AND
FARMER--HEROES IN THE STRESS OF CIRCUMSTANCES--DYING MEN'S WORK FOR
MEN--EVEN A "BOBBIE" 298
CHAPTER XVII
THE TERRIBLE PRICE
A NATION OF MEN DESTROYED--MILLIONS IN SHIPPING AND COMMERCE
DESTROYED--WORLD'S MAPS CHANGED--BILLIONS IN MONEY--IMMENSE
DEBTS--NATION'S WEALTH--THE UNITED STATES A GREAT PROVIDER 316
CHAPTER XVIII
THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR
WOODROW WILSON, THE CHAMPION OF DEMOCRACY--THE EGOTISTICAL KAISER--THE
GERMAN CROWN PRINCE--BRITAIN'S MONARCH--CONSTANTINE WHO QUIT RATHER THAN
FIGHT GERMANY--PRESIDENT POINCARE--AND OTHER NATIONAL HEADS 328
CHAPTER XIX
THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO
STRIKING FIGURES IN THE CONFLICT--JOFFRE, THE HERO OF MARNE--NIVELLE,
THE FRENCH COMMANDER--SIR DOUGLAS HAIG--THE KAISER'S
CHANCELLOR--VENIZELOS--"BLACK JACK" PERSHING 344
CHAPTER XX
CHEMISTRY IN THE WAR
SUBSTITUTES FOR COTTON--NITRATES PRODUCED FROM AIR--YEAST A REAL
SUBSTITUTE FOR BEEF--SEAWEED MADE TO GIVE UP POTASH--A GANGRENE
PREVENTATIVE--SODA MADE OUT OF SALT WATER--AMERICA CHEMICALLY
INDEPENDENT 361
CHAPTER XXI
OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY
CANADA'S RECRUITING--RAISE 33,000 TROOPS IN TWO MONTHS--FIRST
EXPEDITIONARY FORCE TO CROSS ATLANTIC--BRAVERY AT YPRES AND
LENS--MEETING DIFFICULT PROBLEMS--QUEBEC AROUSED BY CONSCRIPTION 371
CHAPTER XXII
THE HEROIC ANZAC
FORCES THAT STIRRED THE WORLD IN THE GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN--FAMOUS AS
SAPPERS--THE BLASTING OF MESSINES RIDGE--TWO YEARS TUNNELLING--30,000
GERMANS BLOWN TO ATOMS--1,000,000 POUNDS OF EXPLOSIVES USED--TROOPS THAT
WERE TRANSPORTED 11,000 MILES 390
CHAPTER XXIII
AMERICA STEPS IN
PRESIDENT WILSON'S FAMOUS MESSAGE TO CONGRESS--THE WAR RESOLUTION--APRIL
6, 1917, SEES THE UNITED STATES AT WAR--REVIEW OF THE NEGOTIATIONS
BETWEEN GERMANY AND AMERICA--THE U-BOAT RESTRICTED ZONE ANNOUNCEMENT OF
GERMANY--PREMIER LLOYD GEORGE ON AMERICA IN THE CONFLICT 399
CHAPTER XXIV
UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD
MAKES WORLD'S BIGGEST WAR LOAN--SEIZE GERMAN SHIPS--INTRIGUE
EXPOSED--GENERAL PERSHING AND STAFF IN EUROPE--THE NAVY ON DUTY IN NORTH
SEA--FIRST UNITED STATES TROOPS REACH FRANCE--GERMANY'S ATTEMPTS TO SINK
TROOP SHIPS THWARTED BY NAVY'S GUNS 427
CHAPTER XXV
A GERMAN CRISIS
THE DOWNFALL OF BETHMANN-HOLLWEG--THE CROWN PRINCE IN THE LIME
LIGHT--HOLLWEG'S UNIQUE CAREER--DR. GEORG MICHAELIS APPOINTED
CHANCELLOR--THE KAISER AND HOW HE GETS HIS IMMENSE POWER 444
CHAPTER XXVI
UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS
PRESIDENT WILSON PUTS EMBARGO ON FOOD SHIPMENTS--SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES
FURNISHING SUPPLIES TO GERMANY INSPIRES ORDER--THE DIFFICULT POSITION OF
NORWAY, DENMARK, HOLLAND AND SWITZERLAND 452
CHAPTER XXVII
THE ACTIONS OF THE WAR
FROM BOSNIA TO FLANDERS--MARNE THE TURNING POINT OF THE CONFLICT--THE
CONQUESTS OF SERVIA AND RUMANIA--THE FALL OF BAGDAD--RUSSIA'S WOMEN
SOLDIERS--AMERICA'S CONSCRIPTS 463
CHAPTER XXVIII
AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR
UNITED STATES SOLDIERS INSPIRED ALLIED TROOPS--RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT
COLLAPSES--ITALIAN ARMY FAILS--ALLIED WAR COUNCIL FORMED--FOCH COMMANDS
ALLIED ARMIES--PERSHING OFFERS AMERICAN TROOPS--UNDER FIRE--U-BOAT BASES
RAIDED BY BRITISH 473
CHAPTER XXIX
AMERICANS TURN WAR'S TIDE
BRILLIANT AMERICAN FIGHTING STOPS HUN ADVANCE--FRENCH AND BRITISH
INSPIRED--FAMOUS MARINES LEAD IN PICTURESQUE ATTACK--HALT GERMANS AT
CHATEAU-THIERRY--USED OPEN STYLE FIGHTING--THOUSANDS OF GERMANS
SLAIN--UNITED STATES TROOPS IN SIBERIA--NEW CONSCRIPTION BILL
PASSED--ALLIED SUCCESSES ON ALL FRONTS 489
CHAPTER XXX
VICTORY--PEACE
THE GERMAN EMPIRE COLLAPSES--FOCH'S STRATEGY WINS--AMERICAN INSPIRATION
A BIG FACTOR--BULGARIA, TURKEY AND AUSTRIA QUIT WAR--MONARCHS
FALL--KAISER ABDICATES AND FLEES GERMANY--ARMISTICE SIGNED--NOVEMBER 11,
PEACE 497
THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 507
[Illustration: WOUNDED AMERICAN SOLDIERS ENTERTAINING THEMSELVES.
During the period of convalescence the wounded were well cared for. They
earned and deserved the best possible treatment and care.]
[Illustration: FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK, CHEERS NEGRO VETERANS.
The 369th Colored Infantry acclaimed by thousands upon their return from
France. Their record is one of the bravest of any organization in the
war.]
[Illustration: ONE OF THE WOUNDED AND HIS MOTHER.
A member of the famous 369th Colored Infantry, who was wounded in the
fighting, and his proud mother. He sacrificed a leg for the cause of
righteousness and World Peace.]
[Illustration: CHEERFULLY DOING THE WORK REQUIRED.
Transporting tan bark, to be used in connection with tanning leather. No
slackers. The colored women did willingly and efficiently their part in
helping win the war.]
[Illustration: NEGRO SOLDIERS LOOKING FOR THE ENEMY.
Negro troops from many parts of the world were engaged in the war. It
has been estimated that as many as 700,000 Negro soldiers were in the
French Army alone.]
[Illustration: ENTERTAINING CONVALESCENT AMERICAN SOLDIERS AT AUTHEIL.
Negro musicians were in great demand in France. This picture shows
Lieut. Europe's noted colored band.]
[Illustration: THE BAND IN La BOURBOULE, FRANCE.
The arrival of the colored musicians created great excitement. This band
heralded the coming of soldiers to rest up.]
[Illustration: A SNIPER AT WORK.
This papier-maché camouflage, made to imitate a dead horse, furnished
good protection for the sharpshooter.]
[Illustration: SENEGALIANS ON THE SOMME FRONT.]
[Illustration: FRENCH ZOUAVES TAKEN PRISONERS BY GERMANS.
They were formerly artists in a Paris cafe-concert.]
[Illustration: WOUNDED COLORED SOLDIERS ON THE MACEDONIAN FRONT.
They were with the ambulance X.A., and the major surgeon is distributing
cigarettes.]
[Illustration: Private Henry Johnson
Private Needham Roberts
Of the New York National Guards (now the 369th) who have been decorated
by the French for routing 24 Germans and preventing the carrying out of
a well-developed plan to assail one of the most important points of
resistance on the American front. They have been awarded the War Cross
by the French.]
[Illustration: COLORED SOLDIERS BUILDING ROADS "OVER THERE."]
[Illustration: COLORED SOLDIERS IN THE TRENCHES "OVER THERE."
(Note the tin hats.)]
[Illustration: HOTEL BOOKER T. WASHINGTON "OVER THERE."
The Negro Soldiers are surely fighting for Democracy. It is coming to
them by leaps and bounds.]
[Illustration: COLORED SOLDIERS LEAVING AN AMERICAN PORT FOR "OVER
THERE."
(See them dancing on the right.)]
The Late Major Walker, of the First Colored Battalion, District of
Columbia National Guard
[Illustration:
The late Major James E. Walker was born in Virginia, September 7, 1874.
He was educated in the public schools of Washington, D.C., and was
graduated from the M. Street High School in 1893, and the Miner Normal
School in 1894. For twenty-four years he was in the public school
service, and since 1899 was supervising principal. In 1896 he was made
Lieutenant in the First Separate Battalion of the National Guard of the
District of Columbia. In 1909 he was made Captain and in 1912, through
competitive examination, was commissioned Major. His command was called
out to guard the White House, and while on this duty Major Walker's
health became impaired. He was sent to the U.S. Hospital at Fort Bayard,
New Mexico, for treatment, where he died April 4, 1918.]
[Illustration: THE FIGHTING U.S.A. MARINE BRIGADE IN BELLEAU WOOD.
Here the Germans were not only stopped in their march toward Paris, but
"knocked out." The furious and fast fighting of the Marines proved their
superiority. The Hun was badly beaten. The soldier applying the bayonet
is an American Negro.]
[Illustration: AFRICAN TROOPS IN FRANCE. THEY FOUGHT FOR THE ALLIES.
A war dance, relieving the monotony and for the benefit of British and
French troops. These colored soldiers gave a good account of
themselves.]
[Illustration: KAMERAD! KAMERAD!
Three colored Canadians imitating the Germans, whom they captured in
this dugout near the Canal du Nord, as they put up their hands and
shouted "Kamerad"!]
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
CIVILIZATION AT ISSUE--THE GERMAN EMPIRE--CHARACTER OF WILLIAM II--THE
GREAT CONSPIRACY--THE WAR BY YEARS--UNITED STATES IN THE WAR--TWO
HUNDRED FIFTY MILES OF BATTLE--THE DOWNFALL OF TURKEY--THE DEMOCRATIC
CLOSE OF THE WAR.
The World War, terminated by the signing of the armistice November 11,
1918, was attended with more far-reaching changes than any war known to
history, and is destined to so profoundly influence civilization that we
see in it the beginning of a new age. Somewhat similar wars in the past
were the campaigns of Alexander; the wars that overthrew the Roman
Empire and the Napoleonic wars of a previous century; but this one war
surpasses them all, measured by any scale that can be applied to
military operations. It was truly a World War, thus in a class by
itself. Beginning in Central Europe, twenty-eight nations--nearly all of
the important nations of the world--with a total population of about
1,600,000,000--or eleven-twelfths of the human race--became involved. It
cost 10,000,000 human lives, 17,000,000 more suffered bodily injury; the
money cost was about $200,000,000,000, but who can measure the cost in
untold suffering caused by ruined homes and wrecked lives that attended
it? Or who can measure the property loss, considering that the fairest
provinces of Europe were swept with the bezom of destruction?
Rightly to judge the real significance of such a world struggle, we must
consider conditions that made it possible; study the issue involved
stripped of all misleading statements; review its course and weigh the
nature of the profound changes--geographical, political and
economic--that resulted. We shall find that this war was the
culmination of century-old causes; that two rival theories of
government--impossible to longer co-exist--met in deadly conflict; and
that civilization itself was the stake at issue. We shall see that
beyond the wreck of empires and troubled days of reconstruction now upon
us--through it all approaches a wonderful new age. Autocracy has
crumbled; a higher form of democracy will arise and in peaceful days to
come the nations of the world will rapidly advance in all that
constitutes national well-being.
THE GERMAN STATES.
The early history of Germany is a confused panorama of a thousand years,
during which time Central Europe was a country of numerous separate
states, many of them at times coming together as a more or less closely
knit confederacy under the lead of a powerful state, only to fall apart
into a mass of confused units at a later date. It is interesting to
learn that among the Teutonic knights of that early time, none was more
noted than Count Thassilo Von Zollern who founded the house of
Hohenzollern, that played such an ambitious role in European history,
the house whose downfall was one of the dramatic results of the war.
THE RISE OF PRUSSIA.
At its height the German Empire consisted of a union of twenty-five
Germanic states of various grades and the Reichland of Alsace-Lorraine
under the leadership of Prussia, by far the most important state of the
Empire. The foundation of Prussia's greatness was laid by Frederick the
Great in 1763 when he tore Silesia from Austria in an entirely
unprovoked war. He wished to enlarge the bounds of Prussia, he coveted
Silesia, so he took it. In that deed of spoliation we see manifested the
spirit that has animated official Germany since that date. Not only is
the House of Hohenzollern descended from the Robber Knights of old, but
the same is true of the military caste of Germany generally. Recent
centuries have cast only a thin veneer of modern thought over
essentially medieval conceptions of national rights and duties.
THE DAYS OF BISMARCK.
For a century after the reign of Frederick, Prussia remained the most
prominent Germanic state in Europe. Then we come to the days of
Bismarck. He is regarded as a remarkable statesman. He himself delighted
to be known as the man of "Blood and Iron." Judging from his acts his
one motive in life was to advance the power and influence of Prussia. In
the decade 1860-1870 he instigated three wars,--with Denmark in 1864,
with Austria in 1866, with France in 1870,--not one of which was
justifiable. The war with France was occasioned by deliberately changing
the wording of a telegram--in itself friendly--from the King of Prussia
to Napoleon III, knowing it would result in war. All were short wars,
all resulted in victory for Prussia and consequent increase in
territory. Under the glamour of the great victory over France in 1871
came the formation of the German Empire.
THE GERMAN EMPIRE.
Thus there suddenly arose in Central Europe, in the place of the weak
confederation of earlier years, one empire of great actual strength,
generously endowed as regards territory, and at the head of that empire
was a state that alone of modern states most resembles Rome of early
centuries, that ruled the Mediterranean world, imposing on the conquered
people of that section her language, her laws and her customs. Like her
great prototype, we now know that official Prussia regarded all she had
accomplished to the formation of the empire as simply a station reached
in a career of progress which was to end in a World empire as greatly
surpassing that of Rome in her palmy days as the world of the twentieth
century surpasses the known world of Roman times.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMPIRE.
The empire enjoyed a brief span of national life. In less than fifty
years it ceased to exist, a republic of an uncertain nature takes its
place. To outward appearances the development of the empire was a
brilliant one. A colonial empire was established--mostly in
Africa--nearly five times as great in area as the home empire; she had
large possessions in the Pacific and had gained a foothold in China. The
rich potash and iron deposits of Alsace increased her wealth and
marvelously built up her industries and she became one of the greatest
manufacturing nations of modern times. Her population doubled, her
foreign trade increased four fold, her shipping grew by leaps and
bounds. Her army became so perfected that it was acknowledged to be the
greatest military machine the world had ever seen; she was building a
navy that threatened the supremacy of England on the sea.
BUILT ON A FOUNDATION OF SAND.
In spite of this brilliant development, the empire rested on a
foundation of sand. You will never understand the World War unless you
grasp this thought and its justification. The government was autocratic,
though under the form of a constitutional government. The entire
military class in Germany held to theories of government, of national
rights and wrongs that belonged to the middle ages. Theories of
state-craft which the world long since outgrew were proclaimed and
taught, and enforced by every means at command of the government, the
military class, the professors, scientists and theologians of Germany.
Education and religion were state controlled. As a consequence, every
German child from his cradle to his grave was under the influence of
state officials and never allowed to forget reverence for the kaiser,
the glorious military record of Germany, German supremacy in every
department of culture. Such a government was hopelessly behind modern
ideas.
WILLIAM II.
William II was the third emperor of Germany,--also the last. His reign
began, in pomp and ceremony, June 15, 1888, it ended in the darkness and
gloom of night, shortly before the signing of the armistice, November
11, 1918. Other reigns have been longer in duration; none surpassed his
in deeds. When his reign began he said he would lead his people to
"shining days." He did so; but "shining days" ended in despairing night.
Personally, William II was an able man, but he was not well balanced. In
the early days of his reign, Bismarck confided to a friend that it would
some day be necessary for Germany to confine William II in an insane
asylum. We must remember his lineage, his long line of ancestors dating
back to the Robber Knights of the Middle Ages, all used to the exercise
of autocratic power. Medieval conceptions were his by inheritance. He
believed he was divinely commissioned to rule Germany; he said so in his
speeches. He believed he was a man of destiny who was to advance Germany
to the zenith of earthly greatness; he himself, not someone else,
asserted this. He asserted that while Napoleon failed in his great
scheme of conquest, he, by God's help, would succeed. Every prominent
military leader in Germany applauded such beliefs. He said that when he
contemplated the paintings of his ancestors, and the military chiefs of
Germany, who advanced the insignificant Mark of Brandenburg to the rank
of the most powerful state in Europe, they seemed to reproach him for
not being active in similar work. But we now know that he was not idle.
ACTIVITIES IN WHICH HE WAS INTERESTED.
One year after the accession of William II he paid a spectacular visit
to "his friend" (as he called him) Abdul Hamid, Sultan of Turkey, the
head of one of the most cruel, licentious, incompetent, blood-thirsty
governments that ever cursed the world; greeted him with a kiss, put on
a Turkish uniform (fez and all), and assured the Mohammedan world that
he was henceforth their friend. The ignorant Turks actually supposed he
had become a Mohammedan and native papers spoke of him as "His Islamic
Holiness." In the light of history, the meaning of all this is so clear
that he who runs may read, and the wayfaring man, though a fool, need
not err therein. This visit was repeated in 1898. For more than twenty
years every effort was made to extend German influence in Turkey,
because that country with its minerals, its oils, its wonderfully strong
strategical location was vital to the success of a vast scheme of
conquest official Germany with William II as leader was contemplating.
PAN-GERMANISM.
Two years after his accession, there was organized the Pan-Germanic
League. This League soon attracted to its ranks the entire class of
Prussian Junkers, virtually all the military class, and a galaxy of
writers and speakers. The purpose of the league was to foster in the
minds of German people the idea that it was their privilege, right and
duty to extend the power, influence and political dominance of Germany
to all parts of the world, peacefully if possible, otherwise by the
sword. This doctrine was taught openly and boldly in Germany in books
and pamphlets and by means of lectures with such frankness and fullness
of details that the world at large laughed at it as an exuberant dream
of fanatics. Intellectual, military, and official Germany was in
earnest. Her generals wrote books illustrated with maps showing the
stages of world conquest; her professors patiently explained how
necessary all this was to Germany's future; while her theologians
pointed out it was God's will. But the world at large, except uneasy
France, slept on.
OUTWORKINGS OF THE PLOT.
It was this vision that fired the imagination of William II. He was to
be the Augustus of this greater Roman Empire; over virtually all the
earth the House of Hohenzollern was to exercise despotic sway. Then
began preparation for the World's War. With characteristic German
thoroughness and patience the plans were laid. Thoroughness, since they
embraced every conceivable means that would enhance their prospect of
victory, her military leaders, scientists and statesmen were all busy.
Patience, since they realized there was much to do. Many years were
needed and Germany refused to be hurried. She carefully attended to
every means calculated to increase the commerce and industry of the
empire, but with it all--underlying it all--were activities devoted to
preparation for world conquest. Building for world empire, Germany could
afford to take time.
PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED.
Time was needed to solve the military problems involved. A nation
aspiring to territory extending from Hamburg to Bagdad must firmly
control the Balkan States. That meant that Austria must become, in
effect, a German province; Serbia must be crushed; Bulgaria must become
an ally; and Turkey must be brought under control. In 1913, two of these
desired results were attained. Turkey was to a surprising degree under
the military and economic control of Germany. Austria had become such a
close ally that she might almost be styled a vassal of Germany. She
faithfully carried out the wishes of Germany in 1908 when she annexed
the Serbian states of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a step she felt safe in
taking since (the Kaiser's own words) behind her was the "shining sword
of Germany." It were tedious to enlarge on this point. Let it suffice to
say that in 1914 Germany felt herself ready for the conflict. Enormous
supplies of guns, of a caliber before unthought of, and apparently
inexhaustible supplies of ammunition had been prepared; strategic
railroads had been built by which armies and supplies could be hurried
to desired points; the Kiel Canal had been completed; her navy had
assumed threatening proportions; her army, greatly enlarged, was in
perfect readiness.
THE REAL CAUSES OF THE WAR.
The real cause of the war is now disclosed. It is not necessary to
discuss other possible causes. The pistol shot at Serajevo was the
occasion, not the cause of the war. The simple fact is that on one
pretext or another war would have come anyway, simply because Germany
was ready. In 1913 the speakers of the Pan-German League were going to
and fro in Germany making public speeches on all possible occasions,
warning the people to be ready, telling them "There was the smell of
blood in the air," that the wrath of God was about to be visited upon
the nations that would hem Germany in. We now know from official sources
that Germany was eager for war in the fateful days of July 1914, when
France and England were almost begging for peace. All this is made
exceedingly clear in the secret memoirs of Prince Lichnowski, German
ambassador to England, the published statements of the premier of
Bavaria, also those of the Prince of Monaco, and the records of the
Potsdam council over which the Kaiser presided, secretly convened one
week after the murder of the Prince. There were present the generals,
diplomats and bankers of Germany.
DECISION FOR WAR.
The matter of possible war was carefully considered. To the earnest
question of the emperor, all present assured him that the interests they
represented were ready, with the exception of the financiers who desired
two weeks' time in which to make financial arrangements for the coming
storm. This was given them, and the council adjourned. The emperor, to
divert suspicion, hurried off on a yachting trip while the financiers
immediately commenced disposing of their foreign securities. The stock
markets of London, Paris, and New York during that interval of time bear
eloquent testimony to the truth of these assertions. Two weeks and three
days after the council adjourned, Austria sent her ultimatum to Serbia.
The truth of these statements is vouched for by Henry Morgenthau,
American ambassador to Turkey.
Thus were unleashed the dogs of war. For four long years they rioted in
blood. To advance dynastic ambitions and national greed, millions of
Armenian Christians were tortured, outraged and murdered; hapless
Belgians were ravished and put to the sword, their cities made charnal
heaps; millions of men--the fairest sons of many lands--gave up their
lives, and anguished hearts sobbed out their grief in desolated homes,
while generations to come will feel the crushing financial burdens this
struggle has entailed with its heritage of woe.
We must now gain a general view of the events of the war. Every
well-informed man or woman feels the necessity of such outline
knowledge. It was not only the greatest war in history, but it was our
war. Our liberties were threatened. Rivers and hamlets of France are
invested with new interest. There, our American boys are sleeping; they
died that our Republic might live. We may regard the annals of other
wars with languid interest; those of this war grip our hearts, our
breath comes quicker as we read; we experience a glow of patriotic
pride. We shall let each year of the war tell its story. Of necessity we
can only record the main events, the peaks of each year's achievements.
EVENTS OF 1914.
A state of war was declared to exist in Germany, July 31, 1914. Four
days later Germany had mobilized five large armies with full supplies on
the extended line from Metz northward along the eastern boundary of
France--a distance of about 130 miles. That mobilization was a wonderful
exhibition of military efficiency. From Verdun to Paris, slightly
southwest, is also about 130 miles.
The German plan of campaign may be crudely stated as follows: Regard
that extended line as a flail ready to fall, hinged near Verdun, moved
in a circle until the northern tip, under command of Von Kluck, should
fall with all the energy Germany could put into the blow on Paris. In
the meantime, the other armies would crush back, outflank, defeat, and
capture the small British and hastily mobilized French armies that
confronted them along the entire line. It was believed that a short
campaign would crush France, over-awe Great Britain, and end the war in
the West. It was thought that six weeks would be ample to accomplish
this result.
BELGIAN RESISTANCE.
Germany expected that at the most a day or so would see Belgian
resistance broken and the dash on Paris begun. It was not safe to start
such a forward rush with Belgium unconquered. This was the first of
many, many mistakes made by Germany. It required two weeks to break down
this resistance. Thus the northern end of the flail was held and
movement along the entire line was slowed down or suspended. The
unexpected delay saved France. Let us remember this when we read the
story of Belgium's martyrdom, a story written in blood. Then began the
fulfillment of the threat of William II to the Prince of Monaco "the
world will see what it never dreamed of." And truly the world never
dreamed of the terrible scenes that attended the sack of Louvain (August
26). Not until after the situation in Belgium had been given a bloody
setting did the first dash on Paris begin (August 23).
RETREAT TO THE MARNE.
We are now approaching the "Miracle of the Marne." The line of German
armies along the eastern frontier of France were confronted by the
forces of France, hastily mobilized during the delay occasioned by the
heroic but pathetically futile resistance of Belgium. The first English
army had also assumed a position before the menacing rush of the German
forces. The only thing the Allies could do was to retreat. This
movement, directed by General Joffre, was a remarkably able one. His
plan was to give ground before the advance without risking a decisive
battle until he could rearrange his forces and gain a favorable
position. Only with difficulty was the retreat saved from becoming a
great disaster when the British army was defeated at Mons-Charleroi
(August 21-3). Apparently, the German forces were carrying everything
before them as the retreat continued. The flail, swinging from Metz to
Belgium, was falling with crushing effect along the entire front, the
movement being very rapid at the western but slow at the eastern end. It
was centered at Verdun because it was not safe to leave that fortress
unconquered in the rear.
THE FIRST BATTLE OF THE MARNE.
The Marne is a small river in France, gently coursing from the
water-shed south of Verdun to the Seine near Paris, its general course
convex to the north. It will hereafter rank as one of the storied rivers
of history, the scene of mighty battles, where the red tide of German
success ebbed in its flow. The night of September 4, the German armies
were in position along this river in an irregularly curved line slightly
convex to the south from a point only twenty-five miles east of Paris to
Verdun, one hundred and twenty-five miles, slightly to the northeast.
The evening of that day, General Joffre issued orders for a general
attack all along the line. His message to the French Senate was couched
in words of deep meaning,--he had made, he said, the best disposition
possible. France could only await in hope the outcome. The battle that
began the next day continued for one week and ended with a victory for
the Allies as the German armies were forced back everywhere, a varying
distance, to a line of defense prepared back of the Aisne River, to the
north and east. This was a marvelous result. Just as the world was
waiting with bated breath to hear of the fall of Paris, it heard
instead, that the German army was in retreat. It was truly a miracle.
Why not see in it proof that a Power infinitely greater than that of man
was directing events?
THE MAGNITUDE OF THE BATTLE.
The battle front covered a distance of about 125 miles. The forces
engaged numbered about 1,500,000 men. Thus this battle far exceeds in
magnitude the battle of Mukden, previously considered the greatest
battle of modern times; while the great battle of Waterloo was an
insignificant skirmish in comparison. It is of further interest to learn
that Allied success was largely the result of the use of flying machines
for scouting purposes, which enabled General Joffre to take instant
advantage of tactical mistakes of General Von Kluck. The results were
commensurate with the immensity of the struggle. Paris was saved; the
first period of the war in the west was ended; Germany was rudely
awakened from her dream of easy conquest.
THE BATTLE OF TANNENBERG.
The success of the Allies in the west was in a measure offset by
Teutonic victories in the east. When the invasion of Belgium began,
Russia made immediate efforts to counteract by invasion of East Prussia.
She was successful to the extent of drawing to that section a number of
army corps that would otherwise have taken part in the Marne campaign.
These movements culminated in the battle of Tannenberg, commencing
August 26, 1914. Tannenberg is nearly one hundred miles southeast of
Konigsburg. This was the battle that gave General Von Hindenburg his
fame. He was a native of East Prussia, and acquainted with the country,
but had lived in retirement for some years. Appointed to command, he
made such a skillful disposition of his troops that the Russian army was
virtually annihilated, less than one corps escaped by headlong flight.
According to German authority, 70,000 Russians were captured. General
Von Hindenburg was acclaimed the greatest soldier of the day, and was
immediately appointed field marshal in command of all the German forces
in the east.
EVENTS OF 1915.
The year 1915 was one of meager results, the advantages remaining on the
side of the Central Powers, with this understanding, however: The Allies
were growing stronger because Great Britain was making rapid progress in
marshaling her resources for war. On the west front, the long, irregular
line of trenches, from Switzerland on the south to Ostend on the North
Sea, marking the German retreat after the battle of the Marne, remained
without substantial change. Do not understand there were no battles
along that extended line. Almost daily there were conflicts that in
former wars would have been given a place among the world's great
battles. They are scarcely worth mentioning in the annals of this war.
Back and forth across that narrow line surged the red tide without
decisive changes in position. There were attacks and counter-attacks of
the most sanguinary nature near Calais. The first instance of the use of
gas in war occurred in these battles, at the second battle of Ypres,
April 23, 1915.
ON THE EAST FRONT.
In spite of the great reverse at Tannenberg, Russia was not defeated.
Her armies in Galicia (Northeastern Hungary) were winning important
battles. A determined effort was made in 1915 by Germany to crush Russia
and thus retire her from the war. For days at a time, on the railroads
of East Germany, double headed trains were passing every fifteen
minutes, loaded with troops and munitions withdrawn from the western
front which accounts for the comparative quiet in that section, which in
turn gave Great Britain time to prepare in earnest. And so it was that
during a large part of 1915 Russia had to withstand the shock of war.
Russian soldiers were brave; her generals able, but the whole official
life was more or less corrupt.
The poison of German propaganda was at work. Her ammunition was totally
insufficient. Immense supplies made in France according to
specifications furnished by high officials in Russia did not fit the
guns they were intended to serve. There were already signs of the
approaching utter collapse of Russia as a world power, then more than a
year distant in time. In spite of these drawbacks we read of brilliant
but futile efforts of her poorly equipped army to stem the tide of
Teutonic success that soon began.
Before the close of the year Poland was entirely overrun by German
forces. It seemed for a time as if Petrograd itself must fall. In short,
it was thought that Russia was crushed. Then it was that the Kaiser
wrote to his sister, the Queen of Greece, "having crushed Russia, the
rest of Europe will soon tremble before me." But when 1915 ended a line
of trenches from Riga on the north to Czernowitz on the south still
guarded the frontiers of Russia.
THE DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN.
This campaign began in December, 1914, and continued during 1915. It was
an effort on the part of the Allies to force the Dardanelles, capture
Constantinople, and inflict a crushing blow on Turkey. This effort was a
dismal failure for the Allies, but had all the effect of a decisive
victory for Turkey and her allies. The fact that the attack was failing
had considerable to do with inducing Bulgaria to enter the war on the
side of Germany. The immediate result of this step on the part of
Bulgaria was the complete crushing of Serbia (October 6-December 2),
and this in turn made possible full and free railroad transportation
between Germany on the north and Turkey on the south. The net result was
to greatly strengthen the Teutonic allies. The conduct of Turkey in the
war was marked by most atrocious treatment of the Armenians. Belgium on
the north, Armenia on the south, are blood-stained chapters in the
annals of war.
EVENTS OF 1916.
Apparently believing that Russia was so badly crippled that she could
not again peril Austria-Hungary or wrest Poland from the grasp of
Germany, the latter country gathered her available resources for a
decisive, crushing blow in France. We have several times mentioned
Verdun. It is well to study its location on the map, about 130 miles
slightly north of east of Paris. It is a city of great historic
interest, beautifully located in the Meuse valley with its approach
defended by low-lying ranges of hills through which lead numerous
defiles. At this city, more than a thousand years ago, was concluded the
celebrated treaty of Verdun that settled the disputes between the
grandsons of Charlemagne, and this constitutes a landmark in the early
history of France.
It was Verdun that held back the southern end of the flail wherewith
France was to be crushed in 1914; in the battle of the Marne it held the
eastern or left wing of the long German line, which could not advance
and leave Verdun unsubdued in the rear. The German Crown Prince was in
command near Verdun. His ideal was Napoleon. His private library
contained nearly everything ever written about that great general. He
was exceedingly anxious to pose as the conqueror of France. To
strengthen his dynasty, the Kaiser was also anxious that his son should
take a prominent part. Accordingly it was planned to gather an enormous
army under his command, overwhelm Verdun and smash through to Paris.
Thus Prince Wilhelm would be enrolled among the great commanders of
history. Von Hindenburg was opposed to this plan, he wanted to finish up
his work so happily begun in Russia. But the Crown Prince had his way;
and immense supplies of guns, ammunition, and men were withdrawn from
the eastern front and massed at Verdun.
THE GREAT BATTLE OF VERDUN.
The annals of history record no battle approaching in duration,
artillery fire, and awful sacrifice than the battle that enveloped
Verdun for six months, beginning February 21, 1916. Other battles have
been fought along more extended fronts and thus engaged larger numbers
of troops; but none ever presented in a more acute form the issue of
national life or death. The stand of the heroic Greeks at Thermopylae
denying passage to the hosts of Persia was not more vital to the cause
of civilization than this storied defense of Verdun. The reflective
writer can but notice that in every campaign of the war, when further
success of the German armies meant victory, it was as if an unseen Power
decreed "thus far and no further." It was so at Verdun. The French
soldier, calmly going to death, chanting "They shall not pass," did not
die in vain.
THE BATTLE ITSELF.
The French were taken somewhat by surprise as they had not expected such
an early attack or that its fury would break at Verdun. Of course it was
known that a great force was being assembled, but no one dreamed of the
enormous concentration of guns of all kinds that were made. They
literally cumbered the ground and the shells assembled were in keeping.
The German generals were so confident of success that foreign
correspondents were invited to be present to witness the resistless
onslaught. The evening before the attack began there was a banquet at
the German headquarters, the Kaiser and all his notable generals (but
not Von Hindenburg) were present. The toast was "After four days,
Verdun; then Paris." They estimated that it would take possibly three
weeks to accomplish their ends. Evidently among the uninvited and unseen
guests were Defeat and Death.
The attack that commenced the next day lasted with but slight
interruptions until October. It is interesting to remark that more shot
and shell were used in this battle than the total used during the four
years of the Civil War in America on both sides. Verdun itself was
reduced to ruins. Considerable portions of the fortified area to the
north of Verdun were captured, including the important forts Douamont
and Vaux, but the entire attack failed. The minor successes achieved
were won with an appalling loss of life and were easily retaken by the
French later in the fall. Verdun was renamed by the German soldiers as
"The Grave," and such it truly was to the hopes of victory and peace
that inspired the toast at the Verdun banquet.
CONQUEST OF ROUMANIA.
Roumania is one of the Balkan States. Her entry into the second Balkan
war in 1913 was one of the decisive factors against Bulgaria. After the
entry of Bulgaria into the World War in 1915 the pressure became very
strong on Roumania by Russia to come into the war on the side of the
Allies. The summer of 1916 Russia had reorganized her forces, and the
war in the west was going against Germany at Verdun and along the Somme.
This was deemed an opportune time for Roumania to enter the war and so,
with no principles at stake, Roumania declared war on Austria, August
27, 1916. The response of Germany and Bulgaria to this new menace was
prompt and decisive. Before the end of the year Roumania was crushed,
the capital city, Bucharest, was taken. Roumania was not at all prepared
to wage war on the scale this war had assumed, but the immediate cause
of her easy conquest was the failure of Russia to keep her promises of
assistance. Russia, undermined by German intrigue, with traitors at
court, was already tottering to her fall.
EVENTS OF 1917.
The year 1917 witnessed startling changes in the grouping of the
belligerent powers. The three largest republics in the world--China,
Brazil, and the United States,--were drawn into the war on the side of
the Entente Allies. Other small nations, members of the Pan-American
Union, joined with the United States in this action. Other South
American nations showed their sympathy with the United States by
severing diplomatic relations with Germany. In Europe, Greece made a
formal declaration of war July 2, 1917. Thus all of the Balkan States
were finally involved. To complete the record, we must note that Siam in
Asia and Liberia in Africa also joined the Entente Allies. Never before
in history had there been such an alignment of nations for purposes of
war. It was significant of one thing,--growing resentment against what
had long been recognized as the criminal ambitions of Germany to
dominate the world.
THE UNITED STATES IN WAR.
April 6, 1917, will hereafter be one of the most important dates in the
annals of this republic. Then it was that Congress in a joint resolution
declared a state of war existed between the United States and Germany,
and authorized the President to employ the naval and military power of
our country to carry on the war and pledged all our resources to that
end. We can now see that the hidden currents of national destiny were
tending in an irresistible way to war on the part of the United States.
Every consideration of national safety and every principle that we hold
dear, demanded that we should respond to the call of the President to
arms. Then commenced the wonderful preparations for war on the part of
the United States. Official Germany in conversation with Minister
Gerard, before the rupture of diplomatic relations, laughed to scorn the
thought that the United States could render any military aid worth
considering to her allies. Germany in the fall of 1917 was not laughing.
THE COLLAPSE OF RUSSIA.
The collapse of Russia was the second great event of 1917. It was the
result of a long train of causes. Let it suffice to say that treachery
in high places backed by German propaganda, had undermined the
government. March 15, 1917, the storm broke. The utter overthrow of
autocratic rule in Russia was one of those explosive outbreaks, but few
of which have occurred in history. In a single day the old order of
government passed away never to return in Russia. It was a revolution as
thoroughgoing as its prototype, the French revolution of 1789, and it
soon developed equal scenes of horror. After some months of struggle,
the government of Russia passed under the control of the Bolsheviki and
anarchy followed, outdoing the scenes of the French commune. The
immediate effect on the war was to retire Russia from the conflict, thus
releasing a large army and its supplies for service elsewhere.
THE ITALIAN REVERSE.
Having achieved such signal successes in the east, Russia and Roumania
being both disposed of, the German leaders planned a campaign designed
to crush Italy. In the summer of 1917 the Italian front was along the
Isonza River in Austrian territory. The test of Italian endurance was at
hand. A great force of Austrians and Germans was assembled along the
river. As was usual in all Teutonic drives, endeavors were made by
propaganda work to break down the morale of the Italian troops. This
effort consisted in spreading fearsome accounts of the crushing nature
of the blow about to fall, the folly of further resistance, and the
advantages to be gained by accepting the generous terms of peace their
true friends--their former allies--were ready to grant. This effort had
an effect, but Italy was not Russia.
The drive began October 24th. It was a very pronounced Teutonic success,
though the great object of the drive was not achieved. In three weeks'
time the Italians were forced back from the Isonza to the Piava River
line; nearly 200,000 soldiers had been captured, together with immense
supplies of all kinds. But yet Italy was not crushed, the German forces
were firmly held along the Piava. We should reflect that in the World
War millions were engaged and the loss of one or even two hundred
thousand men did not mean the end of the war.
EVENTS OF 1918.
The Allies could only hope to defend their position on the west front
against the impending offensive on the part of Germany, for which
preparations on a vast scale were being made, until reinforcements from
the United States could reach them sufficient to enable them to take the
offensive in their turn. Germany hastened its preparations through the
winter months of 1917-18, for they knew they must win a decisive victory
to crush the armies of France and England before the United States could
give efficient assistance. It was a race between America and Germany,
and America won. With the assistance of the British and French merchant
marine and such shipping as could be procured at home the American
forces were landed in France in the most astonishing numbers ever
recorded. The fears of Germany, the hopes of the Allies were alike
exceeded by the forces sent across the ocean. The first of July, 1918,
there were one million American soldiers in France. They came just in
time to avert disaster.
GERMAN OFFENSIVE IN 1918.
The initiative was with Germany, and the German command selected the
British army in position along the Scarpe River, north of Cambria, to
the Oise River--a distance of sixty miles--as the object of the first
drive. The assault began the morning of March 21, 1918. Along the entire
front the artillery fire that opened the drive was on the scale never
before approached in war. More than one million men, the choicest troops
of Germany, were ready to assault the British lines and they came on,
wave after wave, and Germany came perilously near success in her efforts
to break through the British lines. The British were driven back beyond
the lines of the battle of the Somme in 1916, important towns were
captured, but their lines still held. The first phase of the great
battle--known in history as the battle of Picardy--was a defeat to
German hopes.
WHEN THE AMERICANS CAME.
From the opening of the great offense of March 21, 1918, to the signing
of the armistice, November 11, 1918, there were few days when there were
not battles raging at several places along the west front extending
from near Metz in a prolonged sweep, west to Rheims, thence in an
irregular curved line convex toward Paris curving to the North Sea near
Dixmude approximately 250 miles in length. There were days and weeks
when battles of great intensity raged at certain sections, then died
away in that vicinity to break in fury elsewhere. Organized efforts on a
large scale in certain directions were called drives. Until July the
initiative was with Germany, that is to say the Allies were on the
defensive. They were waiting for reinforcements from America. Germany
was making desperate efforts to win a decisive victory and force peace
on their terms before effective aid could arrive.
TWO HUNDRED AND FIFTY MILES OF BATTLE.
At this point try to realize what these statements imply. We do not
grasp their meaning. A battle front of two hundred and fifty miles! And
along that line at least ten million men were facing each other with
other millions in reserve. Trench lines were strung along most of the
front. Not simply one line of trenches, but several, with connecting
trenches, the opposing lines being at places only a few hundred yards
apart. As the struggle continued, however, it became more and more a war
in the open.
This series of struggles are undoubtedly the greatest exertion of
military power in the history of the world. Never before had such masses
of munitions been used; never before had scientific knowledge been so
drawn on in the service of war. Thousands of airplanes were patrolling
the air, sometimes scouting, sometimes dropping bombs on hostile troops
or on hostile stores, sometimes flying low, firing their machine guns
into the faces of marching troops. Thousands upon thousands of great
guns were sending enormous projectiles, which made great pits wherever
they fell. Swarms of machine guns were pouring their bullets like water
from a hose upon charging soldiers. It was an inferno such as Dante
never dreamed of. The Fifteen Decisive Battles of history of which we
have heard--all put together,--were exceeded day after day in the summer
of 1918 when Germany was making her last desperate effort. Thus for
weeks the red tide of war ebbed and flowed, while civilization trembled
in the balance.
UNIFIED COMMAND.
It was clearly seen by the Allied leaders that appointing a
generalissimo to command all their forces was a necessity. This command
was given to General Ferdinand Foch, who had won fame in the battle of
the Marne and who was recognized as one of the greatest strategists of
the day. Events soon demonstrated the wisdom of this step. No general
ever commanded such armies as he. Napoleon, Von Moltke, Grant and Lee
were great generals, but everything connected with this war was on a
scale never before approached, and we can say that the qualities of
leadership displayed by Marshal Foch were necessarily on a higher plane
of action--and we can say this without in the least detracting from the
just fame of other Allied commanders--as Pershing, Haig, Allenby, Diaz
and others. When the war opened, Germany had much to say about her
unconquerable army; her generals were supposed to be superior in a
military way to any others. The war showed that other soldiers were just
as brave, other generals just as able. The fetish of German military
invincibility was early overthrown.
AMERICAN ASSISTANCE.
No American can read the story of the part America took in the war
without experiencing a glow of patriotic feeling. Every Allied nation
can say the same thing. We came late into the struggle, but no nation in
history ever made such wonderful preparation for war as did our country
in the eighteen months that elapsed from the declaration of war to the
signing of the armistice. Our preparations in France, representing only
a part of our total effort, were on such an enormous scale, that neutral
nations--as Sweden and Spain--sent trusted officials to investigate if
it were possibly true that America was making such colossal
preparations; could it be that men by the hundreds of thousands were
disembarking on European soil every week? Were such forces drilled? Were
supplies sent them? It was almost unbelievable. Surely, it must be
American brag. They came, they saw, they departed convinced but in
bewildered wonderment. It was the slowly growing realization of what
this preparation meant that spurred Germany on during the early summer
of 1918. But it was too late. Already the handwriting of defeat was
outlining in letters of fire on the wall.
AGAIN THE MARNE.
May 27, 1918, the Germans opened a drive towards Paris. It resulted in a
deep bulge in the line from Rheims west to Soissons, once more the
German line in that section had reached the Marne. It was a time of
great anxiety in the Allied world. The German tide was rolling on about
seven miles a day toward Paris about fifty miles distant to the
southwest. The German commanders felt sure of success and were talking
about the "strong German peace" they would enforce. The war minister
assured the Reichstag that they must exact at least $50,000,000,000 as
indemnity, while their economic writers devised an elaborate plan
whereby all the trade of the world was to pay tribute to Germany. It
was another case of "Thus far and no farther."
CHATEAU THIERRY.
Chateau Thierry was a thriving city, about 6,000 in population, on the
Marne River, approximately 50 miles northeast of Paris. It is in a
fertile valley. There amid fields of ripening wheat the advancing troops
of Germany were suddenly confronted by American marines, hurried to the
scene of action in motor driven vehicles of all descriptions from Paris.
The forces that faced them, bent on forcing a passage to Paris were
composed of the best Prussian guards and shock troops. They felt
perfectly confident they could drive the Americans back. But the
amateurs went into the battle (the afternoon of June 2) as calmly as if
going to drill on the parade ground. Instead of being driven from the
field they repulsed the seasoned veterans of Germany. It was at a cruel
loss to themselves, 1,600 dead, 2,500 wounded out of 8,000 that came
from Paris on that journey of victory and death; but they never
faltered. This was not a battle of great dimensions but it is among the
most important battles of the war. It saved Paris; but that is not all.
When the news of that battle was flashed up and down the west front, not
an Allied force but was thrilled, enthused, given new courage; the
message that the Americans had stopped the Germans at Chateau Thierry,
electrified Paris. Strong men wept as they realized that the forces of
the Great Republic, able and brave, stood between France and the
ravening wolf of Germany.
OTHER VICTORIES.
In the limited space at our command we can only give a general
description of the remaining weeks of warfare in which American forces
participated. Before advancing at Chateau Thierry the Germans had
fortified their position in Belleau Woods which they had previously
occupied. In the black recesses of this woods they established nest
after nest of machine guns and in the jungle of matted underbrush, of
vines, of heavy foliage they had placed themselves in a position they
believed impregnable. The battle of Chateau Thierry was not rendered
secure until the Germans were driven from Belleau Woods. And so for the
next three weeks the battle of Belleau Woods raged. Fighting day after
day without relief, without sleep, often without water, and for days
without hot rations, the marines met and defeated the best divisions
Germany could throw into the line. According to official decree in
France the name of that woods is now "Woods of the American Brigade." In
September, came the wonderful work of reducing the St. Mihiel salient to
the south and to the east of Verdun, a German wedge that had withstood
every effort to drive it back for four years. We can only mention the
series of battles that took place in the Forest of the Argonne. When the
armistice was declared American forces had fought their way to Sedan.
That was the place that witnessed the deep humiliation of France in the
war of 1870 with which the German Empire began. Germany was only saved
from a deeper humiliation near Sedan in this war that ended that empire,
by the prompt signing of the armistice.
THE DOWNFALL OF TURKEY.
We must notice even in a hurried review of the war the downfall of
Turkey, the release of ancient Mesopotamia, Palestine, and large parts
of Asia Minor, and freeing the ancient Christian nation of Armenia from
the dreadful despotism of Turkish misrule. It is impossible to go into
the details of the successive movements leading to this happy result.
The forces of Great Britain, under command of General Maud, later
General Allenby, must be given the credit. We must not forget that
Mesopotamia was the cradle land of early civilization. There are the
plains of Shinar, there are the ruins of Babylon and Nineveh. Now, that
Turkish rule has been overthrown, we may look to see that entire country
once more a scene of smiling fertility.
And consider the case of Palestine, the land of Biblical history, the
home of Abraham, and the scene of Old Testament activities; finally
there is the land forever hallowed by the ministrations of Jesus of
Nazareth. It was the goal of the religious wars of the Crusades. For
more than six centuries it groaned under Turkish misrule. The tide of
British success began in 1917. In December of that year (9th) Jerusalem
was taken by the British forces under command of General Allenby. During
1918 all Palestine was freed. September 20, 1918, Nazareth, the boyhood
home of Jesus, was taken. The future of Palestine with its wealth of
Biblical history is a wonderful theme for contemplation. Given the
blessings of a twentieth century government there is no reason why
Palestine should not once more become a land "flowing with milk and
honey."
THE APPROACHING END.
The ending of the war was almost as dramatically sudden as its
beginning. As late as July 15, 1918, according to statements of German
leaders, they still believed they were to be successful; less than four
months later at Senlis, France, their representatives signed an
armistice, the terms of which were the most drastic and humiliating ever
inflicted on a prominent nation; while the Kaiser and Crown Prince had
fled for safety to Holland, a nation they had asserted existed only by
the long sufferance of Germany. Before the fatal day (November 11,
1918) of the armistice--like the falling of a house of cards--had
occurred a succession of abject surrenders, as one by one of the nations
composing the Teutonic Alliance had fallen before the crushing blows of
the Entente forces.
The middle of July the great German offensive was held. It was expected
by the German leaders that, as in the past, there would now ensue a
period of comparative quiet along the west front during which Germany
could rearrange her forces, perhaps to open an attack elsewhere. Marshal
Foch--ably seconded by General Pershing and General Haig--thought
differently. There were one million American soldiers on the fighting
line, other millions were coming, Great Britain had thrown into France
her reserve army held in England to meet unforeseen emergencies. Then
was the time to begin a counter-attack. Accordingly, just as a German
official was explaining to the Reichstag that General Foch had no
reserves to withstand a fresh onslaught that Germany would soon
begin,--the blow fell. A great counter-attack was initiated by the
French and Americans along the Marne-Aisne front July 18, 1918.
THE ALLIES TAKE THE INITIATIVE.
From that day to the signing of the armistice the initiative remained
with General Foch. Up and down the long line, now here, now there; the
British and Belgians on the north, the French and Americans on the
south, first one, then the other, then together, the Allies drove
forward with hammer blows on the yielding German armies. That subtle
force, so hard to define, the morale of the invaders, was broken down.
Their confidence was gone. They knew they were defeated. The one hope of
their leaders was to get safely back to Germany, and soon a general
retreat was in progress. But to remove armies aggregating several
million men, with guns and supplies, from a contracted area, in the face
of a victorious and aggressive enemy, without the retreat degenerating
into a rout is almost impossible; it requires generalship of highest
order. Day by day the remorseless jaws of the Allied military machine,
hinged to the north of the Aisne,--British and Belgian forces on the
north, French in the center, Americans on the south and east,--were
closing, and when the American forces fought their way through the
Argonne to Sedan (forty miles northeast of Rheims) the case was
hopeless. Only the armistice saved Germany from the humiliation of a
surrender, on a scale vastly greater than the surrender of the French
armies near that same point in 1870.
THE COLLAPSE OF THE TEUTONIC ALLIES.
With Germany herself falling, it is not strange that the nations leagued
with her also went down to defeat. They had been almost forced into the
war by Germany; not one of them could carry on a war when deprived of
counsel and help from Germany. Only the threat of force kept Austria in
the war. As the counter-attack in France gained in force, as the retreat
continued, it was recognized on all hands that the end was approaching.
The will to war--the morale--was completely broken down; and so on every
side the Allied forces gained great victories with surprising ease.
Bulgaria was the first nation to surrender. This was the conclusion of a
succession of great victories beginning September 16, 1918, ending by
the surrender ten days later. The case with Turkey was hopeless after
Bulgaria fell. No reinforcements or supplies could reach them from
Germany. The English forces under General Allenby were carrying
everything before them. Turkey surrendered October 31, 1918.
Austria-Hungary was the third power to surrender. This came as the
culmination of one of the greatest drives of the war.
GREAT ITALIAN VICTORY.
In 1917--as we have seen,--Italy suffered a great reverse, losing
200,000 soldiers and immense supplies. In August, 1918, Austria renewed
the attack. In his proclamation to his soldiers, the Austrian commander
bade them remember "the white bread, the fat cattle, the wine" and
supplies they had won the year before. Surely as great rewards awaited
them this time, and learned professors assured them and the entire
nation that they belonged to a "conquering superior race" and so could
be confident of further victory. The drive was a "hunger offensive" on
the part of hard-pressed Austria. It was a dismal failure. It is
interesting to know that American airplanes, piloted by Americans,
rendered great assistance in repulsing this attack. Then came the
counter-attack. In this drive American forces assisted. The drive began
October 27th; it was attended by a series of most astonishing victories.
The drive culminated in the abject surrender of Austria, November 3,
1918. The victories can only be explained by the fact that the morale of
the Austrian troops had completely broken down, more than 500,000
prisoners being taken, together with enormous supplies.
THE GERMAN ARMISTICE.
With their armies perilously near rout on the western front, with a
great military disaster confronting them, with everyone of her allies
forced to surrender, with revolution threatening at home, there was
nothing left for Germany to do but to make the best terms possible.
Their commissioners met General Foch at Senlis and the drastic
armistice terms were signed at 5 o'clock, Paris time, the morning of
November 11, 1918, and the last shots in the war were fired at 11
o'clock, that forenoon, Paris time. The war had lasted (from the date of
the declaration of war on Serbia) four years, three months and thirteen
days. On subsequent pages we shall consider more in detail this
skeletonized story, study the enormous political, geographic and
economic changes it has necessitated, and mentally view the new age in
history at hand.
[Illustration: PRESIDENT WOODROW WILSON.
President Wilson's latest photograph.]
[Illustration: GENERAL JOHN J. PERSHING.
This is the latest and best photograph of General Pershing.]
[Illustration: MARSHAL FERDINAND FOCH.
This is the latest photograph of Marshal Ferdinand Foch, Supreme
Commander of the Allied Armies, as he appears since the termination of
the war. A comparison of this photograph with earlier ones shows the
effect of the war on the famous general.]
[Illustration: Showing the actual drafting by the Allied
Plenipotentiaries of the armistice terms which ended the great world
war. Left side of table from left to right: second man, General di
Robilant; Italian Foreign Minister Sonnino; Italian Premier Orlando;
Colonel Edward H. House; General Tasker H. Bliss; next man unknown;
Greek Premier Venizelos, and Serbian Minister Vesnitch. Right side of
the table from left to right: Admiral Wemyss (with back turned); General
Sir Henry Wilson; Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig; General Sackville
West; Andrew Bonar Law; British Premier Lloyd George; French Premier
Georges Clemenceau, and French Foreign Minister, Stephen Pichon.]
[Illustration: SENLIS, FRANCE, WHERE THE ARMISTICE WAS SIGNED.
Amid the ruins wrought by the Huns the envoys of Germany signed the
truce terms that victoriously ended the struggle for democracy.]
[Illustration: FAMOUS FIGHTERS--"THE BLACK WATCH."
Some of the best fighters in the British Army, resting by the roadside
after having driven the Germans back in the "Fight of the Woods," near
Rheims.]
[Illustration: CLERKS IN NAVY DEPARTMENT.
Washington, D.C.]
[Illustration: FIRST COLORED BATTALION, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, NATIONAL
GUARD.
On Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D.C., Parading the National Capital
before going to France.]
[Illustration: SERGT. HENRY JOHNSON, OF ALBANY, N.Y., THE OUTSTANDING
HERO.
Single-handed he routed 36 Huns, killing 4 of them and wounding the
remainder. When his ammunition ran out he used a bolo knife. Sergt.
Johnson, of the 369th Colored Infantry (old 15th of N.Y.), was the first
man in his regiment to win the French War Cross.]
[Illustration: GROUP OF 369TH COLORED INFANTRY WITH THEIR WAR CROSSES.
One hundred and sixty-nine men of this regiment (old 15th N.Y.) won
valor medals. They were nicknamed "Hell Fighters." Top--Fred Rogers.
Lower row--George Chapman, Lawrence McVey, Isaac Freeman. Upper row--Wm.
Bunn, Herbert Mills, Hugh Hamilton, Clarence Johnson.]
[Illustration: COL. HAYWARD AND GROUP OF REAL FIGHTERS.
All winners of the Croix de Guerre. When a French general gave orders to
retire, Col. Hayward replied: "My men never retire: they go forward or
die, and we are going through here or hell. We don't go back."]
[Illustration: LIEUTENANT ROBERT S. CAMPBELL, U.S. ARMY.
The first man in the 92nd American Division (Negroes) to receive the
distinguished service cross for bravery in the fighting in the Argonne.
He was a member of Co. I, 368th Infantry.]
[Illustration: GUARDING THE FLAG.
The flag of the old 15th (decorated by the French) and Old Glory.]
[Illustration: AT THE Y.M.C.A. ON FRENCH FRONT.
This group of soldiers is being served at a "Y" tent.]
[Illustration: NEGRO SOLDIERS ON THE MARCH IN FRANCE.
Along this beautiful stream it was tramp, tramp, tramp the soldiers were
marching on to do their duty and help bring the victory which meant
"World Peace."]
[Illustration: HOME AGAIN. OH, HOW JOYFUL!
Back from France, and what a grand reception awaited them! Conquering
heroes on the battlefield and the warmth and enthusiasm over their
homecoming are beyond words to describe.]