In 1818 Faraday showed that the inhalation of the vapour of ether

produced anaesthetic effects similar to those of nitrous oxide; and

this property of ether was also shown by the American physicians,

John D. Godman (1822), James Jackson (1833), Wood and Bache (1834).

These observations, however, appear to have been regarded

in the light of mere scientific curiosities and subjects for

lecture- room experiment, rather than as facts capable of

being applied practically in the treatment of disease, till

December 1844, when Dr Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford,

Connecticut, underwent in his own person the operation

of tooth-extraction while rendered insensible by nitrous

oxide. Satisfied, from further experience, that teeth could

be extracted in this way without pain, Dr Wells proposed

to establish the practice of painless dentistry under the

influence of the gas; but in consequence of an unfortunate

failure in an experiment at Boston he abandoned the project.

On the 30th of September 1846 Dr W. T. G. Morton, a dentist

of Boston, employed the vapour of ether to procure general

anaesthesia in a case of tooth-extraction, and thereafter

administered it in cases requiring surgical operation with

complete success. This great achievement marked a new era in

surgery. Operations were performed in America in numerous

instances under ether inhalation, the result being only to

establish more firmly its value as a successful anaesthetic.

The news of the discovery reached England on the 17th of December

1840. On the 19th of December Mr Robinson, a dentist in

London, and on the 21st Robert Liston, the eminent surgeon,

operated on patients anaesthetized by ether; and the practice

soon became general both in Great Britain and on the continent.

Sir James Simpson was the first to apply anaesthesia by

ether to midwifery practice; this he did in 1847, and

found that the pains of labour could be abolished without

interference with uterine contractions or injury to the

child. On the 8th of March 1847 M. J. P. Flourens read a

paper before the Academie des Sciences on the effect of

chloroform on the lower animals, but no notice was taken

of what has since proved to be a discovery of epoch-making

importance. In November of the same year Simpson announced

his discovery of the anaesthetic properties of chloroform, the

trial of which had been suggested to him by Waldie, a chemist of

Liverpool. As the result, chloroform came to be widely used

instead of ether, though it was found by several casualties

that it was not the absolutely safe anaesthetic that had

at first been hoped. It, however, remained the drug that

was chiefly used till Dr J. T. Clover (1825-1882) of London

introduced his regulating ether-inhaler in 1876, embodying

a new principle--that of limiting the quantity of air during

etherization and regulating the strength of the vapour.

During the intervening period, as the results of the labours of

John Snow, Sir Benjamin Ward Richardson, Thomas Nunnely, and Colton

amongst others, several drugs were found to possess anaesthetic

properties. Of these one, ethyl chloride, which was speedily

given up, has come into deserved prominence at the present time;

and another, nitrous oxide, which had been lost sight of since

Wells's failure at Boston, was reintroduced, and it became and

has remained the most popular anaesthetic in dental practice.

Since 1876 no new drugs have been introduced; the progress

has been in the direction of improvements in the technique of

anaesthetization. The most important of these is the

administration of oxygen with nitrous oxide, resulting from

the recognition of the fact that this drug does not owe its

anaesthetic properties to partial asphyxia, as was thought

till the contrary was shown by Edmund Andrews of Chicago in

1868. It was not till twenty years later that this knowledge

was put to practical use, when F. W. Hewett introduced

his regulating stopcock, which enabled the anaesthetist to

exhibit the nitrous oxide and oxygen in such proportions as

were demanded by the patient's condition. At the present

time the anaesthetics in common use are the following:--

(1) Nitrous oxide gas, or laughing gas, N2O. This is a

colourless, odourless gas, which for convenience is carried

about in liquid form in iron cylinders. When about to be used,

it is allowed to escape into a large rubber bag, connected

with a closely- fitting face-piece, which covers up the nose

and mouth, and allows of inspiration only from the bag of

gas, expiration being into the air. When thus given the

patient is exposed to a certain degree of asphyxia. This

asphyxia is not only not necessary but is harmful, and may

be obviated by giving oxygen in small amounts simultaneously

by means of Hewett's regulating stopcock. This drug is used

chiefly for dental operations, and for minor surgery where

absolute muscular relaxation is not required. When mixed

with oxygen, it can he given if necessary for an hour or

longer. It has an induction period of a few breaths only,

and the recovery is as a rule unaccompanied by excitement or

nausea. It is also used as a preliminary to ether; the gas

is given till unconsciousness is reached, the unpleasant

taste of the ether being thus avoided and the induction

period shortened. The mortality from nitrous oxide is

small, and from the gas and oxygen in expert hands nil.

(2) Ethyl chloride, C2H5Cl, a colourless liquid of a pleasant

odour, boiling at 12.5 deg. C. It is used in the same class

of operations as the last anaesthetic. It is best given in

an apparatus that consists of a mask closely adapted to the

face, and a rubber bag of small capacity, with which is

connected the bottle containing the ethyl chloride. The vapour

supplied from the bottle is breathed backwards and forwards

from the bag, fresh air being admitted in small quantities

only. The period of induction is shorter than in the case of

nitrous oxide, the patient losing consciousness in two or three

breaths; the stage of recovery is not so uniformly pleasant,

headache, nausea and vomiting occurring not infrequently.

It is difficult at present to estimate the mortality, as

it has only recently come into general use, but it seems to

occupy an intermediate position between ether and chloroform.

(3) Ether, or ethyl oxide, (C2H5)2O, a colourless, volatile

liquid, boiling at 36.5 deg. C. It has a pungent odour. It is best

administered, as in the case of ethyl chloride, by limiting the

amount of air during inhalation. The induction is much slower

than in the case of the last two drugs, and it is accompanied

by a feeling of suffocation, owing to the pungent odour of the

ether. On that account the anaesthetic is best started with

nitrous oxide or ethyl chloride. The recovery is always

marked by some nausea and very frequently by vomiting. The

mortality is small during the actual operation, but fatalities

from respiratory complications later on are not uncommon.

(4) Chloroform, CHCl3, a colourless liquid of a penetrating

odour, boiling at 63 deg. C. It is administered in such a way

as to ensure the free admixture of air. To secure this

the face-piece must be loosely-fitting, and the strength of

the vapour so gradually increased that the patient is never

inconvenienced or impelled to hold the breath. The induction

is slow, occupying two or more minutes, but it is not at all

unpleasant; nausea and vomiting during recovery are rarer

than in the case of ether, but if they do occur they last

longer. The mortality on the table is about 1 in 2500.

The question as to which is the better anaesthetic, ether

or chloroform, for long operations, is a moot point. In

the hands of an experienced anaesthetist there is probably

nothing to choose as regards safety, and the anaesthetic

advantages of the latter are incontestable. In the hands of

the less-experienced anaesthetist, ether is the more suitable

drug. At the extremes of life, chloroform is well taken,

as it is also by women in labour, and it is indicated where

there has been recent inflammation of the air passages. In

operations, too, about the mouth, chloroform must be the drug

used, as a closely-fitting mask is obviously impossible.

The introduction by inhalation of any of the above drugs into

the organism produces an anaesthesia, the degree of which at

any moment varies directly as the amount or tension of the

vapour in the blood, and therefore also as the tension of

the vapour in the inspired air. The organism in this case

may be compared to an electric lamp, of which the voltage

is, say 100; a current of any less voltage will only produce

a red heat, however many amperes are forced through; with

the voltage at 100 the filament will be white hot, at over

100 the filament will fuse. So with these drugs: with the

vapour at a low tension a certain low depth of anaesthesia

is obtained; if the administrator increases the tension,

true surgical anaesthesia is produced; if he increases it

again, the filament fuses and the patient dies. This is the

principle which guides the anaesthetist; it is the quality of

the vapour that decides the depth of the anaesthesia, not the

quantity. An infinite quantity of chloroform may be absorbed

with impunity if the tension be low, but a few drops will

kill if the tension be high. For practical purposes four

degrees of anaesthesia are described, through which a patient

passes from unconsciousness to (in the last resort) death:--

(1) A state of disordered consciousness, with analgesia;

the patient's ideas are confused, the special senses are

disturbed, and though the application of stimuli to the

skin causes no mental impression, yet in response to

them there may be what look like purposeful movements.

(2) In the second stage there is complete loss of consciousness;

and though the reflexes persist, the movements in response to

the stimuli are purposeless. The muscles generally act strongly.

(3) The stage of surgical anaesthesia; there is a

general muscular relaxation, with the loss of many of the

reflexes, i.e. an operation may be performed without

evoking any movement on the part of the patient, while

the vital reflexes and the vital centres in the medulla

are still active, and the heart muscle is not paralysed.

(4) Finally, the stage of paralysis of the medulla, when

the respiratory and circulatory centres are paralysed,

and the heart muscle itself is poisoned and death ensues.

The aim of the anaesthetist is to keep the patient in the

third degree of anaesthesia, thus avoiding the movements

of the second and the dangers of the fourth; he therefore

keeps the patient under close observation, and by watching

the respiration, pulse and facial aspect, is able to judge

the condition of the respiration and circulation. He has

a further guide in the lid- reflex, i.e. the movement of

the eyelid when the globe is touched; this and the size of

the pupil tell him to what extent the central nervous system

is depressed and complete the information he requires.

It will have been observed that the administration of

the above drugs is by inhalation, and has to be continued

throughout the operation, the reason being that all the drugs

are as rapidly excreted as they are absorbed, especially

by the lungs, and therefore no other method would be of any

avail. That there are drugs which are sufficiently slowly

eliminated to allow of an operation being performed between

the moment of induction and that of recovery, cannot be

doubted, and their discovery and use can only be a matter of

time. Even at the present time there is one, urethane,

which, if injected with a hypodermic needle, soon produces

a profound general anaesthesia. It has only been used

on the lower animals, as its depressing effect on the

respiratory centre contra-indicates its use in human beings.

Local Anaesthesia.--Much attention has recently been devoted

to the discovery of methods by which the insensibility may be

confined to the area of operation and the loss of consciousness

avoided. Such a procedure has been common for many years

for small operations, but it is only lately that it has

been successfully applied to the severer ones. It is very

doubtful whether local anaesthesia will ever replace general

in the latter class. Though the preliminary starvation is

avoided, and the patient has the shock of operation alone to

recover from, without the cardiac depression resulting from

the anaesthetic during the operation, the patient, unless

of a very apathetic temperament, is in that state of severe

nervous strain, when any unexpected movement or remark, or

sight of a soiled instrument, may produce an alarming or fatal

syncope. The earliest local anaesthetic was cold, produced

by a mixture of ice and salt. In place of this cumbersome

method, the skin is now frozen by means of a fine spray of

ether or ethyl chloride directed upon it. The spraying is

discontinued when the skin becomes white, and it is then

allowed to regain its colour. The moment this occurs the

incision is made and will be quite painless. The recovery,

like that from any other frost-bite, is very painful, and

the time during which an operation can be done is very short;

consequently this method has been very largely superseded by

the use of drugs. The drugs chiefly used are cocaine and its

derivatives. Cocaine has by far the highest anaesthetic

properties; it is, however, in certain individuals a most

powerful cardiac depressant and has caused numerous fatalities,

and further, it cannot be sterilized by heat, as it undergoes

decomposition. Eucaine has now largely taken its place,

though its anaesthetic properties are less; it is, however,

less toxic, and can be sterilized by heat. In combination

with these drugs there is usually given some of the extract

of the suprarenal body of the sheep; this substance increases

and prolongs the anaesthetic effect by constricting the

blood-vessels, the result of which is to reduce the haemorrhage,

and also to prevent the too rapid absorption of the drug into

the general system, confining it to the area of operation.

The chief methods of bringing about local anaesthesia are as follows:--

(1) Painting or spraying a solution of the drugs

on to the area on which it is proposed to operate.

(2) Injection by means of a needle of the

solution into the skin and the deeper structures.

(3) Spinal analgesia. The method of inducing analgesia by injecting

solutions into the sheath surrounding the spinal cord was devised

by Bier in 1898, and for the purpose he employed a solution of

cocaine. It was found, however, that there was considerable

danger with this drug, so the method was not adopted to any

great extent, until Fourneau discovered stovaine in 1904.

The principle involved in spinal anaesthesia is this: that a

substance in solution is injected into the sac containing the

spinal cord in the lumbar region. The spinal cord as such

ends at the level of the first lumbar vertebra in a leash of

nerves termed the cauda equina. When giving an injection

there is little danger of injuring these nerves because in

this situation there is a space filled with fluid between the

wall of the sac and the nerves. The substances injected, by

virtue of their specific action on nervous tissues, cause loss

of painful sensations in the lower limbs and for a variable

distance up the trunk. It has been found that the specific

gravity of the solution injected has some influence on the

height to which the analgesia will extend up the trunk, and this

distance can also be controlled by altering the position of the

patient. The canal in which the cord is situated is not a

straight tube, but is curved backwards in the sacral and upper

dorsal regions, and forwards in the lower dorsal and lumbar

regions. Therefore with the patient lying on his back, any

solution injected that has a greater specific gravity than

that of the cerebrospinal fluid which bathes the cord, tends

to gravitate towards the sacral and upper dorsal regions;

and, conversely, any solution of lower specific gravity than

that of the cerebrospinal fluid tends to rise and produce

analgesia at a still higher level. In this way the situation

of the fluid producing analgesia can be controlled to some

extent. It has been found that a very serious danger exists

if the solution passes up to the brain, or even if it passes

higher than the sixth cervical nerve. It is important that

the osmotic pressure of the solutions employed should be as

nearly as possible that of the cerebrospinal fluid, that is to

say, the nearer the solution is isotonic with the cerebrospinal

fluid, the better will be the analgesia, and the less will

be the harmful effects. At present it has not been found

possible to separate in any of the substances employed the

radicle which produces motor effects from that which blocks

the advent of sensory stimuli. Although both effects last

only a short time there seems to be a certain risk due to

the temporary muscular paralysis, and in a patient with a

tendency to bronchitis this is a matter of considerable moment.

The fluid is injected in the following manner. A puncture

is made with a special trocar and canula in the lumbar region

between the second and third or third and fourth lumbar

spines. The sheath of the sac having been entered, as is

evidenced by the loss of resistance to the point of the

trocar, and by the fact that cerebrospinal fluid escapes

when the trocar is withdrawn, the dose of the fluid selected

is injected through the canula, which is then withdrawn.

An important point is that the operation must be absolutely

aseptic; great care is taken to sterilize thoroughly the

instruments, site of operation and fluid used. The patient

is placed in that position which will yield the best and

safest analgesia for the operation; it is essential, however,

that the patient's head be raised well above the level of the

spine. The injection is followed very quickly, generally

within three to five minutes, by the production of analgesia,

which lasts for a period varying from half an hour to two

hours. Various substances have been used for the injection,

of which the following are the chief --tropacocaine, stovaine,

novocaine, cocaine, eucaine and alypin. All of these have

been combined with adrenalin hydrochloride with a view to

limiting their action in one degree or another; and also

with other inert substances in such quantity as will produce

isotonic solutions of relatively high specific gravity.

The points in favour of this method of producing analgesia are

as follows: (a) The patient is not rendered unconscious, and

is often able to assist at his own operation, such as by coughing

or moving his limbs in any way as may be desired. (b) There

are no troublesome after-effects, such as nausea, vomiting and

thirst. (c) The formation of haematoma is less frequent. (d)

Surgical shock is considerably lessened, especially in such

operations as amputations and severe abdominal emergencies.

(e) The risk attending a general anaesthetic is avoided.

The disadvantages at present attending the method are:

(a) A severe form of headache may sometimes follow, but

this has seemed to depend on the kind of fluid injected,

and in the recent cases has not been so frequent as in the

early ones. (b) The paralysis of muscles. In a very few

cases this has been permanent. The temporary paralysis of

the muscles of respiration is apt to be a serious matter.

(c) Occasionally incontinence of urine and faeces occurs;

this, however, has not been permanent except in a few of the

earlier cases. (d) The uncertainty of the method, so that

the analgesia is not always as complete as is desirable.

(e) The analgesia for safety must be limited to a line

below the level of the second rib in front. (f) The use of

the Trendelenburgh position is impossible, or indeed the use

of any position which involves lowering the patient's head.

It would appear that the method undoubtedly has its uses, and that

it will take its place in surgery and find its proper level. A

large amount of work is being done on the subject, with a view

of determining the limitations and possibilities of the method,

the best kind of substance to use and the proper dose to employ.

Finally, a large number of operations have been performed under

a local anaesthesia produced by hypnotism (q.v.), but this

is a method that can only be used on selected cases. (H. C. C.)

ANAGNIA [mod. Anagni; pop. (1901) 10,059], an ancient

town of the Hernici, situated on a hill (1558 ft.) above the

valley of the Trerus and the Via Labicana (the post-station

3 m. below the town, from which a branch road ascended to

it, was Compitum Anagninum, which was 40 m. E.S.E. of Rome:

see T. Ashby, in Papers of the British School at Rome, i.

215). In 1880 a pre-Aryan grave was found between the town

and the river, with a skeleton painted red, stone implements

and a bronze dagger. After the Italian immigration, its

position in a fertile district soon gave it importance,

and it became the seat of the assembly of the Hernican

towns. In the War of 306 B.C. it was conquered by Q.

Marcius Tremulus and lost its independence. Its inhabitants

had certainly acquired Roman citizenship before the Social

War and it continued to be a municipium throughout the Roman

period. It was besieged by the Saracens in 877, but in the

11th century was a place of considerable importance, the

Conti and Gaetani being the chief families; Pope Boniface

VIII., a member of the latter, was there made prisoner in

1303. The ancient city walls are in some points still

existing, in others they have been much restored; they are

built of rectangular blocks of porous limestone about 1 1/2ft.

high. On the north of the town they are especially

well-preserved, and at one point the area within them is

slightly extended by a terrace supported by three lofty

pillars. Within the city there are no ancient remains, except

some massive substruction walls which supported buildings on the

hillside. The present town still preserves in parts its

medieval aspect. The cathedral, constructed in 1074 at the

summit of the hill, is externally plain; it has a fine Gothic

interior, somewhat spoilt by restoration, with a good Cosmati

pavement, and a canopy and paschal candlestick in the same

style. The crypt contains frescoes of the 13th century,

and in the treasury are valuable vestments. Lower down

is the Palazzo Civico, belonging to the 11th or early 12th

century, which is supported on arches of a single span, under

which the road passes. Its posterior facade is fine. Pope

Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspeare) died here, and there is

a chapel of St Thomas Becket in the crypt of the cathedral.

See L. Pigorini, in Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana (1880,

8 seq.); J. Kulakowski, in Atti del Congresso Internazionale

di Scienze Storiche (Rome, 1904), v. 673 seq. (T. As.)

ANAGRAM (Gr. ana, back, and grafein, to write), the

result of transposing the letters of a word or words in such

a manner as to produce other words that possess meaning. The

construction of anagrams is an amusement of great antiquity,

its invention being ascribed without authority to the Jews,

probably because the later Hebrew writers, particularly the

Kabbalists, were fond of it, asserting that ``secret mysteries

are woven in the numbers of letters.'' Anagrams were known to

the Greeks and also to the Romans, although the known Latin

examples of words of more than one syllable are nearly all

imperfect. They were popular throughout Europe during the

middle ages and later, particularly in France, where a certain

Thomas Billon was appointed ``anagrammatist to the king''

by Louis XIII. W. Camden (Remains, 7th ed., 1674) defines

``Anagrammatisme'' as ``a dissolution of a name truly written

into his letters, as his elements, and a new connection of it

by artificial transposition, without addition, subtraction or

change of any letter, into different words, making some perfect

sence applyable to the person named.'' Dryden disdainfully

called the pastime the ``torturing of one poor word ten

thousand ways,'' but many men and women of note have found

amusement in it. A well-known anagram is the change of Ave

Maria, gratia plena, Dominus tecum into Virgo serena, pia,

munda et immaculata. Among others are the anagrammatic

answer to Pilate's question, ``Quid est veritas''--namely,

``Est vir qui adest''; and the transposition of ``Horatio

Nelson'' into ``Honor est a Nilo''; and of ``Florence

Nightingale'' into ``Flit on, cheering angel.'' James I.'s

courtiers discovered in ``James Stuart'' ``A just master,''

and converted ``Charles James Stuart'' into ``Claimes Arthur's

seat.'' ``Eleanor Audeley,'' wife of Sir John Davies, is said

to have been brought before the High Commission in 1634 for

extravagances, stimulated by the discovery that her name could

be transposed to ``Reveale, O Daniel,'' and to have been laughed

out of court by another anagram submitted by the dean of the

Arches, ``Dame Eleanor Davies,'' ``Never soe mad a ladie.''

There must be few names that could furnish so many anagrams

as that of ``Augustus de Morgan,'' who tells that a friend

had constructed about 800 on his name, specimens of which

are given in his Budget of Paradoxes, P. 82. The pseudonyms

adopted by authors are often transposed forms, more or less

exact, of their names; thus ``Calvinus'' becomes ``Alcuinus'';

``Francois Rabelais,'' ``Alcofribas Nasier''; ``Bryan Waller

Proctor,'' ``Barry Cornwall, poet''; ``Henry Rogers,'' ``R.

E. H. Greyson,'' &c. It is to be noted that the last two

are impure anagrams, an ``r'' being left out in both cases.

``Telliamed,'' a simple reversal, is the title of a well

known work by ``De Maillet.'' The most remarkable pseudonym

of this class is the name ``Voltaire,'' which the celebrated

philosopher assumed instead of his family name, ``Francois

Marie Arouet,'' and which is now generally allowed to be an

anagram of ``Arouet, l.j.,'' that is, Arouet the younger.

Perhaps the only practical use to which anagrams have been

turned is to be found in the transpositions in which some of

the astronomers of the 17th century embodied their discoveries

with the design apparently of avoiding the risk that, while

they were engaged in further verification, the credit of what

they had found out might be claimed by others. Thus Galileo

announced his discovery that Venus had phases like the moon in

the form, ``Haec immatura a me jam feustra leguntur--oy,''

that is, ``Cynthiae figuras aemulatur Mater Amorum.''

Another species of anagram, called ``palindrome'' (Cr. palin,

back, and dromos, running), is a word or sentence which

may be read backwards as well as forwards, letter by letter,

while preserving the same meaning; for example, the words

``Anna,'' ``noon,'' ``tenet,'' or the sentence with which Adam

is humorously supposed to have greeted Eve: ``Madam, I'm Adam!''

A still more complicated variety is the ``logogram'' (Gr.

logos, word), a versified puzzle containing several

words derived from recombining the letters of the original

word, the difficulty lying in the fact that synonyms of the

derived words may be used. Thus, if the original word be

``curtain,'' the word ``dog'' may be used instead of ``cur.''

ANAH, or `ANA, a town on the Euphrates, about mid-way

between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Persian Gulf. It

is called Hanat in a Babylonian letter (about 2200 B.C.),

and An-at by the scribe of Assur-nasir-pal (879 B.C.),

'Anatho (Isidore Charax), Anatha (Ammianus Marcellinus) by

Greek and Latin writers in the early Christian centuries,

`ANA (sometimes, as if plural, `Anat) by Arabic

writers. The name has been connected with that of the deity

Anat. Whilst `Ana has thus retained its name for forty-one

centuries the site is variously described. Most early writers

concur in placing it on an island; so Assurnasir-pal, Isidore,

Ammianus Marcellinus, Ibn Serapion, al- Istakri, Abulfeda and

al-Karamani. Ammianus (lib. 24, c. 2) calls it a

munimentum, Theophylactus Simocatta (iv. 10, v. 1, 2) to

'Anathon frourion, Zosimus (iii. 14) a frourion, opp.

Fathusai, which may be the Beth(th)ina of Ptolemy (v. 19).1

Leonhart Rauwolff, in A.D. 1574, found it ``divided . .

. into two towns,'' the one ``Turkish,'' ``so surrounded by

the river, that you cannot go into it but by boats,'' the

other, much larger, on the Arabian side of the river.2 G.

A. Olivier in the beginning of the 19th century describes

it as a long street (5 or 6 m. long), parallel to the right

bank of the Euphrates--some 100 yards from the water's edge

and 300 to 400 paces from the rocky barrier of the Arabian

desert--with, over against its lower part, an island

bearing at its north end the ruins of a fortress (p. 451).

This southernmost town of Mesopotamia proper (Gezira)

must have shared the chequered history of that land (see

MESOPOTAMIA.) Of `Ana's fortunes under the early Babylonian

empire the records have not yet been unearthed; but in a letter

dating from the third millennium B.C., six men of Hanat

(Ha-na-atK1) are mentioned in a statement as to certain

disturbances which had occurred in the sphere of the Babylonian

Resident of Suhi, which would include the district of `Ana.

How `Ana fared at the hands of the Mitanni and others is

unknown. The suggestion that Amenophis (Amenhotep) I.

(16th century B.C.) refers to it is improbable; but we

seem to be justified in holding `Ana to be the town ``in

the middle of the Euphrates'' opposite (ina put) to which

Assur-nasir-pal halted in his campaign of 879 B.C. The

supposed reference to `Ana in the speech put into the mouth

of Sennacherib's messengers to Hezekiah (2 Kings xix. 13,

Is. xxxvii. 13) is exceedingly improbable. The town may be

mentioned, however, in four 7th century documents edited by C.

H. W. Johns.3 It was at'Ana that the emperor Julian met the

first opposition on his disastrous expedition against Persia

(363), when he got possession of the place and transported

the people; and there that Ziyad and Shureih with the

advanced guard of `Ali's army were refused passage across

the Euphrates (36/657) to join `Ali in Mesopotamia (Tabari i.

3261). Later `Ana was the place of exile of the caliph

Qaim (al-qaim bi-amr-illah) when Basisiri was in power

(450/1058.) In the 14th century `Ana was the seat of a

Catholicos, primate of the Persians (Marin Sanuto). In

1610 Della Valle found a Scot, George Strachan, resident

at `Ana (to study Arabic) as physician to the amir (i.

671-681). In 1835 the steamer ``Tigris'' of the English

Euphrates expedition went down in a hurricane just above

`Ana, near where Julian's force had suffered from a similar

storm. Della Valle described `Ana as the chief Arab town on the

Euphrates, an importance which it owes to its position on one

of the routes from the west to Bagdad; Texeira said that the

power of its amir extended to Palmyra (early 17th century);

but Olivier found the ruling prince with only twenty-five

men in his service, the town becoming more depopulated every

day from lack of protection from the Arabs of the desert.

Von Oppenheim (1893) reported that Turkish troops having

been recently stationed at the place, it had no longer to pay

blackmail (huwwa) to the Arabs. F. R. Chesney reported some

1800 houses, 2 mosques and 16 water-wheels; W. F. Ainsworth

(1835) reported the Arabs as inhabiting the N.W. part of the

town, the Christians the centre, and the Jews the S.E.;

Della Valle (1610) found some sun-worshippers still there.

Modern `Ana lies from W. to E. on the right bank along

a bend of the river just before it turns S. towards Hit,

and presents an attractive appearance. It extends, chiefly

as a single street, for several miles along a narrow strip

of land between the river and a ridge of rocky hills. The

houses are separated from one another by fruit gardens.

`Ana marks the boundary between the olive (N.) and the date

(S.). Arab poets celebrated its wine (Yuqut, iii. 593

f.), and Mustaufi (8/14th century) tells of the fame of its

palm-groves. In the river, facing the town, is a succession

of equally productive islands. The most easterly contains

the ruins of the old castle, whilst the remains of the

ancient Anatho extend from this island for about 2 m. down

the left bank. Coarse cloth is almost the only manufacture.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--in addition to the authorities cited above

may be mentioned: G. A. Olivier, Voyage dans l'empire

othoman, &c., iii. 450-459 (1807); Carl Ritter, Erdkunde

von Asien, vii. b., pp. 716- 726 (1844); W. F. Ainsworth,

Euphrates Expedition, i. 401-418 (1888). For a map see

sheet 5 of the atlas accompanying Chesney's work. (H. W. H.)

1 Steph. Byz. (sub Turos) says that Arrian calls Anatha Turos.

2 Texeira (1610) says that ``Anna'' lay on both

banks of the river, and so Della Valle (i. 671).

3 Ass. Deeds and Doc. nos. 23, 168, 228, 385.The

characters used are DIS TU, which may mean Ana-tu.

ANAHEIM, a city of Orange county, California, U.S.A., about 14

m. S.E. of Los Angeles, about 12 m. from the Pacific Ocean,

and about 3 m. from the Santa Ana river. (1900) 1456; (1910)

2628. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, and

the Southern Pacific railways. It lies in a fine fruit region,

in which oranges, lemons, apricots, grapes and walnuts are

raised. The plain on which it is laid out, now fertile and

well-watered, was originally an arid waste. Water for irrigation

is obtained from the Santa Ana river, about 15 m. above the

nearest point along the river to the city. The city itself

has an area of only 1 1/2 sq. m., and in 1908 the population

of the district, including that of the city, was estimated at

5000. The principal manufactures are dried and canned fruits,

wine, beer, and agricultural implements. Anaheim is of

particular interest as the earliest of various settlements in

southern California in which co-operation has made possible

the establishment of intensive fruit culture in semi-desert

regions. In 1857 fifty Germans (mostly mechanics) organized

in San Francisco the Los Angeles Vineyard Association and

bought 1165 acres of land here which could be irrigated from

the Santa Ana river; each member took possession of a 20

acre share only when gradual improvement had made everything

ready for occupancy and the tracts had been distributed by

lot, with bonuses or rebates to equalize them in value to

the drawers. This ended the co-operative feature of the

enterprise, which was never communistic except that its

irrigating canal remained common property. The settlement was

uninterruptedly successful, and was influential as a pioneer

experiment. Anaheim was incorporated as a town in 1870;

this incorporation was revoked in 1872; in 1878 the town was

incorporated again; and in 1888 Anaheim received a city charter.

ANAHUAC, a geographical district of Mexico, limited by the

traditional and vaguely defined boundaries of an ancient Indian

empire or confederation of that name previous to the Spanish

conquest. The word is said to signify ``country by the

waters'' in the old Aztec language; hence the theory that

Anahuac was located on the sea coast. One of the theories

relating to the location of Anahuac describes it as all the

plateau region of Mexico, with an area equal to three-fourths

of the republic, and extending between the eastern and

western coast ranges from Rio Grande to the isthmus of

Tehuantepec. A more exact description, however, limits it

to the great plateau valley in which the city of Mexico is

located, between 18 deg. 40' and 20 deg. 30' N. lat., about 200 m.

long by 75 m. wide, with an average elevation of 7500 ft.,

and a mean temperature of 62 deg. . The accepted meaning of the

name fits this region as well as any on the sea coast, as

the lakes of this valley formerly covered one-tenth of its

area. The existence of the name in southern Utah, United States,

and on the gulf coast of Mexico, has given rise to theories

of other locations and wider bounds for the old Indian empire.

ANALCITE, a commonly occurring mineral of the zeolite

group. It crystallizes in the cubic system, the common form

being the icositetrahedron (211), either alone (fig. 1) or in

combination with the cube (100); sometimes the faces of the

cube predominate in size, and its corners are each replaced by

three small triangular faces representing the icositetrahedron

(fig. 2). Although cubic in form, analcite usually shows

feeble double refraction, and is thus optically anomalous.

This feature of analcite has been much studied, Sir David

Brewster in 1826 being the earliest investigator. Crystals of

analcite are often perfectly colourless and transparent with

a brilliant glassy lustre, but some are opaque and white or

pinkish-white. The hardness of the mineral is 5 to 5 1/2,

and its specific gravity is 2.25. Chemically, analcite

is a hydrated sodium and aluminium silicate, NaAlSi2O6 +

H2O; small amounts of the sodium being sometimes replaced

by calcium or by potassium. The water of crystallization is

readily expelled by heat, with modification of the optical

characters of the crystals. Before the blowpipe the mineral

readily fuses with intumescence to a colourless glass. It

is decomposed by acids with separation of gelatinous silica.

FIG. 1. FIG. 2.

Analcite usually occurs, associated with other zeolitic

minerals, lining amygdaloidal cavities in basic volcanic

rocks such as basalt and melaphyre, and especially in such as

have undergone alteration by weathering; the Tertiary basalts

of the north of Ireland frequently contain cavities lined

with small brilliant crystals of analcite. Larger crystals

of the same kind are found in the basalt of the Cyclopean

Islands (Scogli de' Ciclopi or Faraglioni) N.E. of Catania,

Sicily. Large opaque crystals of the pinkish-white colour

are found in cavities in melaphyre at the Seisser Alpe near

Schlern in southern Tirol. In all such cases the mineral

is clearly of secondary origin, but of late years another

mode of occurrence has been recognized, analcite having been

found as a primary constituent of certain igneous rocks such

as monchiquite and some basalts. The irregular grains, of

which it has the form, had previously been mistaken for glass.

Owing to the fact that analcite often crystallizes in cubes,

it was long known as cubic zeolite or as cuboite. The name

now in use was proposed in 1797 in the form analcime, by R. J.

Hauy, in allusion to the weak (analkis) electrification

of the mineral produced by friction. Euthallite is a compact,

greenish analcite, produced by the alteration of elaeolite at

various localities in the Langesund-fjord in southern Norway.

Eudnophite, from the same region, was originally described as

an orthorhombic mineral dimorphous with analcite, but has since

been found to be identical with it. Cluthalite, from the Clyde

(Clutha) valley, is an altered form of the mineral. (L. J. S.)

ANALOGY (Gr. analogia, proportion), a term signifying,

(1) in general, resemblance which falls short of absolute

similarity or identity. Thus by analogy, the word ``loud,''

originally applied to sounds, is used of garments which obtrude

themselves on the attention; all metaphor is thus a kind of

analogy. (2) Euclid used the term for proportionate equality;

but in mathematics it is now obsolete except in the phrase,

``Napier's Analogies'' in spherical trigonometry (see NAPIER,

JOHN.) (3) In grammar, it signifies similarity in the dominant

characteristics of a language, derivation, orthography and so

on. (4) In logic, it is used of arguments by inference from

resemblances between known particulars to other particulars

which are not observed. Under the name of ``example''

(paradeigma) the process is explained by Aristotle (Prior

Anal. ii. 4) as an inference which differs from induction

(q.v.) in havinga particular, not a general, conclusion;

i.e. if A is demonstrably like B in certain respects, it may

be assumed to be like it in another, though the latter is not

demonstrated. Kant and his followers state the distinction

otherwise, i.e. induction argues from the possession of an

attribute by many members of a class that all members of the

class possess it, while analogy argues that, because A has

some of B's qualities, it must have them all (cf. Sir Wm.

Hamilton, Lectures on Logic, ii. 165-174, for a slight

modification of this view). J. S. Mill very properly rejects

this artificial distinction, which is in practice no distinction

at all; he regards induction and analogy as generically the

same, though differing in the demonstrative validity of

their evidence, i.e. induction proceeds on the basis of

scientific, causal connexion, while analogy, in absence of

proof, temporarily accepts a probable hypothesis. In this

sense, analogy may obviously have a universal conclusion.

This type of inference is of the greatest value in physical

science, which has frequently and quite legitimately used

such conclusions until a negative instance has disproved or

further evidence confirmed them (for a list of typical cases

see T. Fowler's edition of Bacon's Nov. Org. Aph. ii. 27

note). The value of such inferences depends on the nature

of the resemblances on which they are based and on that of

the differences which they disregard. If the resemblances

are small and unimportant and the differences great and

fundamental, the argument is known as ``False Analogy.'' The

subject is dealt with in Francis Bacon's Novum Organum,

especially ii. 27 (see T. H. Fowler's notes) under the head

of Instantiae conformes sive proportionatae. Strictly

the argument by analogy is based on similarity of relations

between things, not on the similarity of things, though it

is, in general, extended to cover the latter. See works on

Logic, e.g. J. S. Mill, T. H. Fowler, W. S. Jevons. For

Butler's Analogy and its method see BUTLER, JOSEPH.

The term was used in a special sense by Kant in his phrase,

``Analogies of Experience,'' the third and most important group

in his classification of the a priori elements of knowledge.

By it he understood the fundamental laws of pure natural science

under the three heads, substantiality, causality, reciprocity

(see F. Paulsen, I. Kant, Eng. trans. 1902, pp. 188 ff.).

ANALYSIS (Gr. ana and luein, to break up into parts), in

general, the resolution of a whole into its component elements;

opposed to synthesis, the combining of separate elements or

minor wholes into an inclusive unity. It differs from mere

``disintegration', in proceeding on a definite scientific

plan. In grammar, analysis is the breaking up of a sentence

into subject, predicate, object, &c. (an exercise introduced

into English schools by J. D. Morell about 1852); so the

analysis of a book or a lecture is a synopsis of the main

points. The chief technical uses of the word, which

retains practically the same meaning in all the sciences,

are in (1) philosophy, (2) mathematics, (3) chemistry.

(1) Logical analysis is the process of examining into the

connotation of a concept or idea, and separating the attributes

from the whole and each other. It, therefore, does not increase

knowledge, but merely clarifies and tests it. In this sense

Kant distinguished an analytic from a synthetic judgment, as

one in which the predicate is involved in the essence of the

subject. Such judgments are also known as verbal, as

opposed to real or ampliative judgments. The processes of

synthesis and analysis though formally contradictory are

practically supplementary; thus to analyse the connotation is

to synthesize the denotation of a term, and vice versa; the

process of knowledge involves the two methods, analysis being

the corrective of synthetic empiricism. In a wider sense the

whole of formal logic is precisely the analysis of the laws of

thought. Analytical psychology is distinguished from genetic

and empirical psychology inasmuch as it proceeds by the method

of introspective investigation of mental phenomena instead

of by physiological or psycho-physical experiment. For the

relation between analysis and synthesis on the one hand,

and deduction and induction on the other, see INDUCTION.

(2) In mathematics, analysis has two distinct meanings, conveniently

termed ancient and modern. Ancient analysis, as described by

Pappus, related chiefly to geometrical problems, and is the

method of reasoning from the solution, as taken for granted,

to consequences which are known to be true, whereas synthesis

reasons from known data to the solution. (See GEOMETRY.)

Modern analysis is practically coeval with Descartes, the

founder of ``analytical geometry,'' although the calculus of

general quantities had previously been termed analysis. Many

mathematical subjects are now included under this name, and

are treated in the following articles:--GEOMETRY, ANALYTICAL;

INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS; DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION; VARIATIONS,

CALCULUS OF; CURVE; SURFACE; FUNCTION; SPHERICAL HARMONICS;

SERIES; FOURIER'S SERIES; GROUPS, THEORY OF; PROBABILITY.

(3) In Chemistry, the word analysis was introduced

by Robert Boyle to denote the determination of the

composition of substances. (See CHEMISTRY, Analytical.)

ANALYST, in modern times, a person professionally skilled in

chemical analysis. He may be called upon, in the discharge of his

profession, to analyse a wide range of substances. Apart from

private practitioners and those engaged in large manufacturing

concerns, analysts employed by public bodies are termed public

analysts. In most large manufacturing establishments there

is usually a staff of analysts, whose duty it is primarily

to exercise constant watchfulness over the processes of

manufacture, to test the purity of the substances used, as

well as that of the final products. The services of analysts

are constantly required in judicial enquiries, sometimes

in purely criminal cases, sometimes in civil proceedings,

such as offences against the customs or excise or under the

various British Food and Drugs Acts. In the case of criminal

proceedings, the services of the official analyst attached

to the British Home Office are employed. The inland revenue

department has a laboratory at Somerset House, with a staff of

analysts, who are engaged in analysing for excise and other

purposes. Under the Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs Act 1893,

the Board of Agriculture employs an agricultural chemist,

whose duty is the analysis of fertilizers and feeding stuffs.

A ``public analyst'' is an analyst appointed by a local authority

for the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts. He must be

possessed of competent medical, chemical and microscopical knowledge

to analyse all articles of food and drink (see ADULTERATION).

ANALYTIC (the adjective of ``analysis''' q.v.), according

with, or consisting in, the method of separating a whole

into its parts, the opposite of synthetic. For analytic

chemistry, analytic language, &c., see the articles

under the noun-headings. The title of analutika or

Analytics was given by Aristotle to his treatises on logic.

ANAMALAI HILLS, a range of mountains in southern India,

in the Coimbatore district of Madras, lying between 10 deg. 13'

and 10 deg. 31' N. lat., and between 76 deg. 52' and 77 deg. 23' E.

long., forming a portion of the Western Ghats, after this

range has been broken by the Palghat Pass, south of the

Nilgiris. They really consist of a forest-clad and grassy

tableland, with summits rising about 8000 ft.; the Anaimudi

mountain, which is the highest in southern India, having an

altitude of 8850 ft. Their geological formation is metamorphic

gneiss, veined with felspar and quartz, and interspersed

with reddish porphyrite. The lower slopes yield valuable

teak and other timber; and some land has been taken up

for coffee planting. The only inhabitants are a few wild

tribes who live by hunting and collecting jungle produce.

ANAMORPHOSIS (a Gr. word, derived from ana, back,

and morpe, form: the second o in the Greek is long,

but in English the Pronunciation varies), a deformation or

distortion of appearance; in drawing, the representation of

an object as seen, for instance, altered by reflexion in a

mirror; in botany, e.g. in the case of fungi or lichens, an

abnormal change giving the appearance of a different species.

`ANAN BEN DAVID, a Persian Jew of the 8th century, and founder

within Judaism of the sect of Qaraites (Karaites) which set

itself in opposition to the rabbinic tradition. `Anan was an

unsuccessful candidate for the dignity of Exilarch, and thus

his opposition to the rabbanite Jews was political as well as

theological. His secession occurred at a moment when the time

was ripe for a reaction against rabbinism, and `Anan became the

rallying point for many opponents of tradition. (See QARAITES.)

ANANDA, one of the principal disciples of the Buddha

(q.v..) He has been called the beloved disciple of the

Buddhist story. He was the first cousin of the Buddha, and

was devotedly attached to him. Ananda entered the Order

in the second year of the Buddha's ministry, and became one

of his personal attendants, accompanying him on most of his

wanderings and being the interlocutor in many of the recorded

dialogues. He is the subject of a special panegyric delivered

by the Buddha just before his death (Book of the Great

Decease, v. 38); but it is the panegyric of an unselfish

man, kindly, thoughtful for others and popular; not of the

intellectual man, versed in the theory and practice of the

Buddhist system of self-culture. So in the long list of

the disciples given in the Anguttara (i. xiv.) where each

of them is declared to be the chief in some gift, Ananda is

mentioned five times (which is more often than any other),

but it is as chief in conduct and in service to others and

in power of memory, not in any of the intellectual powers

so highly prized in the community. This explains why he had

not attained to arahatship; and in the earliest account of

the convocation said to have been held by five hundred of

the principal disciples immediately after the Buddha's death,

he was the only one who was not an arahat (Cullavagga,

book xi.). In later accounts this incident is explained

away. Thirty-three verses ascribed to Ananda are preserved

in a collection of lyrics by the principal male and female

members of the order (Thera Gatha, 1017-1050). They

show a gentle and reverent but simple spirit. (T. W. R. D.)

ANANIAS, the Gr. form of Hananiah, or Ananiah, a name

occurring several times in the Old Testament and Apocrypha

(Neh. iii. 23, 1 Ch. xxv. 23, Tob. v. 12. &c.), and three

times in the New Testament. Special mention need be made

only of the bearers of the name in the New Testament. (1) A

member of the first Christian community, who, with his wife

Sapphira, was miraculously punished by Peter with sudden death

for hypocrisy and falsehood (Acts v. 1-10; cf. Josh. vii.

1 ff.). (2) A disciple at Damascus who figures in the story

of the conversion and baptism of Paul (Acts ix. 10-17, xxh.

12-16.) (3) Son of Nedebaios (Jos. Ant. xx. 5. 2), a high

priest who presided during the trial of Paul at Jerusalem and

Caesarea (Acts xxiii. 2, xxiv. 1-5). He officiated as high

priest from about A.D. 47 to 59. Quadratus, governor of

Syria, accused him of being responsible for acts of violence.

He was sent to Rome for trial (A.D. 52), but was acquitted

by the emperor Claudius. Being a friend of the Romans, he

was murdered by the people at the beginning of the Jewish war.

ANANTAPUR, a town and district of India, in the Madras

presidency. The town has a station on the Madras

railway, 62 m. S.E. from Bellary. Pop. (1901) 7938.

The district of Anantapur was constituted in 1882 out of

the unwieldy district of Bellary. It has an area of 5557

sq. m., and in its northern and central portions is a high

plateau, generally undulating, with large granite rocks or

low hill ranges rising here and there above its surface.

In the southern portion of the district the surface is

more hilly, the plateau there rising to 2600 ft. above the

sea. There is a remarkable fortress rock at Gooty, 2171 ft.

above the sea, and a similar but larger rock at Penukonda,

with an elevation equal to that of Bangalore, about 3100

ft. Gooty fortress was a stronghold of the Mahrattas,

but was taken from them by Hyder Ali. In 1789 it was ceded

by Tippoo to the nizam, and in 1800 the nizam ceded the

district of Anantapur with others to the British in payment

for a subsidiary British force. The population in 1901 was

788,254, showing an increase of 8% in the decade. The

principal crops are millet, rice, other food grains, pulse,

oil seeds and cotton. There are several steam factories

for pressing cotton. Two railways traverse the district.

ANAPA, a seaport town of Russia, in the government of Kuban,

on the N. coast of the Black Sea, 45 m. S.E. from the Strait

of Yenikale or Kerch, giving access to the Sea of Azov. It was

originally built in 1781 as a frontier fortress of the Turks

against Russia. Three times captured by the Russians, in 1791,

1807 and 1828, and twice restored by them, in 1792 and 1812,

it was finally left in their hands by the treaty of Adrianople

in 1829. During the Crimean War its fortifications were

destroyed (1855) by the Russians themselves. Pop. (1897) 6676.

ANAPAEST (from Gr. anapaistos, reversed), a metrical

foot consisting of three syllables, the first two short

and the third long and accented; so called as the reverse

of a dactyl, which has the first a long syllable, followed

by two short ones. An anapaestic verse is one which

only contains, or is mostly made up of, anapaestic feet.

ANARCHISM (from the Gr. an-, and arche, contrary

to authority), the name given to a principle or theory of

life and conduct under which society is conceived without

government --harmony in such a society being obtained, not

by submission to law, or by obedience to any authority, but

by free agreements concluded between the various groups,

territorial and professional, freely constituted for the sake

of production and consumption, as also for the satisfaction of

the infinite variety of needs and aspirations of a civilized

being. In a society developed on these lines, the voluntary

associations which already now begin to cover all the fields

of human activity would take a still greater extension

so as to substitute themselves for the state in all its

functions. They would represent an interwoven network,

composed of an infinite variety of groups and federations

of all sizes and degrees, local, regional, national and

international-- temporary or more or less permanent--for

all possible purposes: production, consumption and exchange,

communications, sanitary arrangements, education, mutual

protection, defence of the territory, and so on; and, on

the other side, for the satisfaction of an ever-increasing

number of scientific, artistic, literary and sociable

needs. Moreover, such a society would represent nothing

immutable. On the contrary--as is seen in organic life

at large--harmony would (it is contended) result from an

ever-changing adjustment and readjustment of equilibrium

between the multitudes of forces and influences, and this

adjustment would be the easier to obtain as none of the

forces would enjoy a special protection from the state.

If, it is contended, society were organized on these principles,

man would not be limited in the free exercise of his powers

in productive work by a capitalist monopoly, maintained

by the state; nor would he be limited in the exercise of

his will by a fear of punishment, or by obedience towards

individuals or metaphysical entities, which both lead to

depression of initiative and servility of mind. He would

be guided in his actions by his own understanding, which

necessarily would bear the impression of a free action and

reaction between his own self and the ethical conceptions

of his surroundings. Man would thus be enabled to obtain

the full development of all his faculties, intellectual,

artistic and moral, without being hampered by overwork for

the monopolists, or by the servility and inertia of mind

of the great number. He would thus be able to reach full

individualization, which is not possible either under the

present system of individualism, or under any system of

state- socialism in the so-called Volkstaat (popular state).

The Anarchist writers consider, moreover, that their conception

is not a Utopia, constructed on the a priori method,

after a few desiderata have been taken as postulates. It is

derived, they maintain, from an analysis of tendencies that

are at work already, even though state socialism may find a

temporary favour with the reformers. The progress of modern

technics, which wonderfully simplifies the production of all

the necessaries of life; the growing spirit of independence,

and the rapid spread of free initiative and free understanding

in all branches of activity--including those which formerly

were considered as the proper attribution of church and

state--are steadily reinforcing the no-government tendency.

As to their economical conceptions, the Anarchists, in common

with all Socialists, of whom they constitute the left wing,

maintain that the now prevailing system of private ownership in

land, and our capitalist production for the sake of profits,

represent a monopoly which runs against both the principles

of justice and the dictates of utility. They are the main

obstacle which prevents the successes of modern technics from

being brought into the service of all, so as to produce general

well-being. The Anarchists consider the wage-system and

capitalist production altogether as an obstacle to progress.

But they point out also that the state was, and continues to

be, the chief instrument for permitting the few to monopolize

the land, and the capitalists to appropriate for themselves

a quite disproportionate share of the yearly accumulated

surplus of production. Consequently, while combating the

present monopolization of land, and capitalism altogether,

the Anarchists combat with the same energy the state, as

the main support of that system. Not this or that special

form, but the state altogether, whether it be a monarchy

or even a republic governed by means of the referendum.

The state organization, having always been, both in ancient and

modern history (Macedonian empire, Roman empire, modern European

states grown up on the ruins of the autonomous cities), the

instrument for establishing monopolies in favour of the ruling

minorities, cannot be made to work for the destruction of these

monopolies. The Anarchists consider, therefore, that to hand

over to the state all the main sources of economical life--the

land, the mines, the railways, banking, insurance, and so

on--as also the management of all the main branches of industry,

in addition to all the functions already accumulated in its

hands (education, state-supported religions, defence of the

territory, &c.), would mean to create a new instrument of

tyranny. State capitalism would only increase the powers of

bureaucracy and capitalism. True progress lies in the direction

of decentralization, both territorial and functional, in

the development of the spirit of local and personal initiative,

and of free federation from the simple to the compound, in

lieu of the present hierarchy from the centre to the periphery.

In common with most Socialists, the Anarchists recognize

that, like all evolution in nature, the slow evolution of

society is followed from time to time by periods of accelerated

evolution which are called revolutions; and they think that

the era of revolutions is not yet closed. Periods of rapid

changes will follow the periods of slow evolution, and these

periods must be taken advantage of--not for increasing and

widening the powers of the state, but for reducing them,

through the organization in every township or commune of the

local groups of producers and consumers, as also the regional,

and eventually the international, federations of these groups.

In virtue of the above principles the Anarchists refuse to

be party to the present state organization and to support

it by infusing fresh blood into it. They do not seek to

constitute, and invite the working men not to constitute,

political parties in the parliaments. Accordingly,

since the foundation of the International Working Men's

Association in 1864-1866, they have endeavoured to promote

their ideas directly amongst the labour organizations and

to induce those unions to a direct struggle against capital,

without placing their faith in parliamentary legislation.

The Historical Development of Anarchism.--The conception of

society just sketched, and the tendency which is its dynamic

expression, have always existed in mankind, in opposition to

the governing hierarchic conception and tendency--now the one

and now the other taking the upper hand at different periods of

history. To the former tendency we owe the evolution, by

the masses themselves, of those institutions--the clan,

the village community, the gild, the free medieval city--by

means of which the masses resisted the encroachments of

the conquerors and the power-seeking minorities. The same

tendency asserted itself with great energy in the great

religious movements of medieval times, especially in the early

movements of the reform and its forerunners. At the same

time it evidently found its expression in the writings of

some thinkers, since the times of Lao-tsze, although, owing

to its non-scholastic and popular origin, it obviously found

less sympathy among the scholars than the opposed tendency.

As has been pointed out by Prof. Adler in his Geschichte

der Sozialismus und Kommunismus, Aristippus (b. c. 430

B.C.), one of the founders of the Cyrenaic school, already

taught that the wise must not give up their liberty to the

state, and in reply to a question by Socrates he said that he

did not desire to belong either to the governing or the governed

class. Such an attitude, however, seems to have been dictated

merely by an Epicurean attitude towards the life of the masses.

The best exponent of Anarchist philosophy in ancient Greece

was Zeno (342-267 or 270 B.C.), from Crete, the founder of

the Stoic philosophy, who distinctly opposed his conception

of a free community without government to the state-Utopia of

Plato. He repudiated the omnipotence of the state, its

intervention and regimentation, and proclaimed the sovereignty

of the moral law of the individual--remarking already that,

while the necessary instinct of self-preservation leads man to

egotism, nature has supplied a corrective to it by providing

man with another instinct--that of sociability. When men are

reasonable enough to follow their natural instincts, they will

unite across the frontiers and constitute the Cosmos. They

will have no need of law-courts or police, will have no temples

and no public worship, and use no money--free gifts taking the

place of the exchanges. Unfortunately, the writings of Zeno

have not reached us and are only known through fragmentary

quotations. However, the fact that his very wording is

similar to the wording now in use, shows how deeply is laid

the tendency of human nature of which he was the mouth-piece.

In medieval times we find the same views on the state expressed

by the illustrious bishop of Alba, Marco Girolamo Vida, in his

first dialogue De dignitate reipublicae (Ferd. Cavalli, in

Mem. dell' Istituto Veneto, xiii.; Dr E. Nys, Researches in

the History of Economics.) But it is especially in several

early Christian movements, beginning with the 9th century

in Armenia, and in the preachings of the early Hussites,

particularly Chojecki, and the early Anabaptists, especially

Hans Denk (cf. Keller, Ein Apostel der Wiedertaufer),

that one finds the same ideas forcibly expressed--special

stress being laid of course on their moral aspects.

Rabelais and Fenelon, in their Utopias, have also expressed

similar ideas, and they were also current in the 18th

century amongst the French Encyclopaedists, as may be

concluded from separate expressions occasionally met with

in the writings of Rousseau, from Diderot's Preface to

the Voyage of Bougainville, and so on. However, in all

probability such ideas could not be developed then, owing

to the rigorous censorship of the Roman Catholic Church.

These ideas found their expression later during the great French

Revolution. While the Jacobins did all in their power to

centralize everything in the hands of the government, it appears

now, from recently published documents, that the masses of the

people, in their municipalities and ``sections,'' accomplished

a considerable constructive work. They appropriated for

themselves the election of the judges, the organization

of supplies and equipment for the army, as also for the

large cities, work for the unemployed, the management of

charities, and so on. They even tried to establish a direct

correspondence between the 36,000 communes of France through

the intermediary of a special board, outside the National

Assembly (cf. Sigismund Lacroix, Actes de la commune de Paris.)

It was Godwin, in his Enquiry concerning Political Justice

(2 vols., 1793), who was the first to formulate the political

and economical conceptions of Anarchism, even though he did

not give that name to the ideas developed in his remarkable

work. Laws, he wrote, are not a product of the wisdom

of our ancestors: they are the product of their passions,

their timidity, their jealousies and their ambition. The

remedy they offer is worse than the evils they pretend to

cure. If and only if all laws and courts were abolished, and

the decisions in the arising contests were left to reasonable

men chosen for that purpose, real justice would gradually be

evolved. As to the state, Godwin frankly claimed its abolition.

A society, he wrote, can perfectly well exist without any

government: only the communities should be small and perfectly

autonomous. Speaking of property, he stated that the rights

of every one ``to every substance capable of contributing to

the benefit of a human being'' must be regulated by justice

alone: the substance must go ``to him who most wants it.''

His conclusion was Communism. Godwin, however, had not the

courage to maintain his opinions. He entirely rewrote later

on his chapter on property and mitigated his Communist views

in the second edition of Political Justice (8vo, 1796).

Proudhon was the first to use, in 1840 (Qu'est-ce que

la propriete? first memoir), the name of Anarchy with

application to the no-government state of society. The name

of ``Anarchists'' had been freely applied during the French

Revolution by the Girondists to those revolutionaries who did

not consider that the task of the Revolution was accomplished

with the overthrow of Louis XVI., and insisted upon a series of

economical measures being taken (the abolition of feudal rights

without redemption, the return to the village communities of

the communal lands enclosed since 1669, the limitation of landed

property to 120 acres, progressive income-tax, the national

organization of exchanges on a just value basis, which already

received a beginning of practical realization, and so on).

Now Proudhon advocated a society without government, and used

the word Anarchy to describe it. Proudhon repudiated, as is

known, all schemes of Communism, according to which mankind

would be driven into communistic monasteries or barracks, as

also all the schemes of state or state-aided Socialism which

were advocated by Louis Blanc and the Collectivists. When

he proclaimed in his first memoir on property that ``Property

is theft,'' he meant only property in its present, Roman-law,

sense of ``right of use and abuse''; in property-rights, on the

other hand, understood in the limited sense of possession,

he saw the best protection against the encroachments of the

state. At the same time he did not want violently to dispossess

the present owners of land, dwelling-houses, mines, factories

and so on. He preferred to attain the same end by rendering

capital incapable of earning interest; and this he proposed

to obtain by means of a national bank, based on the mutual

confidence of all those who are engaged in production, who

would agree to exchange among themselves their produces at

cost-value, by means of labour cheques representing the hours

of labour required to produce every given commodity. Under

such a system, which Proudhon described as ``Mutuellisme,''

all the exchanges of services would be strictly equivalent.

Besides, such a bank would be enabled to lend money without

interest, levying only something like 1%, or even less, for

covering the cost of administration. Every one being thus

enabled to borrow the money that would be required to buy a

house, nobody would agree to pay any more a yearly rent

for the use of it. A general ``social liquidation'' would

thus be rendered easy, without violent expropriation.

The same applied to mines, railways, factories and so on.

In a society of this type the state would be useless. The chief

relations between citizens would be based on free agreement and

regulated by mere account keeping. The contests might be settled

by arbitration. A penetrating criticism of the state and all

possible forms of government, and a deep insight into all economic

problems, were well-known characteristics of Proudhon's work.

It is worth noticing that French mutualism had its precursor

in England, in William Thompson, who began by mutualism

before he became a Communist, and in his followers John

Gray (A Lecture on Human Happiness, 1825; The Social

System, 1831) and J. F. Bray (Labour's Wrongs and

Labour's Remedy, 1839). It had also its precursor in

America. Josiah Warren, who was born in 1708 (cf. W. Bailie,

Josiah Warren, the First American Anarchist, Boston,

1900), and belonged to Owen's ``New Harmony,'' considered

that the failure of this enterprise was chiefly due to the

suppression of individuality and the lack of initiative and

responsibility. These defects, he taught, were inherent

to every scheme based upon authority and the community of

goods. He advocated, therefore, complete individual liberty.

In 1827 he opened in Cincinnati a little country store which

was the first ``Equity Store,'' and which the people called

``Time Store,'' because it was based on labour being exchanged

hour for hour in all sorts of produce. ``Cost--the limit of

price,'' and consequently ``no interest,'' was the motto of his

store, and later on of his ``Equity Village,'' near New York,

which was still in existence in 1865. Mr Keith's ``House of

Equity'' at Boston, founded in 1855, is also worthy of notice.

While the economical, and especially the mutual-banking,

ideas of Proudhon found supporters and even a practical

application in the United States, his political conception of

Anarchy found but little echo in France, where the Christian

Socialism of Lamennais and the Fourierists, and the State

Socialism of Louis Blanc and the followers of Saint-Simon, were

dominating. These ideas found, however, some temporary

support among the left-wing Hegelians in Germany, Moses Hess

in 1843, and Karl Grun in 1845, who advocated Anarchism.

Besides, the authoritarian Communism of Wilhelm Weitling

having given origin to opposition amongst the Swiss working

men, Wilhelm Marr gave expression to it in the 'forties.

On the other side, Individualist Anarchism found, also in Germany,

its fullest expression in Max Stirner (Kaspar Schmidt), whose

remarkable works (Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum and articles

contributed to the Rheinische Zeitung) remained quite overlooked

until they were brought into prominence by John Henry Mackay.

Prof. V. Basch, in a very able introduction to his interesting

book, L'Individualisme anarchiste: Max Stirner (1904), has

shown how the development of the German philosophy from Kant to

Hegel, and ``the absolute'' of Schelling and the Geist of

Hegel, necessarily provoked, when the anti-Hegelian revolt

began, the preaching of the same ``absolute'' in the camp

of the rebels. This was done by Stirner, who advocated,

not only a complete revolt against the state and against the

servitude which authoritarian Communism would impose upon

men, but also the full liberation of the individual from all

social and moral bonds--the rehabilitation of the ``I,'' the

supremacy of the individual, complete ``a-moralism,'' and the

``association of the egotists.'' The final conclusion of that

sort of Individual Anarchism has been indicated by Prof.

Basch. It maintains that the aim of all superior civilization

is, not to permit all members of the community to develop in

a normal way, but to permit certain better endowed individuals

``fully to develop,'' even at the cost of the happiness and

the very existence of the mass of mankind. It is thus a

return towards the most common individualism, advocated by

all the would-be superior minorities, to which indeed man

owes in his history precisely the state and the rest, which

these individualists combat. Their individualism goes so far

as to end in a negation of their own starting-point,--to say

nothing of the impossibility for the individual to attain a

really full development in the conditions of oppression of

the masses by the ``beautiful aristocracies.'' His development

would remain uni-lateral. This is why this direction of

thought, notwithstanding its undoubtedly correct and useful

advocacy of the full development of each individuality, finds

a hearing only in limited artistic and literary circles.

Anarchism in the International Working Men's Association.--A

general depression in the propaganda of all fractions of

Socialism followed, as is known, after the defeat of the uprising

of the Paris working men in June 1848 and the fall of the

Republic. All the Socialist press was gagged during the reaction

period, which lasted fully twenty years. Nevertheless, even

Anarchist thought began to make some progress, namely in

the writings of Bellegarrique (Coeurderoy), and especially

Joseph Dejacque (Les Lazareennes, L'Humanisphere,

an Anarchist-Communist Utopia, lately discovered and

reprinted). The Socialist movement revived only after 1864,

when some French working men, all ``mutualists,'' meeting in

London during the Universal Exhibition with English followers

of Robert Owen, founded the International Working Men's

Association. This association developed very rapidly and

adopted a policy of direct economical struggle against

capitalism, without interfering in the political parliamentary

agitation, and this policy was followed until 1871. However,

after the Franco-German War, when the International Association

was prohibited in France after the uprising of the Commune,

the German working men, who had received manhood suffrage for

elections to the newly constituted imperial parliament, insisted

upon modifying the tactics of the International, and began to

build up a Social-Democratic political party. This soon led

to a division in the Working Men's Association, and the Latin

federations, Spanish, Italian, Belgian and Jurassic (France

could not be represented), constituted among themselves a

Federal union which broke entirely with the Marxist general

council of the International. Within these federations

developed now what may be described as modern Anarchism.

After the names of ``Federalists'' and ``Anti-authoritarians''

had been used for some time by these federations the name

of ``Anarchists,'' which their adversaries insisted upon

applying to them, prevailed, and finally it was revindicated.

Bakunin (q.v.) soon became the leading spirit among these

Latin federations for the development of the principles of

Anarchism, which he did in a number of writings, pamphlets and

letters. He demanded the complete abolition of the state,

which--he wrote--is a product of religion, belongs to a lower

state of civilization, represents the negation of liberty, and

spoils even that which it undertakes to do for the sake of general

well-being. The state was an historically necessary evil,

but its complete extinction will be, sooner or later, equally

necessary. Repudiating all legislation, even when issuing

from universal suffrage, Bakunin claimed for each nation,

each region and each commune, full autonomy, so long as it

is not a menace to its neighbours, and full independence

for the individual, adding that one becomes really free

only when, and in proportion as, all others are free. Free

federations of the communes would constitute free nations.

As to his economical conceptions, Bakunin described himself,

in common with his Federalist comrades of the International

(Cesar De Paepe, James Guillaume Schwitzguebel), a

``Collectivist Anarchist''--not in the sense of Vidal and

Pecqueur in the 'forties, or of their modern Social-Democratic

followers, but to express a state of things in which all

necessaries for production are owned in common by the Labour

groups and the free communes, while the ways of retribution

of labour, Communist or otherwise, would be settled by each

group for itself. Social revolution, the near approach of

which was foretold at that time by all Socialists, would

be the means of bringing into life the new conditions.

The Jurassic, the Spanish, and the Italian federations and

sections of the International Working Men's Association, as

also the French, the German and the American Anarchist groups,

were for the next years the chief centres of Anarchist thought

and propaganda. They refrained from any participation in

parliamentary politics, and always kept in close contact with

the Labour organizations. However, in the second half of the

'eighties and the early 'nineties of the 19th century, when

the influence of the Anarchists began to be felt in strikes,

in the 1st of May demonstrations, where they promoted the

idea of a general strike for an eight hours' day, and in the

anti-militarist propaganda in the army, violent prosecutions

were directed against them, especially in the Latin countries

(including physical torture in the Barcelona Castle) and the

United States (the execution of five Chicago Anarchists in

1887). Against these prosecutions the Anarchists retaliated

by acts of violence which in their turn were followed by

more executions from above, and new acts of revenge from

below. This created in the general public the impression

that violence is the substance of Anarchism, a view repudiated

by its supporters, who hold that in reality violence is

resorted to by all parties in proportion as their open

action is obstructed by repression, and exceptional laws

render them outlaws. (Cf. Anarchism and Outrage, by C. M.

Wilson, and Report of the Spanish Atrocities Committee,

in ``Freedom Pamphlets''; A Concise History of the Great

Trial of the Chicago Anarchists, by Dyer Lum (New

York, 1886); The Chicago Martyrs: Speeches, &c.).1

Anarchism continued to develop, partly in the direction

of Proudhonian ``Mutuellisme,'' but chiefly as Communist-

Anarchism, to which a third direction, Christian-Anarchism, was

added by Leo Tolstoy, and a fourth, which might be ascribed as

literary-Anarchism, began amongst some prominent modern writers.

The ideas of Proudhon, especially as regards mutual

banking, corresponding with those of Josiah Warren, found

a considerable following in the United States, creating

quite a school, of which the main writers are Stephen Pearl

Andrews, William Grene, Lysander Spooner (who began to

write in 1850, and whose unfinished work, Natural Law,

was full of promise), and several others, whose names will

be found in Dr Nettlan's Bibliographie de l'anarchie.

A prominent position among the Individualist Anarchists

in America has been occupied by Benjamin R. Tucker, whose

journal Liberty was started in 1881 and whose conceptions

are a combination of those of Proudhon with those of Herbert

Spencer. Starting from the statement that Anarchists are

egotists, strictly speaking, and that every group of

individuals, be it a secret league of a few persons, or the

Congress of the United States, has the right to oppress all

mankind, provided it has the power to do so, that equal liberty

for all and absolute equality ought to be the law, and ``mind

every one your own business'' is the unique moral law of

Anarchism, Tucker goes on to prove that a general and thorough

application of these principles would be beneficial and would

offer no danger, because the powers of every individual would

be limited by the exercise of the equal rights of all others.

He further indicated (following H. Spencer) the difference

which exists between the encroachment on somebody's rights

and resistance to such an encroachment; between domination

and defence: the former being equally condemnable, whether

it be encroachment of a criminal upon an individual, or the

encroachment of one upon all others, or of all others upon one;

while resistance to encroachment is defensible and necessary.

For their self-defence, both the citizen and the group have

the right to any violence, including capital punishment.

Violence is also justified for enforcing the duty of keeping an

agreement. Tucker thus follows Spencer, and, like him, opens

(in the present writer's opinion) the way for reconstituting

under the heading of ``defence'' all the functions of the

state. His criticism of the present state is very searching,

and his defence of the rights of the individual very powerful.

As regards his economical views B. R. Tucker follows Proudhon.

The Individualist Anarchism of the American Proudhonians finds,

however, but little sympathy amongst the working masses.

Those who profess it--they are chiefly ``intellectuals''--soon

realize that the individualization they so highly praise

is not attainable by individual efforts, and either abandon

the ranks of the Anarchists, and are driven into the Liberal

individualism of the classical economists, or they retire

into a sort of Epicurean a-moralism, or super-man-theory,

similar to that of Stirner and Nietzsche. The great bulk of

the Anarchist working men prefer the Anarchist-Communist ideas

which have gradually evolved out of the Anarchist Collectivism

of the International Working Men's Association. To this

direction belong--to name only the better known exponents of

Anarchism--Elisee Reclus, Jean Grave, Sebastien Faure, Emile

Pouget in France; Enrico Malatesta and Covelli in Italy; R.

Mella, A. Lorenzo, and the mostly unknown authors of many

excellent manifestos in Spain; John Most amongst the Germans;

Spies, Parsons and their followers in the United States,

and so on; while Domela Nieuwenhuis occupies an intermediate

position in Holland. The chief Anarchist papers which have

been published since 1880 also belong to that direction;

while a number of Anarchists of this direction have joined

the so-called Syndicalist movement--the French name for the

non-political Labour movement, devoted to direct struggle with

capitalism, which has lately become so prominent in Europe.

As one of the Anarchist-Communist direction, the present

writer for many years endeavoured to develop the following

ideas: to show the intimate, logical connexion which exists

between the modern philosophy of natural sciences and

anarchism; to put Anarchism on a scientific basis by the

study of the tendencies that are apparent now in society and

may indicate its further evolution; and to work out the basis

of Anarchist ethics. As regards the substance of Anarchism

itself, it was Kropotkin's aim to prove that Communism--at

least partial--has more chances of being established than

Collectivism, especially in communes taking the lead, and that

Free, or Anarchist- Communism is the only form of Communism

that has any chance of being accepted in civilized societies;

Communism and Anarchy are therefore two terms of evolution which

complete each other, the one rendering the other possible and

acceptable. He has tried, moreover, to indicate how, during

a revolutionary period, a large city--if its inhabitants

have accepted the idea--could organize itself on the lines

of Free Communism; the city guaranteeing to every inhabitant

dwelling, food and clothing to an extent corresponding to

the comfort now available to the middle classes only, in

exchange for a half-day's, or a five-hours' work; and how

all those things which would be considered as luxuries might

be obtained by every one if he joins for the other half of

the day all sorts of free associations pursuing all possible

aims--educational, literary, scientific, artistic, sports and so

on. In order to prove the first of these assertions he has

analysed the possibilities of agriculture and industrial

work, both being combined with brain work. And in order

to elucidate the main factors of human evolution, he has

analysed the part played in history by the popular constructive

agencies of mutual aid and the historical role of the state.

Without naming himself an Anarchist, Leo Tolstoy, like his

predecessors in the popular religious movements of the 15th

and 16th centuries, Chojecki, Denk and many others, took

the Anarchist position as regards the state and property

rights, deducing his conclusions from the general spirit of

the teachings of the Christ and from the necessary dictates of

reason. With all the might of his talent he made (especially

in The Kingdom of God in Yourselves) a powerful criticism

of the church, the state and law altogether, and especially

of the present property laws. He describes the state as the

domination of the wicked ones, supported by brutal force.

Robbers, he says, are far less dangerous than a well-organized

government. He makes a searching criticism of the prejudices

which are current now concerning the benefits conferred upon

men by the church, the state and the existing distribution of

property, and from the teachings of the Christ he deduces the

rule of non-resistance and the absolute condemnation of all

wars. His religious arguments are, however, so well combined

with arguments borrowed from a dispassionate observation of

the present evils, that the anarchist portions of his works

appeal to the religious and the non-religious reader alike.

It would be impossible to represent here, in a short sketch,

the penetration, on the one hand, of Anarchist ideas into

modern literature, and the influence, on the other hand, which

the libertarian ideas of the best comtemporary writers have

exercised upon the development of Anarchism. One ought to

consult the ten big volumes of the Supplement litteraire

to the paper La revolte and later the Temps nouveaux,

which contain reproductions from the works of hundreds of

modern authors expressing Anarchist ideas, in order to realize

how closely Anarchism is connected with all the intellectual

movement of our own times. J. S. Mill's Liberty, Spencer's

Individual versus The State, Marc Guyau's Morality

without Obligation or Sanction, and Fouillee's La morale,

l'art et la religion, the works of Multatuli (E. Douwes

Dekker), Richard Wagner's Art and Revolution, the works of

Nietzsche, Emerson, W. Lloyd Garrison, Thoreau, Alexander

Herzen, Edward Carpenter and so on; and in the domain of

fiction, the dramas of Ibsen, the poetry of Walt Whitman,

Tolstoy's War and Peace, Zola's Paris and Le travail,

the latest works of Merezhkovsky, and an infinity of works of

less known authors,--are full of ideas which show how closely

Anarchism is interwoven with the work that is going on in modern

thought in the same direction of enfranchisement of man from

the bonds of the state as well as from those of capitalism.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--William Godwin, An Enquiry concerning

Political Justice and its Influence on General Virtue and

Happiness, 1st edition, 2 vols. (1793). Mutualism:--John

Gray, A Lecture on Human Happiness (1825); The Social

System, a Treatise on the Principles of Exchange (1831);

Proudhon, Qu'est-ce que la propriete 11er memoire

(1840) (Eng. trans. by B. Tucker); Idee generale sur

la revolution (1851);. Confession d'un revolutionnaire

(1849); Contradictions economiques (1846); Josiah

Warren, Practicable Details of Equitable Commerce (New

York, 1852); True Civilizaltion (Boston, 1863); Stephen

Pearl Andrews, The Science of Society (1851); Cost, the

Limit of Price; Moses Hess, ``Sozialismus und Communismus,

Philosophie der That'' (on Herwegh's Ein-und-Zwanzip Bogen

aus der Schweiz, 1843); Karl Grun, Die soziale Bewegung

in Frankreich und Belgien (1845); W. Marr, Das junge

Deutschland (1845). Anarchist Individualism:--Max Stirner

(J. K. Schmidt), Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum (1845) (Fr.

trans., 1900); J. H. Mackay, Max Stirner, sein Leben und

sein Werk (1898): V. Basch, L'Individualisme anarchists

(1904). Transition period:--J. Dejacque, Les Lazareennes

rj85I); Le Libertaire, weekly, New York, 1858--1861,

containing Anarchist Collectivism of the International:--The

papers Egalite, Progres (Locle), Solidaritet; James

Guillaume, Idees sur l'organisation seciale (1876);

Bulletin de la .federation jurassienne (1872-1879); A.

Schwitzguebel, OEuvres; Paul Brousse, Le Suffrage

universel (1874); L'Etat a Versailles et dans l'association

internationale (1874); newspaper L'Avant-garde (suppressed

1878); Arthur Arnould, L'Etat et la revolution (1877);

Histoire populaire de la commune (3 vols., 1878); Cesar de

Paepe, in Rive gauche and La liberte (1867-1883). Many

others are in the Comptes rendus of the congresses of the

International Working Men's Association. All these ideas,

conceived as a whole, may be found in Bakunin's Federalisme,

socialisme et anti-theologisme, published first in portions

under the names of L'Empire knouto-germanique, Dieu et

l'etat, The State-Idea and Anarchy (Russian), and only

now reproduced in full in his OEuvres (Paris, 1905 and

seq.); Sozialpolitischer Briefwechsel (1894); Statuts de

l'alliance internationale (1868); Proposition motivee au

comite central de la ligue de la paix et de la llberte

(1868.) The famous Revolutionary Catechism attributed to

Bakunin, was not his work. Biographie von Michael Bakunin,

by Dr M. Nettlan, 3 large vols., contains masses of letters,

&c. (hectographed in 50 copies; in all chief libraries).

MODERN ANARCHISM.--The best sources are the collections of

newspapers which, although compelled sometimes to change their

names, were run for considerable lengths of time and are appearing

still: J. Most, Freiheit, since 1878; Le Revolte--La

Revolte--Temps nouveaux, since 1878; Domela Nieuwenhuis,

Recht voor Allen, since 1878; Freedom, since 1886; Le

Libertaire; Pouget's Pere Pesuard; Reveil-Risveglio;

see Nettlan's Bibliographie. These papers and a great

number of pamphlets are indispensable for those who intend to

know anarchism, as the works published in book form are not

numerous. Of the latter only a few will be mentioned:--Elisee

Reclus, Evolution and Revolution, many editions in all

languages; ``Anarchy by an Anarchist,'' in Contemp. Review

(May, 1884); The Ideal and Youth (1895); Jean Grave, La

Societe au lendemain de la revolution, many editions

since 1882; La Societe mourante et l'anarchie (1893);

L'Autonomie selon la science (1882); La Societe future

(1895); L'Anarchie, son but, ses moyens; Sebastien Faure,

La Douleur universelle (1892); A. Hamon, Les Hemmes

et les theories de l'anarchie (1893); Psychologie de

l'anarchiste-socialiste (1895); Enrico Malatesta, Fra

Contadini, transl. in all languages--Eng. trans. A Talk

about Anarchist Communism, in ``Freedom Pamphlets'' (1891);

Anarchy (do. 1892); Au cafe; and many other Italian

pamphlets, as also several papers started at various times

in Italy under different names: F. S. Merlino, Socialismo

o Menopolismo (1887). Pamphlets, reviews and papers by

P. Gori, L. Molinari, E. Covelli, &c. The manifestos of the

Spanish Federations contain excellent expositions of Anarchism;

cf. also many books, pamphlets and papers by J. Llunas y

Pujals, J. Serrano y Oteiza, Ricardo Mella, A. Lorenzo, &c.

John Most, the paper Freiheit, of which a few articles

only have been reprinted as pamphlets in the Internationale

Bibliothek (``The Deistic Pestilence,'' ``The Beast of

Property'' in English); Memoiren, 3 fascicules. F. Domela

Nieuwenhuis, Le Socialisme en danger (1895); C. Malato,

Philosophie de l'anarchie (1890); Charlotte Wilson, Anarchism

(``Fabian Tracts,'' 4); Anarchism and Violence (``Freedom

Pamphlets''); Albert Parsons, Anarchism, its Philosophy and

Scientific Basis (Chicago, 1888); The Chicago Martyrs:

Speeches in Court; P. Kropotkin, Paroles d'un revolte

(1884); Conquest of Bread (1906) (1st French ed. in 1890);

Anarchist Morality; Anarchy, its Philosophy and Ideals;

Anarchist Communism; The State, its Historic Role; and other

``Freedom Pamphlets''; Fields, Factories and Workshops (5th

popular edition, 1807); Mutual Aid: a Factor of Evolution

(1904). Modern Individualist Anarchists:--B. Tucker, the

paper Liberty (1892 sqq.); Instead of a Book, by one too

busy to write one (Boston, 1893); Dyer Lum, Social Problems

(1883); Lysander Spooner, Natural Law, or the Science of

Justice (Boston, 1891). Religious Anarchists:--Leo Tolstoy,

The Kingdom of God in Yourselves; My Faith; Confession; &c.

The best work on Anarchism, and in fact the only one

written with full knowledge of the Anarchist literature,

and quite fairly, is by a German judge Dr Paul Eltzbacher,

Anarchismus (transl. in all chief European languages,

except English). Prof. Adler's article ``Anarchismus'' in

Conrad's Handworterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, vol.

i., is less accurate for modern times than for the earlier

periods. G. v. Zenker, Der Anarchismus (1895); and

Prof. Edmund Bernatzik, ``Der Anarchismus,'' in Schmoller's

Jahrbuch, may also be mentioned--the remainder being

written with absolute want of knowledge of the subject.

A most important work is the reasoned Bibliographie de l'anarchie,

by Dr M. Nettlan (Brussels, 1897, 8vo, 294 ff.), written with a

full knowledge of the subject and its immense literature. (P. A. K.)

1 It is imoortant to remember that the term ``Anarchist', is

inevitably rather loosely used in public, in connexion with

the authors of a certain class of murderous outrages, and

that the same looseness of definition often applies to the

professions of ``Anarchism'' made by such persons. As stated

above, a philosophic Anarchist would repudiate the connexion.

And the general public view which regards Anarchist doctrines

indiscriminately is to that extent a confusion of terms. But the

following resume of the chief modern so-called ``Anarchist''

incidents is appended for convenience in stating the facts

under the heading where a reader would expect to find them.

Between 1852 and 1886, in France, Prince Kropotkin, Louise

Michel and others were imprisoned. In England, Most, one of

the German Anarchist leaders, founded Die Freiheit, and,

for defending in it the assassination of Alexander II. at St

Petersburg, was sentenced to eighteen months' imprisonment

with hard labour. After this he moved to the United States,

and re-established his paper there in New York, in May

1886. During this period there were several Anarchist

congresses in the United States. In one at Albany, in 1878,

the revolutionary element, led by Justus Schwab, broke away

from the others; at Allegheny City, in 1879, again there

was a rupture between the peaceful and the revolutionary

sections. The Voice of the People at St Louis, the

Arbeiter Zeitung at Chicago, and the Anarchist at Boston,

were the organs of the revolutionary element. In 1883, at

Pittsburg, a congress of twenty-eight delegates, representing

twenty-two towns, drew up an address to the working men of

America. The programme it proposed was as follows:--

First, Destruction of the existing class rule by all means, i.e.

energetic, relentless, revolutionary and international action.

Second, Establishment of a free society, based

upon co-operative organization of production.

Third, Free exchange of equivalent products by and between the

productive organizations, without commerce and profit-mongery.

Fourth, Organization of education on a secular,

scientific and equal basis for both sexes.

Fifth, Equal rights for all, without distinction

of sex or race. the autonomous (independent) communes

and associations, resting on a federalistic basis.

This, together with an appeal to the working men to organize,

was published in Chicago, November 1883, by a local committee

of four, representing French, Bohemian, German and English

sections, the head of the last being August Spies, who was

hanged in 1887 for participation in the Haymarket affair in

Chicago, 4th May 1886. This affair was the culmination of a

series of encounters between the Chicago working men and the

police, which had covered several years. The meeting of 4th

May was called by Spies and others to protest against the

action of the police, by whom several working men had been

killed in collisions growing out of the efforts to introduce

the eight hours' day. The mayor of the city attended the

meeting, but, finding it peaceful, went home. The meeting was

subsequently entered by the police and commanded to disperse.

A bomb was thrown, several policemen being killed and a number

wounded. For this crime eight men were tried in one panel and

condemned, seven--Spies, Parsons, Engel, Fischer, Fielden,

Schwab, and Ling--to death, and one--Neebe--to imprisonment

for fifteen years. The sentences on Fielden and Schwab were

commuted by Governor Oglesby to imprisonment for life, on

the recommendation of the presiding judge and the prosecuting

attorney. Ling committed suicide in jail, and Spies, Parsons,

Engel and Fischer were hanged, 11th November 1887. On 26th

June 1893 an unconditional pardon was granted the survivors,

Fielden, Schwab and Neebe, by Governor Altgeld. The reasons

for the pardon were stated by the governor to be that, upon

an examination of the records he found that the jury had not

been drawn in the usual manner, but by a special bailiff, who

made his own selection and had summoned a ``prejudiced jury'';

that the ``state had never discovered who it was that threw

ihe bomb which killed the policemen, and the evidence does

not show any connexion whatever between the defendants and the

man who did throw it,'' . . . or that this man ``ever heard

or read a word coming from the defendants, and consequently

fails to show that he acted on any advice given by them.''

Judge Gary, the judge at the trial, published a defence of

its procedure in the Century Magazine, vol. xxiii p. 803.

A number of outbreaks in later years were attributed to the

propaganda of reform by revolution, like those in Spain and

France in 1892, in which Ravachol was a prominent figure. In

1893 a bomb was exploded in the French Chamber of Deputies by

Vaillant. The spirit of these men is well illustrated by the

reply which Vaillant made to the judge who reproached him for

endangering the lives of innocent men and women: ``There can

be no innocent bourgeois.'' In 1894 there was an explosion in

a Parisian cafe, and another in a theatre at Barcelona. For

the latter outrage six men were executed. President Carnot

of the French Republic was assassinated by an Italian at

Lyons in the same year. The empress Elizabeth of Austria was

assassinated in September 1898. These events, all associated

by the public with ``Anarchism,'' led to the passage by the

Uniied States Congress of a law, in 1894, to keep out foreign

Anarchists, and to deport any who might be found in the country,

and also to the assemblage of an international conference in

Rome, in 1898, to agree upon some plan for dealing with these

revolutionists. It was proposed that their offences should

no longer be classed as political, but as common-law crimes,

and be made subject to extradition. The suppression of the

revolutionary press and the international co-operation of the

police were also suggested. The results of the conference

were not, however, published; and the question of how to

deal with the campaign against society fell for a while into

abeyance. The attempt made by the youth Sipido on the (then)

prince of Wales at Brussels in 1900 recalled attention to the

subject. The acquittal of Sipido, and the failure of the

Belgian government to see that justice was done in an affair of

such international importance, excited considerable feeling in

England, and was the occasion of a strongly-worded note from

the British to the Belgian government. The murder of King

Humbert of Italy in July 1900 renewed the outcry against Italian

Anarchists. Even greater horror and indignation were excited

by the assassination of President McKinley by Czolgoscz on the

6th of September 1901, at Buffalo, U.S.A. And a particularly

dastardly attempt was made to blow up the young king and

queen of Spain on their wedding-day in 1906. (ED. E.B.)

ANASTASIUS, the name of four popes. ANASTASIUS I.,

pope from 399-401. He it was who condemned the writings

of Origen shortly after their translation into Latin.

ANASTASIUS II., pope from 496-498. He lived in the time of

the schism of Acacius of Constantinople. He showed some tendency

towards conciliation, and thus brought upon himself the lively

reproaches of the author of the Liber pontificalis. On the

strength of this tradition, Dante has placed this pope in hell.

ANASTASIUS III., pope from 911-913, was a Roman by birth.

Practically nothing is recorded of him, his pontificate falling

in the period when Rome was in the power of the Roman nobles.

ANASTASIUS IV. was pope from 1153 to 1154. He was a Roman

named Conrad, son of Benedictus, and at the time of his

election, on the 9th of July 1153, was cardinal bishop of

Sabina. He had taken part in the double election of 1130,

had been one of the most determined opponents of Anacletus II.

and, when Innocent II. fled to France, had been left behind

as his vicar in Italy. During his short pontificate, however,

he played the part of a peacemaker; he came to terms with the

emperor Frederick I. in the vexed question of the appointment

to the see of Magdeburg and closed the long quarrel, which

had raged through four pontificates, about the appointment of

William Fitzherbert (d. 1154)--commonly known as St William

of York--to the see of York, by sending him the pallium, in

spite of the continued opposition of the powerful Cistercian

order. Anastasius died on the 3rd of December 1154, and

was succeeded by Cardinal Nicholas of Albano as Adrian IV.

ANASTASIUS I. (c. 430-518), Roman emperor, was born at

Dyrrhachium not later than A.D. 430. At the time of the death

of Zeno (491), Anastasius, a palace official (silentiarius),

held a very high character, and was raised to the throne

of the Roman empire of the East, through the choice of

Ariadne, Zeno's widow, who married him shortly after his

accession. His reign, though afterwards disturbed by foreign

and intestine wars and religious distractions, commenced

auspiciously. He gained the popular favour by a judicious

remission of taxation, and displayed great vigour and energy

in administering the affairs of the empire. The principal

wars in which Anastasius was engaged were those known as

the Isaurian and the Persian. The former (492-496) was

stirred up by the supporters of Longinus, the brother of

Zeno. The victory of Cotyaeum in 493 ``broke the back'' of

the revolt, but a guerilla warfare continued in the Isaurian

mountains for some years longer. In the war with Persia

(502-505), Theodosiopolis and Amida were captured by the

enemy, but the Persian provinces also suffered severely

and the Romans recovered Amida. Both adversaries were

exhausted when peace was made (506) on the basis of status

quo. Anastasius afterwards built the strong fortress of

Daras to hold Nisibis in check. The Balkan provinces were

devastated by invasions of Slavs and Bulgarians; to protect

Constantinople and its vicinity against them he built the

``Anastasian wall,'' extending from the Propontis to the

Euxine. The emperor was a convinced Monophysite, but his

ecclesiastical policy was moderate; he endeavoured to maintain

the principle of the Henotikon of Zeno and the peace of the

church. It was the uncompromising attitude of the orthodox

extremists, and the rebellious demonstrations of the Byzantine

populace, that drove him in 512 to abandon this policy and

adopt a monophysitic programme. His consequent unpopularity

in the European provinces was utilized by an ambitious

man, named Vitalian, to organize a dangerous rebellion, in

which he was assisted by a horde of ``Huns'' (514-515); it

was finally suppressed by a naval victory won by the general

Marinus. The financial policy of Anastasius was so prudent

and economical that it gained him a reputation for avarice

and contributed to his unpopularity. He died in 518.

AUTHORITIES.--Sources: Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle,

ed. Wright, with English translation, Cambridge, 1882;

Marcellinus, Chronicle; Zachariah of Mytilene, Chronicle

(Eng. trans. by Hamilton and Brooks, London, 1899); Evagrius,

Ecclesiastical History; John Lydus, De Magistratibus; John

Malalas, Chronicle. Modern works: Gibbon, Decline and Fall,

vol. iv. (ed. Bury); Bury, Later Roman Empire, vol. i.

ANASTASIUS II. (d. 721), Roman emperor in the East, whose

original name was Artemius, was raised to the throne of

Constantinople by the voice of the senate and people in A.D.

713, on the deposition of Philippicus, whom he had served in

the capacity of secretary. The empire was threatened by the

Saracens both by land and sea, and Anastasius sent an army

under Leo the Isaurian, afterwards emperor, to defend Syria;

adopted wise and resolute measures for the defence of his

capital; attempted to reorganize the discipline of the army;

and equipped and despatched to Rhodes a formidable naval

force, with orders not only to resist the approach of the

enemy, but to destroy their naval stores. The troops of the

Opsikian province, resenting the emperor's strict measures,

mutinied, slew the admiral, and proclaimed Theodosius, a

person of low extraction, emperor. After a six months' siege,

Constantinople was taken by Theodosius; and Anastasius, who

had fled to Nicaea, was compelled to submit to the new emperor,

and, retiring to Thessalonica, became a monk (716). In 721

he headed a revolt against Leo, who had succeeded Theodosius,

and receiving a considerable amount of support, laid siege

to Constantinople; but the enterprise failed, and Anastasius,

falling into Leo's hands, was put to death by his orders.

AUTHORITIES.--Sources: Theophanes, Chronicle: Nicephorus

Patriarches, Breviarium. Modern works: Gibbon, Decline and

Fall, vol. v. (ed. Bury); Bury, Later Roman Empire, vol. ii.

ANASTOMOSIS (a Greek word in which the second o is long,

from anastomoun, to furnish with a mouth or outlet),

the intercommunication between two vessels; a word used in

vegetable and animal anatomy for the communication between

channels (arteries and veins) containing fluid, and also for

the crossing between the veins or branches of leaves, trees,

insect-wings or river-connexions, and by analogy in art-design.

ANATASE, one of the three mineral forms of titanium dioxide.

It is always found as small, isolated and sharply developed

crystals, and like rutile, a more commonly occurring modification

of titanium dioxide, it crystallizes in the tetragonal system;

but, although the degree of symmetry is the same for both,

there is no relation between the interfacial angles of the two

minerals, except, of course, in the prism-zone of 45 deg. and

90 deg. . The common pyramid {111} (fig. 1) of anatase,1 parallel

to the faces of which there are perfect cleavages, has an angle

over the polar edge of 82 deg. 9', the corresponding angle (111):

(111) of rutile being 56 deg. 52 1/2'. It was on account of this

steeper pyramid of anatase that the mineral was named, by R.

J. Hauy in 1801, from the Gr. anatasis, ``extension,''

the vertical axis of the crystals being longer than in rutile.

There are also important differences between the physical

characters of anatase and rutile; the former is not quite

so hard (H= 5 1/2-6) or dense (sp. gr. = 3.9); it is optically

negative, rutile being positive; and its lustre is even more

strongly adamantine or metallic-adamantine than that of rutile.

Two types or habits of anatase crystals may be distinguished.

The commoner occurs as simple acute double pyramids {111}

(fig. 1) with an indigo-blue to black colour and steely

lustre. Crystals of this kind are abundant at Le Bourg

d'Oisans in Dauphine, where they are associated with

rock-crystal, felspar and axinite in crevices in granite and

mica-schist. Similar crystals, but of microscopic size,

are widely distributed in sedimentary rocks, such as

sandstones, clays and slates, from which they may be separated

by washing away the lighter constituents of the powdered

rock. Crystals of the second type have numerous pyramidal

faces developed, and they are usually flatter or sometimes

prismatic in habit (fig. 2); the colour is honey-yellow to

FIG. 1. FIG. 2.

brown. Such crystals closely resemble xenotine in appearance

and, indeed, were for a long time supposed to belong to

this species, the special name wiserine being applied to

them. They occur attached to the walls of crevices in

the gneisses of the Alps, the Binnenthal near Brieg in

canton Valais, Switzerland, being a well-known locality.

When strongly heated, anatase is converted into rutile, changing

in specific gravity to 4.1; naturally occurring pseudomorphs of

rutile after anatase are also known. Crystals of anatase have

been artificially prepared by several methods; for instance,

by the interaction of steam and titanium chloride or fluoride.

Another name commonly in use for this mineral is octahedrite,

a name which, indeed, is earlier than anatase, and given

because of the common (acute) octahedral habit of the

crystals. Other names, now obsolete, are oisanite and

dauphinite, from the well-known French locality. (L. J. S.)

1 For the notation see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

ANATHEMA (from Gr. anatithenai, to lift up), literally

an offering, a thing set aside. The classical Greek form

anathema (Lat. anathema) was the technical term for

a gift (cf. donarium, oblatio) made to a god either in

gratitude or with a view to propitiation. Thus at Athens

the Thesmothetae (perhaps all the archons) made a vow that,

should they break any law, they would dedicate a life-size

gilt statue in the temple at Delphi. Similarly, of spoils

taken in war, a part, generally a tenth, was dedicated to the

god of the city (e.g. to Athena); to this class probably

belong the trophies erected by the victors on the field of

battle; sometimes a captured ship was placed upon a hill as

an offering to Poseidon (Neptune). Persons who had recovered

from an illness offered anathemata in the temples of

Asclepius (Aesculapius); those who had escaped from shipwreck

offered their clothes, or, if these had been lost, a lock of

hair, to Neptune (Hor. Odes, i. 5. 13; Virg. Aeneid, xii.

768). The latter offering was very commonly made by young

men and girls, especially young brides. Works of art of

all kinds and the implements of a craftsman giving up his

work were likewise dedicated. Such presents were far more

common, as also more valuable, among the Greeks than among the

Romans. Similar practices were prevalent, to an extent hardly

realized, among the Christians up to the middle ages and even

later. Just as the ancients hung their offerings on trees,

temple columns and the images of the gods, so offerings were

made to the Cross, to the Virgin Mary and on altars generally.

In the form anathema, the word is used in the Septuagint,

the New Testament and ecclesiastical writers as the equivalent

of the Hebrew herem, which is commonly translated

``accursed thing'' (A.V.) or ``devoted thing'' (R.V.; cf.

the Roman devotio.) In Hebrew the root h-r-m means

to ``set apart,'' ``devote to Yahweh,'' for destruction;

but in Arabic it means simply to separate or seclude (cf.

``harem''). The idea of destruction or perdition is thus

a secondary meaning of the Word, which gradually lost its

primary sense of consecration. In the New Testament, though

it is used in the sense of ``offering'' (Luke xxi. 5), it

generally signifies ``separated'' from the church, i.e.

``accursed'' (cf. Gal. i. 8 ff.; 1 Cor. xvi. 22), and it became

the regular formula of excommunication from the time of the

council of Chalcedon in 451, especially against heretics,

e.g. in the canons of the council of Trent and those of

the Vatican council of 1870. See EXCOMMUNICATION; PENANCE.

The expression maranatha (``the Lord cometh''), which

follows anathema in 1 Cor. xvi. 22, is often erroneously

quoted as though it were an amplification of the curse.

ANATOLI, JACOB (c. 1194-1256), Hebrew translator from the

Arabic. He was invited to Naples by the enlightened ruler Frederick

II., and under this royal patronage and in association with Michael

Scot, made Arabic learning accessible to Western readers. Among

his most important services were translations of works by Averroes.

ANATOLIA (Gr. anatole, sunrise, i.e. eastern land), in

ancient geography, the country east of the Aegean, i.e. Asia

Minor. It was the name of one of the three themes (provinces)

into which Phrygia was divided in the military reorganization

of the East Roman empire. It is now used (by the Turks in

the form (Anadoli) to denote a division of the Turkish

empire, practically coincident with Asia Minor (q.v..)

ANATOMY (Gr. anatome, from ana-temnein, to cut up),

literally dissection or cutting asunder, a term always used

to denote the study of the structure of living things; thus

there is animal anatomy (zootomy) and vegetable anatomy

(phytotomy). Animal anatomy may include the study of the

structure of different animals, when it is called comparative

anatomy or animal morphology, or it may be limited to

one animal only, in which case it is spoken of as special

anatomy. From a utilitarian point of view the study of Man

is the most important division of special anatomy, and this

human anatomy may be approached from different points of

view. From that of the medical man it consists of a knowledge

of the exact form, position, size and relationship of the various

structures of the human body in health, and to this study the

term descriptive or topographical human anatomy is given,

though it is often, less happily, spoken of as Anthropotomy.

An accurate knowledge of all the details of the human body takes

years of patient observation to gain and is possessed by only a

few. So intricate is man's body that only a small number of

professional human anatomists are complete masters of all its

details, and most of them specialize on certain parts, such

as the brain, viscera, &c.; contenting themselves with a

good working knowledge of the rest. Topographical anatomy

must be learned by each person for himself by the repeated

dissection and inspection of the dead human body. It is no

more a science than a pilot's knowledge is, and, like that

knowledge, must be exact and available in moments of emergency.

From the morphological point of view, however, human anatomy

is a scientific and fascinating study, having for its object

the discovery of the causes which have brought about the

existing structure of Man, and needing a knowledge of the allied

sciences of embryology or ontogeny, phylogeny and histology.

Pathological or morbid anatomy is the study of diseased

organs, while sections of normal anatomy, applied to various

purposes, receive special names such as medical, surgical,

gynaecological, artistic and superficial anatomy. The

comparison of the anatomy of different races of mankind is

part of the science of physical anthropology or anthropological

anatomy. In the present edition of this work the subject of

anatomy is treated systematically rather than topographically.

Each anatomical article contains first a description of the

structures of an organ or system (such as nerves, arteries,

heart, &c.), as it is found in Man; and this is followed by

an account of the development or embryology and comparative

anatomy or morphology, as far as vertebrate animals are

concerned; but only those parts of the lower animals which

are of interest in explaining Man's structure are here dealt

with. The articles have a twofold purpose; first, to give

enough details of man's structure to make the articles on

physiology, surgery, medicine and pathology intelligible;

and, secondly, to give the non-expert inquirer, or the

worker in some other branch of science, the chief theories on

which the modern scientific groundwork of anatomy is built.

The following separate anatomical articles

will be found under their own headings:--

Alimentary canal. Nervous system.

Arteries. Nerve.

Brain. Olfactory system.

Coelom and serous membranes. Pharynx.

Connective tissues. Pancreas.

Diaphragm. Placenta.

Ductless glands. Reproductive system.

Ear. Respiratory system.

Epithelial, endothelial and Scalp.

glandular tissues. Skeleton.

Eye. Skin and Exoskeleton.

Heart. Skull.

Joints. Spinal cord.

Liver. Teeth.

Lymphatic system. Tongue.

Mammary gland. Urinary system.

Mouth and salivary glands. Vascular system.

Muscular system. Veins.

HISTORY OF ANATOMY1 In tracing the history of the origin

of anatomy, it may be justly said that more learning than

judgment has been displayed. Some writers claim for it the

highest antiquity, and pretend to find its first rudiments

alternately in the animal sacrifices of the shepherd kings,

the Jews and other ancient nations, and in the art of embalming

as practised by the Egyptian priests.2 Even the descriptions

of wounds in the Iliad have been supposed adequate to

prove that in the time of Homer mankind had distinct notions

of the structure of the human body. Of the first it may

be said that the rude information obtained by the slaughter

of animals for sacrifice does not imply profound anatomical

knowledge; and those who adduce the second as evidence are

deceived by the language of the poet of the Trojan War, which,

distinguishing certain parts by their ordinary Greek epithets,

as afterwards used by Hippocrates, Galen and all anatomists,

has been rather too easily supposed to prove that the poet

had studied systematically the structure of the human frame.

Hippocrates.