It was in connexion with this mission that an episode occurred

which at the time threw much discredit upon Gladstone's

government. Russia had taken advantage of the collapse of

France and her own cordial relations with Prussia to denounce

the Black Sea clauses of the treaty of Paris of 1856. Russell,

in an interview with Bismarck, pointed out that unless Russia

withdrew from an attitude which involved the destruction of

a treaty solemnly guaranteed by the powers, Great Britain

would be forced to go to war ``with or without allies.'' This

strong attitude was effective, and the question was ultimately

referred to and settled by the conference which met at London in

1871. Though the result was to score a distinct diplomatic

success for the Liberal government, the bellicose method

employed wounded Liberal sentiment and threatened to create

trouble for the ministry in parliament. On the 16th of February

1871, accordingly, Gladstone, in answer to a question, said

that ``the argument used by Mr Odo Russell was not one which

had been directed by her Majesty's government,'' that it was

used by him ``without any specific instructions or authority

from the government,'' but that, at the same time, no blame

was to be attached to him, as it was ``perfectly well known

that the duty of diplomatic agents requires them to express

themselves in that mode in which they think they can best

support and recommend the propositions of which they wish to

procure acceptance.'' This Gladstonian explanation was widely

criticized as an illegitimate attack on Russell. What is

certain is that the foreign office and the country profited

by Russell's firmness. (See Morley's Gladstone, ii. 534.)

A little later in the same year he received the well-deserved

reward of his labours by being made ambassador at Berlin.

During the months he passed at the foreign office he was

examined before the committee of the House of Commons, already

alluded to, and had an opportunity of stating very distinctly

in public some of his views with regard to his profession.

``If you could only organize diplomacy properly,'' he said,

``you would create a body of men who might influence the

destinies of mankind and ensure the peace of the world.'' In

these words we have the key to the thought and habitual action

of one of the best and wisest public servants of the time.

Russell remained at Berlin, with only brief intervals of

absence, from the 16th of October 1871 till his death at Potsdam

on the 25th of August 1884. He was third plenipotentiary at

the Berlin congress, and is generally credited with having

prevented, by his tact and good sense, the British prime

minister from making a speech in French, which he knew very

imperfectly and pronounced abominably. In 1874 Odo Russell

received a patent of precedence raising him to the rank of a

duke's son, and after the congress of Berlin he was offered

a peerage by the Conservative government. This he naturally

declined, but accepted the honour in 1881 when it was offered

by the Liberals, taking the title of Baron Ampthill. He became

a privy councillor in 1872 and was made a G.C.B. somewhat

later. At the conference about the Greek frontier, which

followed the congress of Berlin, he was the only British

representative. During all his long sojourn in the Prussian

capital, he did everything that in him lay to bring about

close and friendly relations between Great Britain and

Germany. He kept on the best of terms with Bismarck, carefully

avoiding everything that could give any cause of offence to

that most jealous and most unscrupulous minister, whom he,

however, did not hesitate to withstand when his unscrupulousness

went the length of deliberately attempting to deceive.

He was succeeded as 2nd baron by his son, ARTHUR OLIVER

VILLIERS RUSSELL (b. 1869), who rowed in the Oxford

eight (1889, 1890, 1891) and became a prominent Unionist

politician. He was private secretary to Mr Chamberlain,

1895-1897, and governor of Madras, 1899-1906. In 1904

he acted temporarily as Viceroy of India. (M. G. D.)

AMPTHILL, a market town in the northern parliamentary division

of Bedfordshire, England, 44 m. N.N.W. of London by the Midland

railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2177. It lies on

the southern slope of a low range of hills, in a well-wooded

district. The church of St Andrew ranges in date from Early

English to Perpendicular. It contains a monument to Richard

Nicolls (1624-1672), who, under the patronage of the duke of

York, brother to Charles II., to whom the king had granted

the Dutch North American colony of New Netherland, received

the submission of its chief town, New Amsterdam, in 1664,

and became its first English governor, the town taking the

name of New York. Nicolls perished in the action between

the English and Dutch fleets at Solebay, and the ball which

killed him is preserved on his tomb. Houghton Park, in the

vicinity, contains the ruins of Houghton House, built by

Mary, countess of Pembroke, in the time of James I. To

this countess Sir Philip Sidney dedicated the Arcadia.

Ampthill Park became in 1818 the seat of that Lord Holland

in whose time Holland House, in Kensington, London, became

famous as a resort of the most distinguished intellectual

society. In the park a cross marks the site of Ampthill

Castle, the residence of Catherine of Aragon while her divorce

from Henry VIII. was pending. A commemorative inscription

on the cross was written by Horace Walpole. Brewing,

straw-plaiting and lace-making are carried on in Ampthill.

AMPULLA (either a diminutive of amphora, or from Lat.

ambo, both, and olla, a pot), a small, narrow-necked,

round-bodied vase for holding liquids, especially oil and

perfumes. It is the Latin term equivalent to the Greek

lekuthos. It was used in ancient times for toilet purposes

and anointing the bodies of the dead, being then buried with

them. Gildas mentions the use of ampullae as established

among the Britons in his time, and St Columba is said to have

employed one in the coronation of King Aidan. Both the name

and the function of the ampulla have survived in the Western

Church, where it still signifies the vessel containing the

oil consecrated by the bishop for ritual uses, especially in

the sacraments of Confirmation, Orders and Extreme Unction.

The word occurs repeatedly in the service of coronation of

the English sovereign in connexion with the ancient ceremony

of anointing by the archbishop of Canterbury, which is still

observed. The ampulla of the regalia of England takes the form

of a golden eagle with outspread wings. The most celebrated

ampulla in history was that known as la sainte ampoule, in the

abbey of St Remi at Reims, from which the kings of France were

anointed. According to the legend it had been brought from

heaven by a dove for the coronation of Clovis, and at one period

the kings of France claimed precedence over all other sovereigns

on account of it. It was destroyed at the Revolution. The

word ``ampulla'' is used in biology, by analogy from the shape,

for a certain portion of the anatomy of a plant or animal.

AMRAM (d. 875), a famous gaon or head of the Jewish

Academy of Sura (Persia) in the 9th century. He was author

of many ``Responsa,'' but his chief work was liturgical.

He was the first to arrange a complete liturgy for the

synagogue, and his Prayer-Book (Siddur Rab `Amram) was

the foundation of most of the extant rites in use among the

Jews. The Siddur was published in Warsaw in two parts (1865).

AMRAOTI, or UMRAWATTEE, a town and district of India, in

Berar, Central Provinces. The district was reconstituted

in 1905, when that of Ellichpur was incorporated with

it. The town has a station 6 m. from Badnera junction on

the Great Indian Peninsula line. Pop. (1901) 34,216, showing

an increase of 22% in the decade. It is the richest town of

Berar, with the most numerous and substantial commercial

population. It possesses a branch of the Bank of Bombay,

and has the largest cotton mart, where an average of 80,593

bojas of cotton are bought and sold annually. It has also a

large grain market, cotton presses, ginning factories and oil

mills. Amraoti raw cotton is quoted on the Liverpool Exchange.

The district of Amraoti has an area of 4754 sq. m. In 1901

the population was 630,245, showing a decrease of 4% in the

decade; on the area as now constituted it was 809,499. The

district is an extensive plain, about 800 ft. above sea-level,

the general flatness being only broken by a small chain of

hills, running in a north-westerly direction between Amraoti

and Chandor, with an average height from 400 to 500 ft.

above the lowlands. The principal towns, besides Amraoti,

are Karinja, Kolapur, and Badnera, which lies on the Great

Indian Peninsula railway, the main line of which crosses the

district. Severe drought visited Amraoti in 1899-1900.

AMRAVATI, or AMARAVATI, a ruined city of India in the

Guntur district of the Madras presidency, on the south

bank of the Kistna river, 62 m. from its mouth. The town

is of great interest for the antiquary as one of the chief

centres of the Buddhist kingdom of Vengi, and for its stupa

(sepulchral monument). Amravati has been identified with

Hsuan Tsang's To-na-kie-tse-kia and with the Rahmi of Arab

geographers. Subsequent to the disappearance of Buddhism

from this region the town became a centre of the Sivaite

faith. When Hsuan Tsang visited Amravati in A.D. 639

it had already been deserted for a century, but he speaks

in glowing terms of its magnificence and beauty. Very

careful and artistic representations of the stupa with its

daghoba and interesting rail, pillars and sculptures will

be found in Fergusson's Tree and Serpent Worship, and in

his History of Indian Architecture (1876). Its elaborate

carvings illustrate the life of Buddha. Some are preserved

in the British Museum; others in the museum at Madras.

An account by Dr James Burgess was published in 1877 as one

of the volumes of the Archaeological Survey of Southern India.

`AMR-IBN-EL-ASS, or `AMR (strictly `AMR B. `AS), one

of the most famous of the first race of the Saracen leaders,

was of the tribe of Koreish (Qureish). In his youth he was

an antagonist of Mahomet. His zeal prompted him to undertake

an embassy to the king of Ethiopia, in order to stimulate him

against the converts whom he had taken under his protection,

but he returned a convert to the Mahommedan faith and joined

the fugitive prophet at Medina. When Abu Bekr resolved to

invade Syria, he entrusted `Amr with a high command. `Amr soon

perceived that his troops were not sufficient for a serious

battle. Reinforced by Khalid b. al-Walid, whom Abu Bekr

sent in all haste from Irak to Syria, he defeated the imperial

troops, commanded by Theodorus, the brother of Heraclius,

not far from Ramleh in Palestine, on the 31st of July 634.

When Omar became caliph he made Khalid chief commander of

the Syrian armies, `Amr remaining in Palestine to complete

the submission of that province. It is not certain that `Amr

assisted Khalid in the siege of Damascus, but very probable

that he took part in the decisive battle of Yarmuk, 20th of

August 636. After this battle he laid siege to Jerusalem, in

which enterprise he was seconded a year later by Abu Obeida,

then chief commander. After the surrender of Jerusalem `Amr

began the siege of Caesarea, which, however, was brought to

a successful end in September or October 640 by Moawiya, `Amr

having obtained Omar's sanction for an expedition against

Egypt. Towards the end of 639 he led an army of 4000 Arabs

into that country. During his march a messenger from Omar

arrived with a letter containing directions to return if he

should have received it in Syria, but if in Egypt to advance,

in which case all needful assistance would be instantly sent to

him. The contents of the letter were not made known to his

officers until he was assured that the army was on Egyptian

soil, so that the expedition might be continued under the

sanction of Omar's orders. Having taken Farama (Pelusium), he

advanced to Misr, north of the ancient Memphis, and besieged

it and the strong fortress of Babylon for seven months.

Although numerous reinforcements arrived, he would have found

it very difficult to storm the place previous to the inundation

of the Nile but for treachery within the citadel; the Greeks

who remained there were either made prisoners or put to the

sword. On the same spot `Amr built a city named Fostat (``the

encampment''), the ruins of which are known by the name of Old

Cairo. The mosque which he erected and called by his own

name is described in Asiatic Journal (1890), p. 759. `Amr

pursued the Greeks to Alexandria, but finding that it was

impossible to take the place by storm, he contented himself with

blockading it with the greater part of his army, and reducing

the Delta to submission with the rest. At the end of twelve

months Alexandria sued for peace, and a treaty was signed on

the 8th of November 641. To `Amr acting on Omar's command has

been attributed the burning of the famous Alexandrian library.

(See LIBRARIES and ALEXANDRIA.) Not only is this act of

barbarism inconsistent with the characters of Omar and his

general, but the earliest authority for the story is Abulfaragius

(Barhebraeus), a Christian writer, who lived six centuries

later. After the conquest of Egypt `Amr carried his conquests

eastward along the North African coast as far as Barca and even

Tripolis. His administration of Egypt was moderate and

statesmanlike, and under his rule the produce of the Nile

Valley was a constant source of supply to the cities of

Arabia. He even reopened a canal at least 80 m. long

from the Nile to the Red Sea with the object of renewing

communication by sea. Removed from his office by Othman in

647, who replaced him by Ibn abi Sarh, he sided with Moawiya

in the contest for the caliphate, and was largely responsible

for the deposition of Ali (q.v.) and the establishment of

the Omayyad dynasty. (See CALIPHATE, section B.) In 658 he

reconquered Egypt in Moawiya's interest, and governed it till

his death on the 6th of January 664. In a pathetic speech

to his children on his deathbed, he bitterly lamented his

youthful offence in opposing the prophet, although Mahomet had

forgiven him and had frequently affirmed that ``there was no

Mussulman more sincere and steadfast in the faith than `Amr.''

Sir W. Muir, The Caliphate (London, 1891); E. Gibbon,s

Decline and Fall; M. J. de Goeje, Memoire sur la conquete

de la Syrie (Leiden, 1900); Butler, Arab Conquest of Egypt

(Oxford, 1902); art. EGYPT, History, Mahommedan Period.

`AMR IBN KULTHUM, Arabian poet, author of one of the

Mo`allakat. Little or nothing is known of his life save that he

was a member of the tribe of Taghlib and that he is said to have

died of excessive wine-drinking. Some stories of him are told

in the Book of Songs (see ABULFARAJ), vol. ix. pp. 181-185.

AMRITSAR, or UMRITSAR, a city and district of British

India, in the Lahore division of the Punjab. The city has a

station on the North Western railway 32 m. E. of Lahore, its

position on which has greatly assisted its development. Amritsar

is chiefly notable as the centre of the Sikh religion and the

site of the Golden Temple, the chief worshipping place of the

Sikhs. Ram Das, the fourth guru, laid the foundations of

the city upon a site granted by the emperor Akbar. He also

excavated the holy tank from which the town derives its name

of Amrita Turas, or Pool of Immortality. It is upon a small

island in the middle of this tank that the Golden Temple is now

situated. About two centuries afterwards, in the course of

the struggle between the Sikhs and the Mahommedans, Ahmad

Shah Durani routed the Sikhs at the great battle of Panipat,

and on his homeward march he destroyed the town of Amritsar,

blew up the temple with gunpowder, filled in the sacred tank

with mud, and defiled the holy place by the slaughter of

cows. But when Ahmad Shah returned to Kabul the Sikhs rose

once more and re-established their religion. Finally the

city and surrounding district fell under the sway of Ranjit

Singh at Lahore, and passed with the rest of the Punjab

into the possession of the British after the second Sikh

war. The Golden Temple is so called on account of its copper

dome, covered with gold foil, which shines brilliantly

in the rays of the Indian sun, and is reflected back from

the waters of the lake; but the building as a whole is

too squat to have much architectural merit apart from its

ornamentation. Marble terraces and balustrades surround the

tank, and a marble causeway leads across the water to the

temple, whose gilded walls, roof, dome and cupolas, with

vivid touches of red curtains, are reflected in the still

water. The temple was considerably enriched by the spoils

taken by Ranjit Singh in his conquests. The population of

Amritsar in 1901 was 162,429. A Sikh college for university

education was opened in 1897. The other public buildings

include two churches, a town hall and a hospital. Amritsar

is famous for its carpet-weaving industry. It was the first

mission station of the church of England in the Punjab.

The district is bounded on the N.W. by the river Ravi, on

the S.E. by the river Beas, on the N.E. by the district of

Gurdaspur, and on the S.W. by the district of Lahore. Amritsar

district is a nearly level plain, with a very slight slope

from east to west. The banks of the Beas are high, and on

this side of the district well-water is not found except at

50 ft. below the surface; while towards the Ravi wells are

less than 20 ft. in depth. The only stream passing through

the district is the Kirni or Saki, which takes its rise

in a marsh in the Gurdaspur district, and after traversing

part of the district empties itself into the Ravi. Numerous

canals intersect the district, affording ample means of

irrigation. The Sind, Punjab and Delhi railway (North Western)

and Grand Trunk road, which runs parallel with it, afford

the principal means of land communication and traffic. The

area of the district is 1601 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 1,023,828,

showing an increase of 3% on the previous decade. It is the

headquarters of the Sikh religion, containing 264,329 Sikhs as

against 280,985 Hindus and 474,976 Mahommedans. The principal

crops are wheat, pulse, maize, millet, with some cotton and

sugar-cane. There are factories for ginning and pressing cotton.

AMROHA, a town of British India, in the Moradabad

district of the United Provinces. It contains the tomb

of a Mahommedan saint, Shaikh Saddu, and has been for

many centuries a Mahommedan centre. Pop. (1901) 40,077.

AMRUM, or AMROM, a German island in the North Sea,

off the coast of Schleswig-Holstein to the south of

Sylt. Pop. (1900) 900. It is 6 m. long and 3 m. broad, with

an area of 10 1/2 sq. m., and is reached from the mainland

by a regular steamboat service to Wittdun, a favourite

sea-bathing resort; or at low water by carriage from

Fohr. The larger part of Amrum consists of a treeless

sandy expanse, but a fringe of rich marshes affords good

pasture-land. The principal place is Nebel, connected by a

light railway with Wittdun. (See also FRISIAN ISLANDS.)

AMRU'-UL-QAIS, or IMRU'-UL QAIS, IBN HUJR, Arabian

poet of the 6th century, the author of one of the Mo`allaat

(q.v.), was regarded by Mahomet and others as the most

distinguished poet of pre-Islamic times. He was of the kingly

family of Kinda, and his mother was of the tribe of Taghlib.

While he was still young, his father was killed by the Bani

Asad. After this his life was devoted to the attempt to

avenge his father's death. He wandered from tribe to tribe

to gain assistance, but his attempts were always foiled by

the persistent following of the messengers of Mundhir of Hira

(Hira). At last he went to the Jewish Arabian prince,

Samu`al, left his daughter and treasure with him, and

by means of Harith of Ghassan procured an introduction

to the Byzantine emperor Justinian. After a long stay

in Constantinople he was named phylarch of Palestine, and

received a body of troops from Justin II. With these he

started on his way to Arabia. It is said that a man of Asad,

who had followed him to Constantinople, charged him before

the emperor with the seduction of a princess, and that Justin

sent him a poisoned cloak, which caused his death at Ancyra.

His poems are contained in W. Ahlwardt's The Divans of

the six ancient Arabic Poets (London, 1870), and have

been published separately in M`G. de Slane's Le Diwan

d'Amro'lkais (Paris, 1837); a German version with life and

notes in F. Ruckert's Amrilkais der Dichter und Konig

(Stuttgart, 1843). Many stories of his life are told in

the Kitab ul-Aghani, vol. viii. pp. 62-77. (G. W. T.)

AMSDORF, NICOLAUS VON (1483-1565), German Protestant

reformer, was born on the 3rd of December 1483 at Torgau, on the

Elbe. He was educated at Leipzig, and then at Wittenberg,

where he was one of the first who matriculated (1502) in

the recently founded university. He soon obtained various

academical honours, and became professor of theology in

1511. Like Andreas Carlstadt, he was at first a leading

exponent of the older type of scholastic theology, but

under the influence of Luther abandoned his Aristotelian

positions for a theology based on the Augustinian doctrine of

grace. Throughout his life he remained one of Luther's most

determined supporters; was with him at the Leipzig conference

(1519), and the diet of Worms (1521); and was in the secret

of his Wartburg seclusion. He assisted the first efforts

of the Reformation at Magdeburg (1524), at Goslar (1531)

and at Einbeck (1534); took an active part in the debates

at Schmalkalden (1537), where he defended the use of the

sacrament by the unbelieving; and (1539) spoke out strongly

against the bigamy of the landgrave of Hesse. After the

death of the count palatine, bishop of Naumburg-Zeitz, he was

installed there (January 20, 1542), though in opposition to the

chapter, by the elector of Saxony and Luther. His position

was a painful one, and he longed to get back to Magdeburg,

but was persuaded by Luther to stay. After Luther's death

(1546) and the battle of Muhlberg (1547) he had to yield to

his rival, Julius von Pflug, and retire to the protection of

the young duke of Weimar. Here he took part in founding Jena

University (1548); opposed the ``Augsburg Interim'' (1548);

superintended the publication of the Jena edition of Luther's

works; and debated on the freedom of the will, original sin,

and, more noticeably, on the Christian value of good works, in

regard to which he held that they were not only useless, but

prejudicial. He urged the separation of the High Lutheran

party from Melanchthon (1557), got the Saxon dukes to oppose

the Frankfort Recess (1558) and continued to fight for the

purity of Lutheran doctrine. He died at Eisenach on the

14th of May 1565, and was buried in the church of St George

there, where his effigy shows a well-knit frame and sharp-cut

features. He was a man of strong will, of great aptitude for

controversy, and considerable learning, and thus exercised

a decided influence on the Reformation. Many letters

and other short productions of his pen are extant in MS.,

especially five thick volumes of Amsdorfiana, in the Weimar

library. They are a valuable source for our knowledge of

Luther. A small sect, which adopted his opinion on good works,

was called after him; but it is now of mere historical interest.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Life, in Th. Pressel, Leben u. ausgewahlte

Schrift. der Vater der luth. Kirche, vol. viii.

(published separately Elberfeld, 1862, 8vo); J. Meier in

Das Leben der Altvater der luth. Kirche, vol, iii.

ed. M. Meurer (1863); art. by G. Kawerau in Herzog-Hauck,

Realencyk. fur prot. Theologie (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1896).

AMSLER, SAMUEL (1791-1849), Swiss engraver, was born at

Schinznach, in the canton of Aargau. He studied his art

under Johan Heinrich Lips (1758-1817) and Karl Ernst Hess, at

Munich, and from 1816 pursued it in Italy, and chiefly at

Rome, till in 1829 he succeeded his former master Hess as

professor of copper engraving in the Munich academy. The works

he designed and engraved are remarkable for the grace of the

figures, and for the wonderful skill with which he retains and

expresses the characteristics of the original paintings and

statues. He was a passionate admirer of Raphael, and had great

success in reproducing his works. Amsler's principal engravings

are: ``The Triumphal March of Alexander the Great,'' and a

full-length ``Christ,'' after the sculptures of Thorwaldsen and

Dannecker; the ``Entombment of Christ,'' and two ``Madonnas''

after Raphael; and the ``Union between Religion and the Arts,''

after Overbeck, his last Work, on which he spent six years.

AMSTERDAM, the chief city of Holland, in the province of

North Holland, on the south side of the Y or Ij, an arm of

the Zuider Zee, in 52 deg. 22`N. and 4 deg. 53' E. Pop. (1900)

523,557. It has communication by railway and canal in every

direction; steam-tramways connect it with Edam, Purmerend,

Alkmaar and Hilversum, and electric railways with Haarlem

and the sea-side resort of Zandvoort. Amsterdam, the ``dam

or dyke of the Amstel'', is so called from the Amstel, the

canalized river which passes through the city to the Y. Towards

the land the city is surrounded by a semicircular fosse or

canal, and was at one time regularly fortified; but the

ramparts have been demolished and are replaced by fine gardens

and houses, and only one gateway, the Muiderpoort, is still

standing. Within the city are four similar canals (grachten)

with their ends resting on the Y, extending in the form of

polygonal crescents nearly parallel to each other and to the

outer canal. Each of these canals marks the line of the city

walls and moat at different periods. Lesser canals intersect

the others radially, thus virtually dividing the city into a

number of islands; whence it has been compared with Venice.

The nucleus of the town lies within the innermost crescent

canal, and, with the large square, the Dam, in the centre,

represents the area of Amsterdam about the middle of the 14th

century. At one extremity of the enclosing canal is the

Schreijerstoren (1482) or ``Weepers' Tower,'' so called on

account of its being at the head of the ancient harbour,

and the scene in former days of sorrowful leave-takings.

Between this and the next crescent of the Heeren Gracht sprang

up, on the east, the labyrinthine quarter where for more

than three centuries the large Jewish population has been

located, and in the middle of which the painter Rembrandt

lived (1640-1656) and the philosopher Spinoza was born

(1632). Beyond the Heeren Gracht lie the Keizers Gracht and

the Prinsen Gracht respectively, and these three celebrated

canals, with their tree-bordered quays and plain but stately

old-fashioned houses, form the principal thoroughfares of the

city. West of the Prinsen Gracht lies the region called

De Jordaan, a corruption of Le Jardin, the name which it

acquired from the fact of its streets being called after

various flowers. It was formed by the settlement of

French refugees here after the revocation of the edict of

Nantes. The outermost crescent canal is called the Singel

Gracht (girdle canal), and marks the boundary of the city

at the end of the 17th century. The streets in the oldest

part of Amsterdam are often narrow and irregular, and the

sky-line is picturesquely broken by fantastic gables, roofs and

towers. The site of the city being originally a peat bog,

the foundations of the houses have to be secured by driving

long piles (4-20 yds.) into the firm clay below, the palace

on the Dam being supported on nearly 14,000 piles. As late

as 1822, however, an overladen corn magazine sank into the

mud. Modern Amsterdam extends southward beyond the Singel

Gracht, and here the houses are often very handsome, while

the broad streets are planted with rows of large trees. In

the middle of this new region lies the Vondel Park, named

after the great national poet Joost van den Vondel (d. 1679),

whose statue stands in the park. The Willems Park adjoining

was added in later times. In the older part of the town the

chief open space is the Zoological Gardens in the north-eastern

corner. They belong to a private society called Natura

Artis Magistra, and came into existence in 1838. They

have, however, been much enlarged since then, and bear a high

reputation. In connexion with the gardens there are an aquarium

(1882), a library, and an ethnographical and natural history

museum. Concerts are given here in summer as well as in

the Vondel Park. Close to the Zoological Gardens are the

Botanical Gardens, and a small park, also the property of

a private society, in which there is a variety theatre.

The public squares of the city include the Sophiaplein,

with the picturesque old mint-tower; the Rembrandtplein,

with a monument (1852) to the painter by Lodswyk Royer;

the Thorbeckeplein, with a monument to the statesman, J.

R. Thorbecke (1798-1872), and the Leidscheplein, with the

large town theatre, rebuilt in 1890-1894 after a fire.

Buildings and Institutions.--The Dam is the vital centre of

Amsterdam. All the tramways meet here, and some of the busiest

streets, and here too are situated the Nieuwe Kerk and the

palace. In the middle of the Dam stands a monument to

those who fell in the Belgian revolution of 1830-1831, and

called the Metal Cross after the war medals struck at that

time. The palace is an imposing building in the classical

style, originally built as a town-hall in 1648-1655 by the

architect Jacob van Kempen. It was first given up to royalty

on the occasion of the visit of the Stadtholder William V.

in 1768, and forty years later was appropriated as a royal

palace by Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland. But King William

I. afterwards formally returned the palace to the city, and

the sovereign is therefore actually the city's guest when

residing in it. Beautifully decorated on the exterior with

gable reliefs by Artus Quellinus (1609-1668) of Antwerp, its

great external defect is the absence of a grand entrance.

The architectural and ornamental sculpture of the interior

is mostly by the same artist, and there are a few interesting

pictures, as well as some realistic wall paintings by the

18th century artist Jacob de Wit similar to those in the

Huis ten Bosch near the Hague. The great hall is one of the

most splendid of its kind in Europe. Like most of the lesser

apartments, it is lined with white Italian marble, and in

spite of its enormous dimensions the roof is unsupported by

pillars. Ancient flags captured in war decorate the walls,

and in the middle of the marble floor is a representation

of the firmament inlaid in copper. The Nieuwe Kerk (St

Catherine's), in which the sovereigns of Holland are crowned,

is a fine Gothic building dating from 1408. Internally it

is remarkable for its remains of ancient stained glass, fine

carvings and interesting monuments, including one to the famous

Admiral de Ruyter (d. 1676). A large stained-glass window

commemorates the taking of the oath by Queen Wilhelmina in

1898. The new exchange (1901) is a striking building in red

brick and stone, and lies a short distance away between the

Dam and the fine central station (1889). The Oude Kerk (St

Nicholaas), so called, was built about the year 1300, and

contains some beautiful stained glass of the 16th and 17th

centuries, by Pieter Aertsen of Amsterdam (1508-1575) and

others. One window contains the arms of the burgomasters of

Amsterdam from 1578 to 1767. Among the monuments are those

to various naval heroes, including Admirals van Heemskerk (d.

1607), Sweers (d. 1673) and van der Hulst (d. 1666). The

North Church was the last work of the architect Hendrik de

Keyser (1565-1621) of Utrecht. The Roman Catholic church of

St Nicholaas (1886) was built to replace the accommodation

previously afforded by a common dwelling-house, now the Museum

Amstelkring of ecclesiastical antiquities. Among the numerous

Jewish synagogues, the largest is that of the Portuguese Jews

(1670), which is said to be an imitation of the temple of

Solomon. Other buildings of interest are the St Antonieswaag,

built as a town gate in 1488-1585, and now containing the

city archives; the Trippenhuis, built as a private house in

1662, and now the home of the Royal Society of Science, Letters

and Fine Arts; the Netherlands Bank (1865-1869), built by the

architect W. A. Froger; the new building (1860) of the Seamen's

Institute, founded in 1785; the cellular prison; and the

so-called Paleis van Volksvlijt, an immense building of iron

and glass with a fine garden, built by Dr Samuel Sarphati, and

used for industrial exhibitions, the performance of operas,

&c. The museums and picture galleries of Amsterdam are of great

interest. The Ryks Museum, or state museum, is the first in

Holland. It is a large, handsome and finely situated building

designed by Dr P. J. H. Cuyper in the Dutch Renaissance style,

and erected in 1876-1885. The exterior is decorated with

sculptures and tile-work, and internally it is divided, broadly

speaking, into a museum of general antiquities below, and the

large gallery of pictures of the Dutch and Flemish schools

above. The nucleus of this unsurpassed national collection

of pictures was formed out of the collections removed

hither from the Pavilion at Haarlem, consisting of modern

paintings, and from the town-hall, the van der Hoop Museum

and the Trippenhuis in Amsterdam. The important van der Hoop

collection arose out of bequests by Adrian van der Hoop and

his widow in 1854 and 1880; but the most famous pictures in

the Ryks Museum are perhaps the three which come from the

Trippenhuis, namely, the so-called ``Nightwatch'' and the

``Syndics of the Cloth Hall'' by Rembrandt, andlthe ``Banquet

of the Civic Guard,'' by van der Helst. The Trippenhuis gallery

consisted of the pictures brought from the Hague by Louis

Bonaparte, king of Holland, and belonging to the collection

of the Orange family dispersed during the Napoleonic period.

The municipal museum contains a collection of furniture,

paintings, &c., bequeathed by Sophia Lopez-Suasso (1890), a

medico-pharmaceutical collection, and the National Guard Museum.

The Joseph Fodor Museum (1860) contains modern French and Dutch

pictures. The private collection founded by Burgomaster

Jan Six (d. 1702), the friend and patron of Rembrandt, was

sold to the state in 1907; the pictures, except the family

Rembrandts, are in the Ryks Museum. Close to this is the

Willet-Holthuysen Museum (1895) of furniture, porcelain, &c.

Education and Charities.--There are two universities in

Amsterdam: the Free University (1880), and the more ancient

state university of Amsterdam, originally founded in 1632,

but reconstructed in 1887. In addition to the numerous

science laboratories the state university possesses a very

fine library of about 100,000 volumes, including the Rosenthal

collection of over 8000 books on Jewish literature. Modern

educational institutions include a school of engineering (1879),

a school for teachers (1878) and a school of industrial art

(1879). Amsterdam is also remarkable for the number and

high character of its benevolent institutions, which are to

a large extent supported by voluntary contributions. Among

others may be mentioned hospitals for the sick, the aged, the

infirm, the blind, the deaf, the dumb, the insane, and homes

for widows, orphans, foundlings and sailors. The costumes

of the children educated at the different orphanages are

varied and picturesque, those of the municipal orphanage being

dressed in the city colours of red and black. In the Walloon

orphanage are some interesting pictures by van der Helst and

others. The Society for Public Welfare (Maatschappij tot nut

van het Algemeen), founded in 1785, has for its ob)ect the

promotion of the education and improvement of all classes, and

has branches in every part of Holland. Among other Amsterdam

societies are the Felix Meritis (1776), and the Arti et

Amicitiae (1839), whose art exhibitions are of a high order.

Harbour and Commerce.--The first attempt which the city of

Amsterdam made to overcome the evils wrought to its trade by

the slow formation of the Pampus sandbank at the entrance to

the Y from the Zuider Zee, was the construction of the North

Holland canal to the Helder in 1825. But the route was too

long and too intricate, and in 1876 a much larger and more

direct ship canal was built across the isthmus to the North

Sea at Ymuiden. The serious rivalry of Rotterdam, especially

with regard to the transit trade, and the inadequacy of the

Keulsche Vaart, which connected the city with the Rhine,

led to the construction in 1892 of the Merwede canal to

Gorinchem. Meanwhile a complete transformation took

place on the Y to suit the new requirements of the city's

trade. The three islands built out into the river serve

to carry the railway across the front of the city, and form

a long series of quays. On either side are the large East

and West docks (1825-1834), and beyond these stretch the

lone quays at which the American and East Indian liners are

berthed. On the west of the West dock is the timber dock,

and east of the East dock is another series of islands joined

together so as to form basins and quays, one of which is the

State Marine dock (1790-1795) with the arsenal and admiralty

offices. Opening out of one of the crescent canals which

penetrate the city from the Y is the State Entrepot dock

(1900), the free harbour of Amsterdam, where the produce

from the Dutch East Indies is stored. On the north

side of the Y are the dry docks and the petroleum dock

(1880-1890). The principal imports are timber, coal, grain,

ore, petroleum and colonial produce. Under the last head fall

tobacco, tea, coffee, cocoa, sugar, Peruvian bark and other

drugs. Diamond-cutting has long been practised by the Jews

and forms one of the most characteristic industries of the

city. Other industries include sugar refineries, soap, oil,

glass, iron, dye and chemical works; distilleries, breweries,

tanneries; tobacco and snuff factories; shipbuilding and the

manufacture of machinery and stearine candles. Although no

longer the Centre of the banking transactions of the world,

the Amsterdam exchange is still of considerable importance

in this respect. The celebrated Bank of Amsterdam, founded

in 1609, was dissolved in 1796, and the present Bank of the

Netherlands was established in 1814 on the model of the Bank of

England. The money market is the headquarters of companies

formed to promote the cultivation of colonial produce.

History.--In 1204, when Giesebrecht II. of Amstel built

a castle there, Amstetdam was a fishing hamlet held in fee

by the lords of Amstel of the bishops of Utrecht, for whom

they acted as bailiffs. In 1240 Giesebrecht III., son of

the builder of the castle, constructed a dam to keep out the

sea. To these two, then, the origin of the city may be

ascribed. The first mention of the town is in 1275, in a charter

of Floris IV., count of Holland, exempting it from certain taxes.

In 1296 the place passed out of the hands of the lords of

Amstel, owing to the part taken by Giesebrecht IV. in

the murder of Count Floris V. of Holland. Count John (d.

1304), after coming to an understanding with the bishop of

Utrecht, bestowed the fief on his brother, Guy of Hainaut.

Guy gave the town its first charter in 1300. It established

the usual type of government under a bailiff (schout)

and judicial assessors (scabini, or schoppenen), the

overlord's supremacy being guarded, and an appeal lying from

the court of the scabini, in case of their disagreement, to

Utrecht. In 1342 more extensive privileges were granted by

Count William IV., including freedom from tolls by land and

water in return for certain annual dues. In 1482 the town

was surrounded with walls; and in the 16th century, during

the religious troubles, it received a great increase of

prosperity owing to the influx of refugees from Antwerp and

Brabant. Amsterdam, influenced by its trading interests,

did not join the other towns in revolt against Spain until

1578. In 1587 the earl of Leicester made an unsuccessful

attempt to seize it. The great development of Amsterdam

was due, however, to the treaty of Westphalia in 1648, by

which its rival, Antwerp, was ruined, owing to the closing

of the Scheldt. The city held out obstinately against

the pretensions of the stadtholders, and in 1650 opened

the dykes in order to prevent William II. from seizing

it. The same device was successful against Louis XIV. in

1672; and Amsterdam, now reconciled with the stadtholder,

was one of the staunchest supporters of William III. against

France. After the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685

it opened its gates to numerous French refugees; but this

hardly compensated it for its losses during the war. In

1787 Amsterdam was occupied by the Prussians, and in 1795

by the French under Pichegru. It was now made the capital

of the Batavian Republic and afterwards of the kingdom of

Holland. When, in 1810, this was united with the French

empire, Amsterdam was recognized officially as the third

town of the empire, ranking next after Paris and Rome.

See J. ter Gouw, Geschiedeniss van Amsterdam (3 vols.,

Amsterdam, 1879-1881), a full history with documents.

AMSTERDAM (NEW AMSTERDAM), an uninhabited and almost

inaccessible island in the Indian Ocean, in 37 deg. 47' S., and

77 deg. 34' E., about 60 m. N. of St Paul Island, and nearly midway

between the Cape of Good Hope and Tasmania. It is an extinct

volcano, rising 2989 ft. from the sea. It was discovered by

Anthony van Diemen in 1633, and annexed by France in 1893. It

may have been sighted by the companions of Magellan returning

to Europe in 1522, and by a Dutch vessel, the ``Zeewolf,'' in

1617. In 1871 the British frigate ``Megaera'' was wrecked here,

and most of the 400 persons on board had to remain upwards of

three months on the island. The Memoires of a Frenchman,

Captain Francois Peron (Paris, 1824), who was marooned

three years on the island (1792-1795), are of much interest.

AMSTERDAM, a city of Montgomery county, New York, U.S.A.,

on the north bank of the Mohawk river, about 33 m. N.W. of

Albany. Pop. (1890) 17,336; (1900) 20,929, of whom 5575

were foreign-born; (1910) 31,267. It is served by the New

York Central & Hudson River and the West Shore railways,

and by the Erie Canal. Hills on both sides of the river

command fine views of the Mohawk Valley. Amsterdam has two

hospitals, a free public library and St Mary's Institute (Roman

Catholic). Manufacturing is the most important industry,

and carpets and rugs, hosiery and knit goods are the most

important products. In 1905 the city's factory products

were valued at $15,007,276 (an increase of 41% over their

value in 1900); carpets and rugs being valued at $5,667,742,

and hosiery and knit goods (in the manufacture of which

Amsterdam ranked third among the cities of the country) at

$4,667,022, or 3.4% of the total product of the United

States. Among the other manufactures are brushes, brooms,

buttons, silk gloves, paper boxes, electrical supplies, dyeing

machines, cigars, and wagon and carriage springs. Amsterdam

was settled about 1775, and was called Veedersburg until

1804, when its present name was adopted. It was incorporated

as a village in 1830, and was chartered as a city in 1885.

AMUCK, RUNNING (or more properly AMOK), the native term

for the homicidal mania which attacks Malays. A Malay will

suddenly and apparently without reason rush into the street

armed with a kris or other weapon, and slash and cut at

everybody he meets till he is killed. These frenzies were

formerly regarded as due to sudden insanity. It is now,

however, certain that the typical amok is the result of

circumstances, such as domestic jealousy or gambling losses,

which render a Malay desperate and weary of his life. It is,

in fact, the Malay equivalent of suicide. ``The act of running

amuck is probably due to causes over which the culprit has

some amount of control, as the custom has now died out in the

British possessions in the peninsula, the offenders probably

objecting to being caught and tried in cold blood'' (W. W. Skeat).

Though so intimately associated with the Malay there is some

ground for believing the word to have an Indian origin, and

the act is certainly far from unknown in Indian history.

Some notable cases have occurred among the Rajputs. Thus, in

1634, the eldest son of the raja of Jodhpur ran amuck at the

court of Shah Jahan, failing in his attack on the emperor,

but killing five of his officials. During the 18th century,

again, at Hyderabad (Sind), two envoys, sent by the Jodhpur

chief in regard to a quarrel between the two states, stabbed the

prince and twenty-six of his suite before they themselves fell.

In Malabar there were certain professional assassins known

to old travellers as Amouchi or Amuco. The nearest modern

equivalent to these words would seem to be the Malayalim

Amar-khan, ``a warrior'' (from amar, ``fight''). The Malayalim term

chaver applied to these ruffians meant literally those

``who devote themselves to death.'' In Malabar was a custom

by which the zamorin or king of Calicut had to cut his throat

in public when he had reigned twelve years. In the 17th

century a variation in his fate was made. He had to take his

seat, after a great feast lasting twelve days, at a national

assembly, surrounded by his armed suite, and it was lawful

for anyone to attack him, and if he succeeded in killing him

the murderer himself became zamorin (see Alex. Hamilton, ``A

new Account of the East Indies,'' in Pinkerton's Voyages and

Travels, viii. 374). In 1600 thirty would-be assassins were

killed in their attempts. These men were called Amar-khan,

and it has been suggested that their action was ``running

amuck'' in the true Malay sense. Another proposed derivation

for amouchi is Sanskrit amokshya, ``that cannot be

loosed,'' suggesting that the murderer was bound by a vow,

an explanation more than once advanced for the Malay amuck;

but amokshya in such a sense is unknown in Malayalim.

See Sir F. A. Swettenham, Malay Sketches (1895);

H. Clifford, Studies in Brown Humanity (1898).

AMULET (Late Lat. amuletum, origin unknown; falsely

connected with the Arab. himalah, a cord used to suspend

a small Koran from the neck), a charm, generally, but not

invariably, hung from the neck, to protect the wearer against

witchcraft, sickness, accidents, &c. Amulets have been of many

different kinds, and formed of different substances,--stones,

metals, and strips of parchment being the most common, with

or without characters or legends engraved or written on

them. Gems have often been employed and greatly prized,

serving for ornaments as well as for charms. Certain herbs,

too, and animal preparations have been used in the same

way. In setting them apart to their use as amulets, great

precautions have been taken that fitting times be selected,

stellar and other magic influences propitious, and everything

avoided that might be supposed to destroy or weaken the

force of the charm. From the earliest ages the Oriental

races have had a firm belief in the prevalence of occult

evil influences, and a superstitious trust in amulets and

similar preservatives against them. There are references

to, and apparently correctives of, these customs in the

Mosaic injunctions to bind portions of the law upon the hand

and as frontlets between the eyes, as well as write them

upon the door-posts and the gates; but, among the later Jews

especially, the original design and meaning of these usages

were lost sight of; and though it has been said that the

phylacteries were not strictly amulets, there is no doubt that

they were held in superstitious regard. Amulets were much

used by the ancient Egyptians, and also among the Greeks and

Romans. We find traces of them too in the early Christian

church, in the emphatic protests of Chrysostom, Augustine

and others against them. The fish was a favourite symbol on

these charms, from the word ichthus being the initials of

'Iesous Christos Theou uios soter. A firm faith in amulets

still prevails widely among Asiatic nations. Talisman, also

from the Arabic, is a word of similar meaning and use, but

some distinguish it as importing a more powerful charm. A

talisman, whose ``virtues are still applied to for stopping

blood and in cases of canine madness,'' figures prominently

in, and gives name to, one of Sir Walter Scott's novels.

See also Arpe, De Prodigiis Naturae et Artis Operibus Talismanes

et Amuleta dictis (Hamburg, 1717); Ewele, Ueber Amulete (1827);

and Koop's Palaeographica Critica, vols. iii. and iv. (1829).

AMUR (known also as the Sakhalin-ula.) a river of

eastern Asia, formed by the confluence of the Argun and the

Shilka, at Ust-Stryelka, in 53 deg. 19' N. lat. and 120 deg. 30' E.

long. Both these rivers come from the south-west: the Argun,

or Kerulen as it is called above Lake Kulun (Dalai-nor),

through which it flows about half way between its source and

Ust-Stryelka, rises in 49 deg. N. lat. and 109 deg. E. long.;

the Shilka is formed by the union of the Onon and the

Ingoda, both of which have their sources a little farther

north-east than the Kerulen (Argun). The Amur proper flows

at first in a south-easterly direction for about 800 m.,

as far as long. 132' E., separating Manchuria from the Amur

government; it then turns to the north-east, cuts its way

through the Little Khingan mountains in a gorge 2000 ft. wide

and 140 m. long, and after a total course of over 1700 m.

discharges into the Sea of Okhotsk, opposite to the island of

Sakhalin. It is estimated to drain an area of 772,000 sq.

m. Its principal tributaries from the south are the Sungari,

which the Chinese consider to be the true head-river of the

Amur, and the Usuri; from the north it receives the Oldoi,

Zeya, Bureya, Kur, Gorin and Amgun. As the mouth is choked with

sandbanks, goods are disembarked at Mariinsk and carried by

train (9 m.) to Alexandrovsk at the head of the Gulf of Tartary.

Navigation on the river is open from April to early in November.

See T. W. Atkinson, Travels in the Region of the Amoor (1860);

Collins, Exploration of the Amoor (ed. 1864) and Voyage

down the Amoor (1866); Andree, Das Amurgebiet (ed. 1876);

and Grum- Grshimaylo, Accounit of the Amur (Russian, 1894).

AMUR, a government of East Siberia, stretching from the

Stanovoi (Yablonoi) mountains southwards to the left bank of

the Amur river. It includes the basins of the Oldoi, Zeya and

Bureya, left-bank tributaries of the river Amur, and has the

governments of Transbaikalia on the W., Irkutsk and Yakutsk on

the N., the Maritime province on the E., and Manchuria on the

S.W. and S. Area, 172,848 sq. m. Immense districts are quite

uninhabited. All the north-western part is occupied by a high

plateau, bordered by the Great Khingan range, whose exact

position in the region is not yet definitely settled. Next

comes a belt of fertile plateaus bounded on the east by the

Little Khingan, or Dusse-alin, a picturesque well-wooded

range, which stretches in a north-easterly direction from

Kirin across Manchuria, is pierced by the Amur, and continues

on its left bank, separating the Bureya from the Amgun. To

the east of it stretches in the same direction a strip of

marshy lowlands. In the ranges which rise above the high

plateau in the north-west, in the vicinity of the Stanovoi

watershed, gold mines of great richness are worked. Coal

of inferior quality is known to exist on the Oldoi, Zeya and

Bureya. The Russians are represented by the Amur Cossacks,

whose villages, e.g. Albazin, Kumara, Ekaterino-Nikolsk

and Mikhailo-Semenovsk, are strung at intervals of 17

to 20 m. along the whole course of the river; by peasant

immigrants, chiefly nonconformists, who are the wealthiest

part of the population; and by a floating population of gold

miners. Nomadic Tungus (Orochons), Manegres and Golds hunt

and fish along the rivers. Steamers ply regularly along the

Amur for 6 1/2 months, from Khaharovsk to Stryetensk, on the

Shilka terminus of the Trans-Siberian railway; but only light

steamers with 2 to 3 ft. draught can navigate the upper Amur

and Shilka. In the winter the frozen river is the usual

highway. Rough roads and bridle-paths only are found in the

interior. The great engineering difficulties in building

a railway along the Amur induced the Russian government

to obtain from China permission to build a railway through

Manchuria, but the project for a railway from Khabarovsk

to Stryetensk received imperial sanction in the summer of

1906. The Amur government has a continental climate, the

yearly average at Blagovyeshchensk (50 deg. N. lat.) being 30 deg.

Fahr. (January, 17 deg. ; July, 70 deg. ). It benefits from the

influence of the monsoons. Cold north-west winds prevail from

October to March, while in July and August torrential rains

fall, resulting in a sudden and very considerable rise in

the Amur and its right-bank tributaries. The only town is

Blagovyeshchensk, but the centre of the administration is

Khabarovsk in the Maritime province. The settled population

in 1897 was 119,909, of whom 31,515 lived in towns.

The governor-generalship of Amur includes this government

and the Maritime province, the total area being 888,830 sq.

m., and the total population in 1897, 339,127. This region

became known to the Russians in 1639. In 1649-1651 a party of

Cossacks, under Khabarov, built a fort at Albazin on the Amur

river, but in 1689 they withdrew in favour of the Chinese.

From 1847 onwards they once more turned their attention to

this region, and began to make settlements, especially after

1854, when a powerful flotilla sailed from Ust-Stryelka down

to the mouth of the river. Four years later China ceded to

Russia the whole left bank of the Amur, and also the right

bank below the confluence of the Ussuri, and in 1860 all the

territory between the Ussuri and the Eastern Sea. (P. A. K.)

AMYGDALIN (from the Gr. amugdale, almond),

C20H27NO11, a glucoside isolated from bitter almonds

by H. E. Robiquet and A. F. Boutron-Charlard in 1830, and

subsequently investigated by Liebig and Wohler, and others.

It is extracted from almond cake by boiling alcohol; on

evaporation of the solution and the addition of ether, amygdalin

is precipitated as white minute crystals. Sulphuric acid

decomposes it into d-glucose, benzaldehyde and prussic acid;

while hydrochloric acid gives mandelic acid, d-glucose and

ammonia. The decomposition induced by enzymes may occur in two

ways. Maltase partially decomposes it, giving d-glucose

and mandelic nitrile glucoside, C6H5CH(CN)O.C6H11O5;

this compound is isomeric with sambunigrin, a glucoside

found by E. E. Bourquelot and Danjou in the berries of the

common elder, Sambucus nigra. Emulsin, on the other hand,

decomposes it into benzaldehyde, prussic acid, and two molecules

of glucose; this enzyme occurs in the bitter almond, and

consequently the seeds invariably contain free prussic acid and

benzaldehyde. An ``amorphous amygdalin'' is said to occur in the

cherry-laurel. Closely related to these glucosides is dhurrin,

C14H17O7N, isolated by W. Dunstan and T. A. Henry from

the common sorghum or ``great millet,'' Sorghum vulgare;

this substance is decomposed by emulsin or hydrochloric acid

into d-glucose, prussic acid, and p-hydroxybenzaldehyde.

AMYGDALOID, a term meaning ``almond-shaped,'' used in anatomy and geology.

AMYL ALCOHOLS (C5H11OH). Eight amyl alcohols are known:

normal amyl alcohol CH3.(CH2)4.OH, isobutyl carbinol

or isoamyl alcohol (CH3)2.CH.CH2.CH2OH, active amyl

alcohol (CH3)(C2H5):CH.CH2OH, tertiary butyl carbinol

(CH3)3C.CH2OH, diethyl carbinol (C2H5)2CH.OH, methyl (n)

propyl carbinol (CH3.CH2.CH2)(CH3):CH:OH, methyl isopropyl

carbinol (CH3)2:CH(CH3):CHOH, and dimethyl ethyl carbinol

(CH3)2.(C2H5).:C.OH. Of these alcohols, the first

four are primary, the last one a tertiary, the other three

secondary alcohols; three of them, viz. active amyl alcohol,

methyl (n) propyl carbinol, and methyl isopropyl carbinol,

contain an asymmetric carbon atom and can consequently each

exist in two optically active, and one optically inactive form.

The most important is isobutyl carbinol, this being the chief

constituent of fermentation amyl alcohol, and consequently a

constituent of fusel (q.v.) oil. It may be separated from

fusel oil by shaking with strong brine solution, separating the

oily layer from the brine layer and distilling it, the portion

boiling between 125 deg. and 140 deg. C. being collected. For further

purification it may be shaken with hot milk of lime, the oily

layer separated, dried with calcium chloride and fractionated,

the fraction boiling between 128 deg. and 132 deg. C. only being

collected. It may be synthetically prepared from isobutyl alcohol

by conversion into isovaleryl-aldehyde, which is subsequently

reduced to isobutyl carbinol by means of sodium amalgam.

It is a colourless liquid of specific gravity 0.8248 (0 deg. C.),

boiling at 131.6 deg. C., slightly soluble in water, easily

soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform and benzene. It

possesses a characteristic strong smell and a sharp burning

taste. When perfectly pure, it is not a poison, although

the impure product is. On passing its vapour through a

red-hot tube, it undergoes decomposition with production of

acetylene, ethylene, propylene, &c. It is oxidized by chromic

acid mixture to isovaleryl-aldehyde; and it forms crystalline

addition compounds with calcium and stannic chlorides.

The other amyl alcohols may be obtained synthetically. Of

these, tertiary butyl carbinol has been the most difficult

to obtain, its synthesis having only been accomplished in

1891, by L. Tissier (Comptes Rendus, 1891, 112, p. 1065)

by the reduction of a mixture of trimethyl acetic acid

and trimethylacetyl chloride with sodium amalgam. It is a

solid which melts at 48 deg. -50 deg. C. and boils at 112.3 deg. C.

AMYL NITRITE (isoamyl nitrite), C5H11.ONO, a liquid

prepared by passing nitrous fumes (from starch and concentrated

nitric acid) into warm isoamyl alcohol; or by distilling a

mixture of 26 parts of potassium nitrite in 15 parts of water

with 30 parts of isoamyl alcohol in 30 parts of sulphuric acid

(Renard, Jahresb., 1874, p. 352). It is a yellow-coloured

liquid of specific gravity 0.877, boiling at about 95 deg. -96 deg.

C. It has a characteristic penetrating odour, and produces

marked effects on the system when its vapour is inhaled.

It is insoluble in water, but dissolves readily in alcohol,

ether, glacial acetic acid, chloroform and benzene. On heating

with methyl alcohol it is converted into isoamyl alcohol,

methyl nitrite being produced at the same time; a similar

reaction takes place with ethyl alcohol, but the change is less

complete. It is readily decomposed by nascent hydrogen, with

the formation of ammonia and isoamyl alcohol; and on hydrolysis

with caustic potash it forms potassium nitrite and isoamyl

alcohol. When the liquid is dropped on to fused caustic

potash, it forms potassium valerate. Amyl nitrite finds

application in medicine, and in the preparation of anhydrous

diazonium salts (E. Knoevenagel, Berichte, 1890, 23, p. 2094).

AMYMONE, in ancient Greek legend, daughter of Danaus.

With her sisters, she had been sent to look for water, the

district of Argos being then parched through the anger of

Poseidon. Amymone having thrown her spear at a stag, missed

it, but hit a satyr asleep in the brake. The satyr pursued

her, and she called for help on Poseidon, who appeared,

and for love of her beauty caused a spring to well up,

which received her name. Aeschylus wrote a satyric drama

on the subject. By the god Amymone became the mother of

Nauplius, the wrecker. Her meeting with Poseidon at the

spring is frequently represented on ancient coins and gems.

Apollodorus ii. 1, 4; Hyginus, Fab. 169; Propertius ii. 26.

AMYNTAS I., king of Macedonia (c. 540-498 B.C.), was a

tributary vassal of Darius Hystaspes. With him the history of

Macedonia may be said to begin. He was the first of its rulers

to have relations with other countries; he entered into an

alliance with the Peisistratidae, and when Hippias was driven

out of Athens he offered him the territory of Anthemus on the

Thermaic Gulf, with the object of turning the Greek party

feuds to his own advantage (Herodotus v. 17, 94; Justin vii. 2;

Thucydides ii. 100; Pausanias ix. 40). See MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.

AMYNTAS II. (or III.), son of Arrhidaeus, great-grandson

of Alexander I., king of Macedonia from 393 (or 389) to 369

B.C. He came to the throne after the ten years of confusion

which followed the death of Archelaus, the patron of art and

literature, and showed the same taste for Greek culture and its

representatives. But he had many enemies at home; in 383

he was driven out by the Illyrians, but in the following

year, with the aid of the Thessalians, he recovered his

kingdom. He concluded a treaty with the Spartans, who

assisted him to reduce Olynthus (379). He also entered into

a league with Jason of Pherae, and assiduously cultivated the

friendship of Athens. By his wife, Eurydice, he had three

sons, the youngest of whom was the famous Philip of Macedon.

Diodorus xiv. 89, xv. 19, 60; Xenophon, Hellenica, v. 2; Justin vii. 4.

AMYOT, JACQUES (1513-1593), French writer, was born of poor

parents, at Melun, on the 30th of October 1513. He found his

way to the university of Paris, where he supported himself by

serving some of the richer students. He was nineteen when he

became M.A. at Paris, and later he graduated doctor of civil

law at Bourges. Through Jacques Colure (or Colin), abbot of

St Ambrose in Bourges, he obtained a tutorship in the family

of a secretary of state. By the secretary he was recommended

to Marguerite de Valois, and through her influence was made

professor of Greek and Latin at Bourges. Here he translated

Theagene et Chariclee from Heliodorus (1547 fol.),

for which he was rewarded by Francis I. with the abbey of

Bellozane. He was thus enabled to go to Italy to study the

Vatican text of Plutarch, on the translation on whose Lives

(1559; 1565) he had been some time engaged. On the way he

turned aside on a mission to the council of Trent. Returning

home, he was appointed tutor to the sons of Henry II., by one

of whom (Charles IX.) he was afterwards made grand almoner

(1561) and by the other (Henry III.) was appointed, in spite

of his plebeian origin, commander of the order of the Holy

Ghost. Pius I. promoted him to the bishopric of Auxerre, and

here he continued to live in comparative quiet, repairing his

cathedral and perfecting his translations, for the rest of his

days, though troubled towards the close by the insubordination

and revolts of his clergy. He was a devout and conscientious

churchman, and had the courage to stand by his principles.

It is said that he advised the chaplain of Henry III. to

refuse absolution to the king after the murder of the Guise

princes. He was, nevertheless, suspected of approving the

crime. His house was plundered, and he was compelled to leave

Auxerre for some time. He died on the 6th of February 1593,

bequeathing, it is said, 1200 crowns to the hospital at Orleans

for the twelve ``deniers'' he received there when ``poor and

naked'' on his way to Paris. He translated seven books of

Diodorus (1554), the Daphnis et Chloe of Longus (1559) and

the Opera Moralia of Plutarch (1572). His vigorous and

idiomatic version of Plutarch, Vies des hommes illustres,

was translated into English by Sir Thomas North, and supplied

Shakespeare with materials for his Roman plays. Montaigne

said of him,``I give the palm to Jacques Amyot over all our

French writers, not only for the simplicity and purity of his

language in which he surpasses all others, nor for his constancy

to so long an undertaking, nor for his profound learning .

. . but I am grateful to him especially for his wisdom in

choosing so valuable a work.'' It was indeed to Plutarch that

Amyot devoted his attention. His other translations were

subsidiary. The version of Diodorus he did not publish,

although the manuscript had been discovered by himself. Amyot

took great pains to find and interpret correctly the best

authorities, but the interest of his books to-day lies in the

style. His translation reads like an original work. The

personal method of Plutarch appealed to a generation addicted to

memoirs and incapable of any general theory of history. Amyot's

book, therefore, obtained an immense popularity, and exercised

great influence over successive generations of French writers.

There is a good edition of the works of Amyot from the firm of Didot

(25 vols., 1818-1821) . See also Augnste de Blignieres, Essai sur

Amyot et les traducteurs francais au xvie siecle (Paris, 1851).

AMYRAUT, MOSES (1596-1664), also known as AMYRALDUS,

French Protestant theologian and metaphysician, was born at

Bourgueil, in the valley of Anjou, in 1306. His father was a

lawyer, and, designing Moses for his own profession, sent him

on the completion of his study of the humanities at Orleans

to the university of Poitiers. Here he took the degree of

licentiate (B.A.) of laws. On his way home from the university

he passed through Saumur, and, having visited the pastor of the

Protestant church there, was introduced by him to Philippe de

Mornay, governor of the city. Struck with young Amyraut's

ability and culture, they both urged him to change from law to

theology. His father advised him to revise his philological and

philosophical studies, and read over Calvin's Institutions,

before finally determining. He did so, and decided for

theology. He thereupon removed to Saumur--destined to be for

ever associated with his name--and studied under J. Cameron,

who ultimately regarded him as his greatest scholar. He

had a brilliant course, and was in due time licensed as a

minister of the French Protestant Church. The contemporary

civil wars and excitements hindered his advancement. His

first church was in St Aignan, in the province of Maine.

There he remained two years. The eminent theologian, Jean

Daille, being then removed to Paris, advised the church at

Saumur to secure Amyraut as his successor, praising him ``as

above himself.'' The university of Saumur at the same time

had fixed its eyes on him as professor of theology. The great

churches of Paris and Rouen also contended for him, and to

win him sent their deputies to the provincial synod of Anjou.

Amyraut had left the choice to the synod. He was appointed

to Saumur in 1633, and to the professor's chair along with the

pastorate. On the occasion of his inauguration he maintained

for thesis De Sacerdotio Christi. His co-professors were

Louis Cappel and Josue de la Place, who also were Cameron's

pupils. Very beautiful was the lifelong friendship of

these three remarkable men, who collaborated in the Theses

Salmurienses, a collection of theses propounded by candidates

in theology prefaced by the inaugural addresses of the three

professors. Full of energy, Amyraut very speedily gave

to French Protestantism a new force. In 1631 he published

his Traite des religions, a book that still lives;

and from this year onward he was a foremost man in the

church. Chosen to represent the provincial synod of Anjou,

Touraine and Maine at the national synod held in 1631 at

Charenton, he was appointed as orator to present to the

king ``The Copy of their Complaints and Grievances for the

Infractions and Violations of the Edict of Nantes.'' Previous

deputies had addressed the king on their bended knees, whereas

the representatives of the Catholics had been permitted to

stand. Amyraut consented to be orator only if the assembly

authorized him to stand. There was intense resistance.

Cardinal Richelieu himself, preceded by lesser dignitaries,

condescended to visit Amyraut privately, to persuade him to

kneel; but Amyraut held resolutely to his point and carried

it. His ``oration'' on this occasion, which was immediately

published in the French Mercury, remains a striking landmark

in the history of French Protestantism. During his absence

on this matter the assembly debated ``Whether the Lutherans

who desired it, might be admitted into communion with the

Reformed Churches of France at the Lord's Table.'' It was

decided in the affirmative previous to his return; but he

approved with astonishing eloquence, and thereafter was ever

in the front rank in maintaining intercommunication between

all churches holding the main doctrines of the Reformation.

P. Bayle recounts the title-pages of no fewer than thirty-two

books of which Amyraut was the author. These show that he

took part in all the great controversies on predestination

and Arminianism which then so agitated and harassed all

Europe. Substantially he held fast the Calvinism of his

preceptor Cameron; but, like Richard Baxter in England, by

his breadth and charity he exposed himself to all manner of

misconstruction. In 1634 he published his Traite de la

predestination, in which he tried to mitigate the harsh

features of predestination by his ``Universalismus hypotheticus.''

God, he taught, predestines all men to happiness on condition

of their having faith. This gave rise to a charge of

heresy, of which he was acquitted at the national synod held

at Alencon in 1637, and presided over by Benjamin Basnage

(1580-1652). The charge was brought up again at the national

synod of Charenton in 1644, when he was again acquitted. A

third attack at the synod of Loudun in 1659 met with no better

success. The university of Saumur became the university

of French Protestantism. Amyraut had as many as a hundred

students in attendance upon his prelections. Another historic

part filled by Amyraut was in the negotiations originated by

Pierre le Gouz de la Berchere (1600-1653), first president

of the parlement of Grenoble, when exiled to Saumur, for a

reconciliation and reunion of the Catholics of France with

the French Protestants. Very large were the concessions made

by Richelieu in his personal interviews with Amyraut; but, as

with the Worcester House negotiations in England between the

Church of England and nonconformists, they inevitably fell

through. On all sides the statesmanship and eloquence of

Amyraut were conceded. His De l'elevation de la foy et

de l'abaissement de la raison en la creance des mysteres

de la religion (1641) gave him early a high place as a

metaphysician. Exclusive of his controversial writings,

he left behind him a very voluminous series of practical

evangelical books, which have long remained the fireside

favourites of the peasantry of French Protestantism.

Amongst these are Estat Jes fideles apres la mort; Sur

l'oraison dominicale; Du merite des oeuvres; Traite de la

justification; and paraphrases of books of the Old and New

Testament. His closing years were weakened by a severe fall

he met with in 1657. He died on the 18th of January 1664.

See Edm. Saigey, Moses Amyraut, sa vie et ses ecrits (1849);

Alex. Schweizer in Tub. theol. Jahrbb., 1852, pp. 41 ff. 155

ff., Protestant. Central-Dogmen (1854 ff.), ii. 225 ff., and in

Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie; Bayle, s.v.; Biog. Univ.,

s.v.; John Quick's Synod. in Gall. Reform. pp. 352-357;

Ibid. MS. Icones Sacrae Gallicanae: Life of Cameron.

ANA, a Latin neuter plural termination appropriated to

various collections of the observations and criticisms

of eminent men, delivered in conversation and recorded by

their friends, or discovered among their papers after their

decease. Though the term Ana is of comparatively modern

origin, the introduction of this species of composition is not

of recent date. It appears, from d'Herbelot's Bibliotheque

Orientale, that from the earliest periods the Eastern

nations were in the habit of preserving the maxims of their

sages. From them the practice passed to the Greeks and

Romans. Plato and Xenophon treasured up and recorded the

sayings of their master Socrates; and Arrian, in the concluding

books of his Enchiridion, now lost, collected the casual

observations of Epictetus. The numerous apophthegms scattered

in Plutarch, Diogenes Laertius and other writers, show that

it was customary in Greece to preserve the colloquially

expressed ideas of illustrious men. It appears that Julius

Caesar compiled a book of apophthegms, in which he related

the bons mots of Cicero; and Quintilian informs us that

a freedman of that celebrated wit and orator composed three

books of a work entitled De Jocis Ciceronis. We are told

by Suetonius that Caius Melissus, originally the slave but

afterwards the freedman and librarian of Maecenas, collected

the sayings of his master; and Aulus Gellius has filled his

Noctes Atticae with anecdotes which he heard from the eminent

scholars and critics whose society he frequented in Rome.

But though vestiges of Ana may be traced in the classical

ages, it is only in modern times that they have come to be

regarded as constituting a distinct species of composition,

comprising literary anecdotes, critical reflexions, and

historical incidents, mingled with the detail of bons

mots and ludicrous tales. The term Ana seems to have been

applied to such collections as far back as the beginning

of the 15th century. Francesco Barbaro, in a letter to

Poggio, says that the information and anecdotes which Poggio

and Bartolommeo of Montepulciano had picked up during a

literary excursion through Germany will be called Ana:

``Quemadmodum mala ab Appio e Claudia gente Appiana, et

pira a Mallio Malliana cognominata sunt, sic haec literarum

quae vestra ope et opera Germania in Italiam deferentur,

aliquando et Poggiana et Montepolitiana vocabuntur.''

Poggio Bracciolini, to whom this letter is addressed, and to

whom the world is indebted for the preservation of so many

classical remains, is the first eminent person of modern

times whose jests and opinions have been transmitted to

posterity. Poggio was secretary to five successive popes.

During the pontificate of Martin V., who was chosen in 1417,

Poggio and other members of the Roman chancery were in the

habit of assembling in a common hall adjoining the Vatican, in

order to converse freely on all subjects. Being more studious

of wit than of truth, they termed this apartment Buggiale,

a word which Poggio himself interprets Mendaciorum Officina.

Here Poggio and his friends discussed the news and scandal

of the day; communicated entertaining anecdotes; attacked

what they did not approve (and they approved of little); and

indulged in the utmost latitude of satiric remark, not sparing

even the pope and cardinals. The jests and stories which

occurred in these unrestrained conversations were collected by

Poggio, and formed the chief materials of his Facetiae, first

printed, according to de Bure, in 1470. This collection,

which forms a principal part of the Poggiana, is chiefly

valuable as recording interesting anecdotes of eminent men

of the 14th and 15th centuries. It also contains a number

of quibbles or jeux de mots, and a still greater number of

facetiae, idle and licentious stories. These Facetiae

form, upon the whole, the most amusing and interesting part

of the Poggiana printed at Amsterdam in 1720; but this

collection also comprehends additional anecdotes of Poggio's

life, and a few extracts from his graver compositions.

Though Poggio was the first person whose remarks and bons

mots were collected under the name of Ana, the Scaligerana,

which contains the opinions of Joseph Scaliger, was the first

worked published under that appellation, and accordingly

may be regarded as having led the way to that class of

publications. There are two collections of Scaligerana--the

Prima and Secunda. The first was compiled by a physician

named Francois Vertunien, sieur de Lavau, who attended a

family with whom Joseph Scaliger resided. He, in consequence,

had frequent opportunities of meeting the celebrated

critic, and was in the custom of committing to writing

the observations which dropped from him in the course of

conversation, to which he occasionally added remarks of his

own. This collection, which was chiefly Latin, remained

in manuscript many years after the death of the compiler.

It was at length purchased by M. de Sigogne, who published

it in 1669, under the title of Prima Scaligerana, nusquam

antehac edita, calling it prima in order to preserve

its claim of priority over another Scaligerana, which,

though published three years before, had been more recently

compiled. This second work, known as Secunda Scaligerana,

was collected by two brothers of the name of Vassan, students

of the university of Leiden, of which Scaliger was one of the

professors. Being particularly recommended to Scaliger, they

were received in his house, and enjoyed his conversation.

Writing down what they had heard, particularly on historical

and critical subjects, they soon made up a large manuscript

volume, in which, however, there was neither connexion

nor arrangement of any description. After passing through

various hands this manuscript came into the possession of M.

Daille, who for his own use arranged in alphabetical order

the articles which it contained. Isaac Vossius, obtaining

the manuscript in loan from M. Daille, transcribed it, and

afterwards published it at the Hague, under the title of

Scaligerana, sive Excerpta ex Ore Josephi Scaligeri. This

edition was full of inaccuracies and blunders, and a more

correct impression was afterwards published by M. Daille,

with a preface complaining of the use that Vossius had made

of the manuscript, which he declares was never intended for

publication, and was not of a nature to be given to the

world. Indeed, most literary men in that age conceived

that the Scaligerana, particularly the second, detracted

considerably from the reputation of the great scholar.

Joseph Scaliger, with more extensive erudition, but, as some

think, less genius than his father Julius Caesar Scaliger,

had inherited his vanity and dogmatical spirit. Conversing

with two young students, he would probably be but little

cautious in the opinions he expressed, as his literary errors

could not be detected or exposed. Unfortunately the blind

admiration of his pupils led them to regard his opinions as

the responses of an oracle, and his most unmerited censures

as just condemnations. The Scaligerana, accordingly,

contains many falsehoods, with much unworthy personal

abuse of the most distinguished characters of the age.

In imitation of the Scaligerana, a prodigious number of

similar works appeared in France towards the end of the 17th and

beginning of the 18th century. At first these collections were

confined to what had fallen from eminent men in conversation;

but they were afterwards made to embrace fragments found among

their papers, and even passages extracted from their works and

correspondence. Of those which merely record the conversations

of eminent men, the best known and most valuable is the

Menagiana. Gilles Menage was a person of good sense, of

various and extensive information and of a most communicative

disposition. A collection of his oral opinions was published

in 1693, soon after his death; and this collection, which was

entitled Menagiana, was afterwards corrected and enlarged by

Bernard de la Monnoye, in an edition published by him in 1715.

The Perroniana, which exhibits the opinions of Cardinal du

Perron, was compiled from his conversation by C. Dupuy, and

published by Vossius in 1666, by the same contrivance which

put him in possession of the Scaligerana. The Thuana,

or observations of the president de Thou, have usually been

published along with the Perroniana, but first appeared in 1669.

The Valesiana is a collection of the literary opinions

of the historiographer Adrien de Valois, published by his

son. M. de Valois was a great student of history, and the

Valesiana accordingly comprehends many valuable historical

observations, particularly on the works of du Cange.

The Fureteriana (1696) contains the bone mots of

Antoine Furetiere, the Academician, the stories which

he was in the habit of telling, and a number of anecdotes

and remarks found in his papers after his decease.

The chevraeana (1697), so called from Urbain Chevreau, is

more scholarly than most works of a similar description, and

probably more accurate, as it differs from the Ana proper, of

which the works described above are instances, in having been

published during the life of the author and revised by himself.

Parrhasiana (1699-1701) is the work of Jean le Clerc, a

professor of Amsterdam, who bestowed this appellation on

his miscellaneous productions with the view of discussing

various topics of philosophy and politics with more

freedom than he could have employed under his own name.

The Huetiana contains the detached thoughts and criticisms

of P. D. Huet. bishop of Avranches, which he himself committed

to writing when he was far advanced in life. Huet was born in

1630, and in 1712 he was attacked by a malady which impaired

his memory, and rendered him incapable of the sustained

attention necessary for the completion of a long or laborious

work. In this situation he employed himself in putting

his detached observations on paper. These were published

by the Abbe d'Olivet the year after his death (1722).

The Casauboniana presents us with the miscellaneous

observations, chiefly philological, of the celebrated Isaac

Casaubon. During the course of a long life that eminent

commentator was in the daily practice of committing to paper

anything remarkable which he heard in conversation with his

friends, especially if it bore on the studies in which he was

engaged. He also made annotations from day to day on the

works he read, with which he connected his judgments concerning

the authors and their writings. This compilation was styled

Ephemerides. His Adversaria, and materials amassed for a

refutation of the Ecclesiastical Annals of Baronius, were

bequeathed by his son Meric Casaubon to the Bodleian Library at

Oxford. These were shown to J. C. Wolf during a visit which

he paid to that university; and having been transcribed by

him, were published in 1710 under the title of Casauboniana.

Besides the above a great many works under the title of Ana

appeared in France about the same period. Thus, the opinions

and conversation of Charpentier, Colomesius and St Evremond

were recorded in the Carpenteriana, Colomesiana and St

Evremoniana; and those of Segrais in the Segraisiana,--a

collection formed by a person stationed behind the tapestry in

a house where Segrais was accustomed to visit, of which Voltaire

declared, ``que de tous les Ana c'est celui qui merite le plus

d'etre mis au rang des mensonges imprimes, et surtout des

mensonges insipides.'' The Ana, indeed, from the popularity

which they now enjoyed, were compiled in such numbers and with

so little care that they became almost proverbial for inaccuracy.

In 1743 the Abbe d'Olivet spoke indignantly of ``ces ana, dont

le nombre se multiple impunement tous les jours a la honte de

notre siecle.'' About the middle of the 18th century, too, they

were sometimes made the vehicles of revolutionary and heretical

opinions. Thus the evil naturally began to cure itself, and by

a reaction the French Ana sank in public esteem as much below

their intrinsic value as they had formerly been exalted above it.

Of the examples England has produced of this species of

composition, perhaps the most interesting is the Walpoliana,

a transcript of the literary conversation of Horace Walpole,

earl of Orford. Most other works which in England have been

published under the name of Ana, as Baconiana, Atterburyana,

&c., are rather extracts from the writings and correspondence

of eminent men than memorials of their conversation.

There are some works which, though they do not bear the

title, belong more strictly to the class of Ana than many

of the collections which are known under that appellation.

Such are the Melanges d'histoire et de litterature,

published under the name of Vigneul Marville, though the

work of a Benedictine, d'Argonne; and the Locorum Communium

Collectanea, ex Lectionibus Philippi Melanchthonis,--a

work of considerable reputation on account of its theological

learning, and the information it communicates concerning the

early state of the Reformed Church. But of those productions

which belong to the class, though they do not bear the name,

of Ana, the most celebrated are the Colloquia Mensalia of

Luther and Selden's Table-Talk. The former, which comprehends

the conversation of Luther with his friends and coadjutors

in the great work of the Reformation, was first published in

1566. Captain H. Bell, who translated it into English in

the time of the Commonwealth, informs us that, an edict

having been promulgated commanding the works of Luther to be

destroyed, it was for some time supposed that all the copies

of the Colloquia Mensalia had been burned; but in 1626,

on the foundation of a house being removed, a printed copy

was found lying in a deep hole and wrapped up in a linen

cloth. The book, translated by Bell, and again by the

younger Hazlitt in 1847, was originally collected by Dr Anton

Lauterbach (1502-1569) ``out of the holy mouth of Luther.'' It

consists chiefly of observations and discussions on idolatry,

auricular confession, the mass, excommunication, clerical

jurisdiction, general councils, and all the points agitated by

the reformed church in those early periods. The Table-Talk

of Selden contains a more genuine and undisguised expression

of the sentiments of that eminent man than we find in his

more studied productions. It was published after his death

by Richard Milward, his amanuensis, who affirms that for

twenty years he enjoyed the opportunity of daily hearing his

discourse, and made it his practice faithfully to commit to

writing ``the excellent things that usually fell from him.''

The most remarkable collection of Ana in the English

language--and, indeed, in any language--is to be found

in a work which does not correspond to the normal type

either in name or in form. In his Life of Samuel Johnson,

LL.D., Boswell relates that to his remark, a propos

of French literature, ``Their Ana are good,'' Johnson

replied, ``A few of them are good; but we have one book of

that kind better than any of them--Selden's Table-Talk.''

Boswell's own work, however, is incomparably superior to all.

J. C. Wolf has given a history of the Ana in a preliminary

discourse to his edition of the Casauboniana, published in

1710. In the Repertoire de bibliographies speciales, curieuses,

et instructives, by Peignot, there is a Notice bibliographique

of these collections; but many of the books there enumerated

consist of mere extracts from the writings of popular authors.

ANABAPTISTS (``re-baptizers,'' from Gr. ana and baptizo),

a name given by their enemies to various sects which on the occasion

of Luther's revolt from Romanism denied the validity of infant

baptism, and therefore baptized those whom they quite logically

regarded as not having received any Christian initiation at all.

On the 27th of December 1521 three ``prophets'' appeared in

Wittenberg from Zwickau, Thomas Munzer, Nicolas Storch and Mark

Thomas Stubner. Luther's reform was not thorough enough for

them. He professed to rest all upon Scripture, yet accepted

from the Babylon of Rome a baptism neither scriptural nor

primitive, nor fulfilling the chief conditions of admission

into a visible brotherhood of saints, to wit, repentance,

faith, spiritual illumination and free surrender of self to

Christ. Melanchthon, powerless against the enthusiasts

with whom his co-reformer Carlstadt sympathized, appealed to

Luther, still concealed in the Wartburg. He had written to

the Waldenses that it is better not to baptize at all than

to baptize little children; now he was cautious, would not

condemn the new prophecy off-hand; but advised Melanchthon

to treat them gently and to prove their spirits, less

they be of God. There was confusion in Wittenberg, where

schools and university sided with the ``prophets'' and were

closed. Hence the charge that Anabaptists were enemies

of learning, which is sufficiently rebutted by the fact

that the first German translation of the Hebrew prophets

was made and printed by two of them, Hetzer and Denk, in

1527. The first leaders of the movement in Zurich--Grebel,

Manz, Blaurock, Hubmaier--were men learned in Greek, Latin and

Hebrew. On the 6th of March Luther returned, interviewed

the prophets, scorned their ``spirits,'' forbade them the

city, and had their adherents ejected from Zwickau and

Erfurt. Denied access to the churches, the latter preached

and celebrated the sacrament in private houses. Driven from

the cities they swarmed over the countryside. Compelled to

leave Zwickau, Munzer visited Bohemia, resided two years

at Alltstedt in Thuringia, and in 1524 spent some time in

Switzerland. During this period he proclaimed his revolutionary

doctrines in religion and politics with growing vehemence,

and, so far as the lower orders were concerned, with growing

success. The crisis came in the so-called Peasants' War in

South Germany in 1525. In its origin a revolt against feudal

oppression, it became, under the leadership of Munzer, a

war against all constituted authorities, and an attempt to

establish by force his ideal Christian commonwealth, with

absolute equality and the community of goods. The total

defeat of the insurgents at Frankenhausen (May 15, 1525),

followed as it was by the execution of Munzer and several

other leaders, proved only a temporary check to the Anabaptist

movement. Here and there throughout Germany, Switzerland

and the Netherlands there were zealous propagandists, through

whose teaching many were prepared to follow as soon as another

leader should arise. A second and more determined attempt

to establish a theocracy was made at Munster, in Westphalia

(1532-1535). Here the sect had gained considerable

influence, through the adhesion of Rothmann, the Lutheran

pastor, and several prominent citizens; and the leaders,

Johann Matthyszoon or Matthiesen, a baker of Haarlem, and

Johann Bockholdt, a tailor of Leiden, had little difficulty

in obtaining possession of the town and deposing the

magistrates. Vigorous preparations were at once made, not

only to hold what had been gained, but to proceed from Munster

as a centre to the conquest of the world. The town being

besieged by Francis of Waldeck, its expelled bishop (April

1534), Matthiesen, who was first in command, made a sally

with only thirty followers, under the fanatical idea that he

was a second Gideon, and was cut off with his entire band.

Bockholdt, better known in history as John of Leiden, was now

supreme. Giving himself out as the successor of David, he

claimed royal honours and absolute power in the new ``Zion.''

He justified the most arbitrary and extravagant measures by

the authority of visions from heaven, as others have done

in similar circumstances. With this pretended sanction he

legalized polygamy, and himself took four wives, one of whom

he beheaded with his own hand in the market-place in a fit of

frenzy. As a natural consequence of such licence, Munster

was for twelve months a scene of unbridled profligacy. After

an obstinate resistance the town was taken by the besiegers

on the 24th of June 1535, and in January 1536 Bockholdt and

some of his more prominent followers, after being cruelly

tortured, were executed in the market-place. The outbreak at

Munster was the crisis of the Anabaptist movement. It never

again had the opportunity of assuming political importance,

the civil powers naturally adopting the most stringent measures

to suppress an agitation whose avowed object was to suppress

them. It is difficult to trace the subsequent history of the

sect as a religious body. The fact that, after the Munster

insurrection the very name Anabaptist was proscribed in Europe,

is a source of twofold confusion. The enforced adoption

of new names makes it easy to lose the historical identity

of many who really belonged to the Munster Anabaptists,

and, on the other hand, has led to the classification of

many with the Munster sect who had no real connexion with

it. The latter mistake, it is to be noted, has been much more

common than the former. The Mennonites, for example, have

been identified with the earlier Anabaptists, on the ground

that they included among their number many of the fanatics of

Munster. But the continuity of a sect is to be traced in

its principles, and not in its adherents, and it must be

remembered that Menno and his followers expressly repudiated

the distinctive doctrines of the Munster Anabaptists. They

have never aimed at any social or political revolution, and

have been as remarkable for sobriety of conduct as the Munster

sect was for its fanaticism (see MENNONITES.) In English

history frequent reference is made to the Anabaptists during

the 16th and 17th centuries, but there is no evidence that

any considerable number of native Englishmen ever adopted the

principles of the Munster sect. Many of the followers of

Munzer and Bockholdt seem to have fled from persecution in

Germany and the Netherlands to be subjected to a persecution

scarcely less severe in England. The mildest measure adopted

towards these refugees was banishment from the kingdom, and

a large number suffered at the stake. It was easier to burn

Anabaptists than to refute their arguments, and contemporary

writers were struck with the intrepidity and number of their

martyrs. Thus Stanislaus Hosius (1504-1579), a Polish cardinal

and bishop of Warmie, wrote (Opera, Venice, 1573, p. 202):--

``They are far readier than followers of Luther and Zwingli

to meet death, and bear the harshest tortures for their

faith. For they run to suffer punishments, no matter how

horrible, as if to a banquet; so that if you take that as a

test either of the truth of doctrine or of their certitude of

grace, you would easily conclude that in no other sect is to be

found a faith so true or grace so certain. But as Paul wrote:

``Even if I give my body to to be burned and have not charity,

it avails me naught. But he has not charity who divides the

unity. . . . He cannot be a martyr who is not in the Church.''

The excesses of John of Leiden, the Brigham Young of that

age, cast an unjust stigma on the Baptists, of whom the vast

majority were good, quiet people who merely carried out in,

practice the early Christian ideals of which their persecutors

prated. They have been reckoned an extreme left wing of the

Reformation, because for a time they followed Luther and

Zwingli. Yet their Christology and negative attitude towards

the state rather indicate, as in the case of Wicklif, Hus and

the Fraticelli, an affinity to the Cathari and other medieval

sects. But this affiliation is hard to establish. The earliest

Anabaptists of Zurich allowed that the Picardi or Waldensians

had, in contrast with Rome and the Reformers, truth on their

side, yet did not claim to be in their succession; nor can

it be shown that their adult baptism derived from any of the

older Baptist sects, which undoubtedly lingered in parts of

Europe. Later on Hermann Schyn claimed descent for the peaceful

Baptists from the Waldensians, who certainly, as the records

of the Flemish inquisition, collected by P. Fredericq, prove,

were wide-spread during the 15th century over north France and

Flanders. It would appear from the way in which Anabaptism

sprang up everywhere independently, as if more than one ancient

sect took in and through it a new lease of life. Ritschl

discerned in it the leaven of the Fraticelli or Franciscan

Tertiaries. In Moravia, if what Alex. Rost related be

true, namely that they called themselves Apostolici, and

went barefooted healing the sick, they must have at least

absorbed into themselves a sect of whom we hear in the 12th

century in the north of Europe as deferring baptism to the

age of 30, and rejecting oaths, prayers for the dead, relics

and invocation of saints. The Moravian Anabaptists, says

Rost, went bare-footed, washed each other's feet (like the

Fraticelli), had all goods in common, worked everyone at a

handicraft, had a spiritual father who prayed with them every

morning and taught them, dressed in black and had long graces

before and after meals. Zeiler also in his German Itinerary

(1618) describes their way of life. The Lord's Supper, or

bread-breaking, was a commemoration of the Passion, held once a

year. They sat at long tables, the elders read the words of

institution and prayed, and passed a loaf round from which

each broke off a bit and ate, the wine being handed round in

flagons. Children in their colonies were separated from the

parents, and lived in the school, each having his bed and

blanket. They were taught reading, writing and summing,

cleanliness, truthfulness and industry, and the girls married

the men chosen for them. In the following points Anabaptists

resembled the medieval dissenters:--(1) They taught that Jesus

did not take the flesh from his mother, but either brought his

body from heaven or had one made for him by the Word. Some

even said that he passed through his mother, as water through

a pipe, into the world. In pictures and sculptures of the

15th century and earlier, we often find represented this idea,

originated by Marcion in the 2nd century. The Anabaptists

were accused of denying the Incarnation of Christ: they

did, but not in the sense that he was not divine; they rather

denied him to be human. (2) They condemned oaths, and also

the reference of disputes between believers to law-courts. (3)

The believer must not bear arms or offer forcible resistance

to wrongdoers, nor wield the sword. No Christian has the

jus gladii. (4) Civil government belongs to the world, is

Caesar. The believer who belongs to God's kingdom must not

fill any office, nor hold any rank under government, which is

to be passively obeyed. (5) Sinners or unfaithful ones are to

be excommunicated, and excluded from the sacraments and from

intercourse with believers unless they repent, according to

Matt. xviii. 15 seq. But no force is to be used towards them.

Some sects calling themselves Spirituales or Perfecti

also held that the baptized cannot sin, a very ancient tenet.

They seem to have preserved among them the primitive manual

called the Teaching of the Apostles, for Bishop Longland

in England condemned an Anabaptist for repeating one of

its maxims ``that alms should not be given before they did

sweat in a man's hand.'' This was between 1518 and 1521.

On the 12th of April 1549, certain London Anabaptists

brought before a commission of bishops asserted7--

``That a man regenerate could not sin; that though the

outward man sinned, the inward man sinned not; that there was

no Trinity of Persons; that Christ was only a holy prophet

and not at all God; that all we had by Christ was that he

taught us the way to heaven; that he took no flesh of the

Virgin, and that the baptism of infants was not profitable.''

The Anabaptists were great readers of Revelation and of the

Epistle of James, the latter perhaps by way of counteracting

Luther's one-sided teaching of justification by faith

alone. Luther feebly rejected this scripture as ``a right

strawy epistle.'' English Anabaptists often knew it by

heart. Excessive reading of Revelation seems to have been

the chief cause of the aberrations of the Munster fanatics.

In Poland and Holland certain of the Baptists denied the Trinity,

hence the saying that a Socinian was a learned Baptist (see SOCINUS.)

With these Menno and his followers refused to hold communion.

One of the most notable features of the early Anabaptists

is that they regarded any true religious reform as involving

social amelioration. The socialism of the 16th century was

necessarily Christian and Anabaptist. Lutheranism was more

attractive to grand-ducal patriots and well-to-do burghers

than to the poor and oppressed and disinherited. The

Lutherans and Zwinglians never converted the Anabaptists.

Those who yielded to stress of persecution fell back into

Papalism and went to swell the tide of the Catholic reaction.

AUTHORITIES.--Fussli, Kirchen- und Ketzerhistorie der mittlern

Zeit (contains Bullinger); Zwinglius, In catabaptistarum

strophas elenchus (1527) (Opera iii. 351); Bullinger,

Der Wiedertaafsr Ursprung (1560); Gieseler, Ecclesiastical

History, Engl. tr. v. 344; Spanheim, De origine Anabapt.

(Lugd. 1643); Ranke's History of the, Reformation;

Melanchthon, Die Historic von Th. Muntzer (1525) (in

Luthers Werke, ed. Walch, xvi. 199); Strobel, Leben Th.

Muntzers (1795); C. A. Cornelius, Die niederlandischen

Wiedertaufer, in publications of Bavarian Academy (1869);

J. G. Walch, Hist. u. theolog. Einleitung (Jena, 1733);

Mosheim, Ecclesiastical History; Gerbert, Gesch. d.

Strassb. Sektenbewegung (Strassburg, 1889); W. Moeller,

History of the Christian Church, tr. by Freese, 1900; Jos.

v. Beck, Die Geschichtsbucher der Wiedertaufer in

Osterr.-Ung. (Wien, 1883), (Fontes rerum Austr. II. xliii.,

a valuable history of the sect from their own early documents);

Ritschl, Geschichte des Pietismus, vol. i. (Bonn, 1880);

Loserth, B. Hubmaier und die Anfange der Wiedertaufer

in Mahren (Brunn, 1893); Kolde, in Kirchengesch. Studien

(Leipzig, 1888); Kessler, Sabbata; Leendertz and Zur Linden,

M.. Hofmann (Haarlem, 1883-1885); Erbkam, Gesch. der

prot. Sekten der Reform. (1848); Justus Menius, Der

Weidertaufer Lehre (Wittenberg, 1534); Johann Cloppenburg

and Fred. Spanheim, Gangraena theologiae Anabaptisticae

(Franekerd, 1656); Balthasar Lydius, Waldensia, id est

conservatio verae Ecclesiae (Rotterdam, 1616); Herman

Schyn, Historiae Mennonitarum (Amsterdam, 1729); John.

Henr. Ottius, Annales Anabaptistici (Basileae. 1772);

Karl Rembert, Die Wiedertaufer in Herzogtum Julich

(Munster, 1873); Universal Lexicon, art. ``Wiedertaufer''

(Leipzig. 1748); Tielmann Janssen van Bracht, Martyrologia

Mennonitarum (Haarlem. 1615-1631); John. Gastii,

Tractat. de Anabapt. Exordio (Basel, 1545); Jehring,

History of the Baptists; Auss Bundt, or hymns written

by and of the Baptist martyrs from 1526-1620, first printed

without date or place, reprinted Basel, 1838. (F. C. C.)

ANABASIS (anabasis, a march up country), the

title given by Xenophon (q.v.) to his narrative of

the expedition of Cyrus the younger against his brother,

Artaxerxes of Persia, 401 B.C., and adopted by Arrian

for his history of the expedition of Alexander the Great.

ANABOLISM (Gr. ana, up, bole, a throw), the biological

term for the building up in an organism of more complex from

simpler substances, constructive metabolism. (See PHYSIOLOGY.)

ANACHARSIS, a Scythian philosopher, who lived about 600

B.C. He was the son of Gnurus, chief of a nomadic tribe

of the Euxine shores, and a Greek woman. Instructed in the

Greek language by his mother, he prevailed upon the king to

entrust him with an embassy to Athens about 589 B.C. He

became acquainted with Solon, from whom he rapidly acquired

a knowledge of the wisdom and learning of Greece, and by

whose influence he was introduced to the principal persons in

Athens. He was the first stranger who received the privileges

of citizenship. He was reckoned one of the Seven Sages,

and it is said that he was initiated into the Eleusinian

mysteries. After he had resided several years at Athens,

he travelled through different countries in quest of

knowledge, and returned home filled with the desire of

instructing his countrymen in the laws and the religion of the

Greeks. According to Herodotus he was killed by his brother

Saulius while he was performing sacrifice to the goddess

Cybele. It was he who compared laws to spiders' webs, which

catch small flies and allow bigger ones to escape. His

simple and forcible mode of expressing himself gave birth

to the proverbial expression ``Scythian eloquence,'' but his

epigrams are as unauthentic as the letters which are often

attributed to him. According to Strabo he was the first

to invent an anchor with two flukes. Barthelemy borrows

his name as the title for his Anacharsis en Grece.

Herodotus iv. 76; Lucian, Scytha; Cicero,

Tusc. Disp. v. 32; Diog. Laert. i. 101.

ANACHRONISM (from ana, back, and chronos, time), a

neglect or falsification, whether wilful or undesigned, of

chronological relation. Its commonest use restricts it to

the ante-dating of events, circumstances or customs; in other

words, to the introduction, especially in works of imagination

that rest on a historical basis, of details borrowed from

a later age. Anachronisms may be committed in many ways,

originating, for instance, in disregard of the different modes

of life and thought that characterize different periods, or

in ignorance of the progress of the arts and sciences and the

other ascertained facts of history, and may vary from glaring

inconsistency to scarcely perceptible misrepresentation. Much

of the thought entertained about the past is so deficient in

historical perspective as to be little better than a continuous

anachronism. It is only since the close of the 18th century

that this kind of untruthfulness has jarred on the general

intelligence. Anachronisms abound in the works of Raphael and

Shakespeare, as well as in those of the meanest daubers and

playwrights of earlier times. In particular, the artists, on

the stage and on the canvas, in story and in song, assimilated

their dramatis personae to their own nationality and their own

time. The Virgin was represented here as an Italian contadina,

and there as a Flemish frow; Alexander the Great appeared

on the French stage in the full costume of Louis XIV. down

to the time of Voltaire; and in England the contemporaries

of Addison could behold, without any suspicion of burlesque,

``Cato's long wig, flower'd gown, and lacquer'd chair.''

Modern realism, the progress of archaeological research,

and the more scientific spirit of history, have made an

anachronism an offence, where our ancestors saw none.

ANACOLUTHON (Gr. for ``not following on''), a grammatical

term, given to a defectively constructed sentence which does

not run on as a continuous whole; this may occur either, in

a text, by some corruption, or, in the case of a writer or

speaker, simply through his forgetting the way in which he

started. In the case of a man who is full of his subject,

or who is carried along by the passion of the moment, such

inconsequents are very apt to occur. Of Niebuhr it is told

that his oral lectures consisted almost entirely of anacoluthic

constructions. To this kind of licence some languages,

as Greek and English, readily lend themselves; while the

grammatical rigidity of others, as Latin and French, admits

of it but sparingly. In Herodotus, Thucydides, Aeschylus,

Pindar and Plato, abundant specimens are to be found; and

the same is true of the writers of the Elizabethan age in

English. The following is an example:--``And he charged him

to tell no man; but go show thyself,'' &c. (Luke v. 14).

ANACONDA, a city and the county-seat of Deer Lodge county,

Montana, U.S.A., situated in the mountains on the W. side of

Deer Lodge Valley, in the S.W. part of the state, about 26

m. N.W. of Butte, and at an altitude of about 5300 ft. Pop.

(1890) 3075; (1900) 9453, of whom 3478 were foreign-born;

(1910, census) 10,134. It is connected with Butte by the

Butte, Anaconda & Pacific railroad. Among its public buildings

are the county court-house and the Hearst free public library

(1898). Industrially, Anaconda is essentially a smelting

camp for the copper ores from the Butte mines, probably the

largest copper- smelter in the world being located here;

the principal copper-mine at Butte--one of the most famous

copper-mines in the world--is called the Anaconda. In 1905

the capital invested in manufacturing was $13,728,456, and

the factory product was valued at $28,581,530. Electric

power generated at the Helena Power Transmission Company's

plant on the Missouri river, 18 m. from Helena, comes to

Anaconda over 110 m. of wire at 70,000 voltage. Anaconda

is to a large degree the market and trading-place of the

Big Hole Basin cattle country in the north-western part of

Beaverhead county; with Wisdom, in the Big Hole Basin, it was

connected in 1905 by a 65 m. telephone line. Anaconda was

first settled in 1884 and was chartered as a city in 1888.

ANACONDA, an aquatic boa, inhabiting the swamps and rivers

of the dense forests of tropical South America. It is the

largest of all modern snakes, said to attain over 30 ft. in

length. The Eunectes murinus (formerly called Boa

murina) differs from Boa by the snout being covered with

shields instead of small scales, the inner of the three nasal

shields being in contact with that of the other side. The

general colour is dark olive-brown, with large oval black

spots arranged in two alternating rows along the back, and

with smaller white-eyed spots along the sides. The belly

is whitish, spotted with black. The anaconda combines an

arboreal with an aquatic life, and feeds chiefly upon birds and

mammals, mostly during the night. It lies submerged in the

water, with only a small part of its head above the surface,

waiting for any suitable prey, or it establishes itself upon

the branches of a tree which overhangs the water or the track of

game. Being eminently aquatic this snake is viviparous.

It is the only large boa which is decidedly ill-tempered.

ANACREON, Greek lyric poet, was born about 560 B.C., at

Teos, an Ionian city on the coast of Asia Minor. Little

is known of his life, except a few scattered notices, not

in all cases certainly authentic. He probably shared the

voluntary exile of the mass of his fellow-townsmen, who,

when Cyrus the Great was besieging the Greek cities of Asia

(545), rather than surrender their city to his general

Harpagus, sailed to Abdera in Thrace, where they founded a

colony. Anacreon seems to have taken part in the fighting, in

which, on his own admission, he did not distinguish himself,

but, like Alcaeus and Horace, threw away his shield and

fled. From Thrace he removed to the court of Polycrates of

Samos, one of the best of those old ``tyrants''' who by no

means deserved the name in its worst sense. He is said to

have acted as tutor to Polycrates; that he enjoyed the tyrant's

confidence we learn on the authority of Herodotus (iii. 121),

who represents the poet as sitting in the royal chamber when

audience was given to the Persian herald. In return for his

favour and protection, Anacreon wrote many complimentary odes

upon his patron. Like his fellow-lyrist, Horace, who was

one of his great admirers, and in many respects of a kindred

spirit, Anacreon seems to have been made for the society of

courts. On the death of Polycrates, Hipparchus, who was then

in power at Athens and inherited the literary tastes of his

father Peisistratus, sent a special embassy to fetch the popular

poet to Athens in a galley of fifty oars. Here he became

acquainted with the poet Simonides, and other members of the

brilliant circle which had gathered round Hipparchus. When

this circle was broken up by the assassination of Hipparchus,

Anacreon seems to have returned to his native town of Teos,

where, according to a metrical epitaph ascribed to his friend

Simonides, he died and was buried. According to others,

before returning to Teos, he accompanied Simonides to the

court of Echecrates, a Thessalian dynast of the house of the

Aleuadae. Lucian mentions Anacreon amongst his instances of

the longevity of eminent men, as having completed eighty-five

years. If an anecdote given by Pliny (Nat. Hist. vii. 7) is

to be trusted, he was choked at last by a grape-stone, but the

story has an air of mythical adaptation to the poet's habits,

which makes it somewhat apocryphal. Anacreon was for a long

time popular at Athens, where his statue was to be seen on the

Acropolis, together with that of his friend Xanthippus, the

father of Pericles. On several coins of Teos he is represented,

holding a lyre in his hand, sometimes sitting, sometimes

standing. A marble statue found in 1835 in the Sabine

district, and now in the Villa Borghese, is said to represent

Anacreon. Anacreon had a reputation as a composer of hymns,

as well as of those bacchanalian and amatory lyrics which

are commonly associated with his name. Two short hymns to

Artemis and Dionysus, consisting of eight and eleven lines

respectively, stand first amongst his few undisputed remains,

as printed by recent editors. But pagan hymns, especially when

addressed to such deities as Aphrodite, Eros and Dionysus, are

not so very unlike what we call ``Anacreontic'' poetry as to

make the contrast of style as great as the word might seem to

imply. The tone of Anacreon's lyric effusions has probably

led to an unjust estimate, by both ancients and moderns, of

the poet's personal character. The ``triple worship'' of the

Muses, Wine and Love, ascribed to him as his religion in an

old Greek epigram (Anthol. iii. 25, 51), may have been as

purely professional in the two last cases as in the first,

and his private character on such points was probably neither

much better nor worse than that of his contemporaries.

Athenaeus remarks acutely that he seems at least to have

been sober when he wrote; and he himself strongly repudiates,

as Horace does, the brutal characteristics of intoxication

as fit only for barbarians and Scythians (Fr. 64). Of the

five books of lyrical pieces by Anacreon which Suidas and

Athenaeus mention as extant in their time, we have now but

the merest fragments, collected from the citations of later

writers. Those graceful little poems (most of them first

printed from the MSS. by Henry Stephens in 1554), which long

passed among the learned for the songs of Anacreon, and which

are well-known to many English readers in the translations

of Cowley and Moore, are really of much later date, though

possibly here and there genuine fragments of the poet are

included. Modern critics, however, regard the entire collection

as imitations belonging to different periods--the oldest probably

to Alexandrian times, the most recent to the last days of

paganism. They will always retain a certain popularity

from their lightness and elegance, and some of them are fair

copies of Anacreon's style, which would lend itself readily

enough to a clever imitator. A strong argument against their

genuineness lies in the fact that the peculiar forms of the

Ionic Greek, in which Anacreon wrote, are not to be found in

these reputed odes, while the fragments of his poems quoted

by ancient writers are full of Ionicisms. Again, only one

of the quotations from Anacreon in ancient writers is to be

found in these poems, which further contain no references

to contemporaries, whereas Strabo (xiv. p. 638) expressly

states that Anacreon's poems included numerous allusions to

Polycrates. The character of Love as a mischievous little

boy is quite different from that given by Anacreon, who

describes him as ``striking with a mighty axe, like a smith,''

and is more akin to the conceptions of later literature.

The best edition of the genuine fragments of Anacreon, as well

as of the Anacreontea, is by Bergk (Poetae lyrici graeci,

1882). He includes in an appendix a similar collection

of imitations from the Anecdota graeca of P. Matranga

(1850), which had their origin in the beginning of the middle

ages, and resemble the Christian anacreontics of Sophronius.

ANACREONTICS (from the name of the Greek poet Anacreon),

the title given to short lyrical pieces, of an easy kind,

dealing with love and wine. The English word appears to

have been first used in 1656 by Abraham Cowley, who called

a section of his poems ``anacreontiques,'' because they

were paraphrased out of the so-called writings of Anacreon

into a familiar measure which was supposed to represent the

metre of the Greek. Half a century later, when the form

had been much cultivated, John Phillips (1631-1706) laid

down the arbitrary rule that an anacreontic line ``consists

of seven syllables, without being tied to any certain law

of quantity.'' In the 18th century, the antiquary William

Oldys (1696-1761) was the author of a little piece which

is the perfect type of an anacreontic: this begins:--

``Busy, curious, thirsty fly,

Drink with me, and drink as I;

Freely welcome to my cup,

Could'st thou sip and sip it up.

Make the most of life you may;

Life is short and wears away.''

In 1800 Tom Moore published a collection of erotic anacreontics

which are also typical in form; Moore speaks of the necessity of

catching ``the careless facility with which Anacreon appears to

have trifled,'' as a reason why anacreontics are often tame and

worthless. He dwells, moreover, on the absurdity of writing

``pious anacreontics,'' a feat, however, which was performed

by several of the Greek Christian poets, and in particular

by Gregory of Nazianzus and John of Damascus. (E. G.)

ANADYOMENE ('Anaduoene), an epithet of Aphrodite

(Venus), expressive of her having sprung from the foam of the

sea. In a famous picture by Apelles she was represented

under this title as if just emerged from the sea and in the

act of wringing her tresses. This painting was executed

for the temple of Asclepius at Cos, from which it was taken

to Rome by Augustus in part payment of tribute, and set

up in the temple of Caesar. In the time of Nero, owing to

its dilapidated condition, it was replaced by a copy made

by the painter Dorotheus (Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxxv. 36).

There are several epigrams on it in the Greek anthology.

ANADYR, (1) a gulf, and (2) a river, in the extreme N.E. of

Siberia, in the Maritime Province. The gulf extends from Cape

Chukchi on the north to Cape Navarin on the south, forming part

of the Bering Sea. The river, taking its rise in the Stanovoi

mountains as the Ivashki or Ivachno, about 67 deg. N. lat. and

173 deg. E. long., flows through the Chukchi country, at first

south-west and then east, and enters the Gulf of Anadyr after

a course of about 500 m. The country through which it passes

is thinly populated, barren and desolate. For nine months of

the year the ground is covered with snow. Reindeer, upon which

the inhabitants subsist, are found in considerable numbers.

ANAEMIA (from Gr. an-, privative, and aima, blood),

literally ``want of blood,'' a word used as a generic

term for various forms of disease characterized by a

defective constitution of the blood. For different types

of anaemia see the article BLOOD, section Pathology.

ANAESTHESIA and ANAESTHETICS (Gr. anaisthesia, from

an-, privative, and aisthesis, sensation), terms

used in medicine to describe a state of local or general

insensibility to external impressions, and the substances

used for inducing this state. In diseases of the brain or

spinal cord anaesthesia is an occasional symptom, but in such

cases it is usually limited in extent, involving a limb or

a definite area of the body's surface. Complete anaesthesia

occurs in a state of catalepsy or trance-- conditions

associated with no definite lesion of the nervous system.

The artificial induction of anaesthesia has come to occupy

a foremost place in modern medicine, but there is abundant

evidence to show that it is a practice of great antiquity.

Besides the mention by Homer of the anaesthetic effects of

nepenthe, and the reference by Herodotus to the practice of

the Scythians of inhaling the vapours of a certain kind of

hemp to produce intoxication, the employment of anaesthetics

in surgery by the use of mandragora is particularly alluded

to by Dioscorides and Pliny. It also appears, from an old

Chinese manuscript laid before the French Academy by Stanislas

Julien, that a physician named Hoa-tho, who lived in the 3rd

century, gave his patients a preparation of hemp, whereby

they were rendered insensible during the performance of

surgical operations. Mandragora was extensively used as

an anaesthetic by Hugo de Lucca, who practised in the 13th

century. The soporific effects of mandrake are alluded to by

Shakespeare, who also makes frequent mention of anaesthetizing

draughts, the composition of which is not specified.

In the Medical Gazette, vol. xii. p. 515, Dr Sylvester, quoting

from a German work by Meissner, published in 1782, mentions

the case of Augustus, king of Poland, who underwent amputation

while rendered insensible by a narcotic. But the practice

of anaesthesia never became general, and surgeons appear to

have usually regarded it with disfavour. When, towards the

close of the 18th century, the discoveries of Priestley gave

an impetus to chemical research, the properties of gases and

vapours began to be more closely investigated, and the belief

was then entertained that many of them would become of great

medicinal value. In 1800, Sir Humphry Davy, experimenting

on nitrous oxide (the so-called ``laughing gas''), discovered

its anaesthetic properties, and described the effects it

had on himself when inhaled with the view of relieving local

pain. He suggested its employment in surgery in the following

words:--``As nitrous oxide, in its extensive operation,

seems capable of destroying physical pain, it may probably be

used with advantage in surgical operations in which no great

effusion of blood takes place.'' His suggestion, however,

remained unheeded for nearly half a century. The inhalation

of sulphuric ether for the relief of asthma and other lung

affections had been employed by Dr Pearson of Birmingham as early

as 1785; and in 1805 Dr J. C. Warren of Boston, U.S.A., used

this treatment in the later stages of pulmonary consumption.