The mineral was first discovered in Saxony by A. Breithaupt

in 1817, and named by him from the Greek amblus, blunt,

and gouia, angle, because of the obtuse angle between the

cleavages. Later it was found at Montebras, dep. Creuse,

France, and at Hebron in Maine; and on account of slight

differences in optical character and chemical composition

the names montebrasite and hebronite have been applied to

the mineral from these localities. Recently it has been

discovered in considerable quantity at Pala in San Diego

county, California, and at Caceres in Spain. Amblygonite

occurs with lepidolite, tourmaline and other lithia-bearing

minerals in pegmatite-veins. It contains about 10% of

lithia, and, since 1886, has been utilized as a source

of lithium salts, the chief commercial sources being the

Montebras deposits, and later the Californian. (L.J.S.)

AMBLYPODA, a suborder of primitive ungulate mammals, taking

its name from the short and stumpy feet, which were furnished

with five toes each, and supported massive pillar-like

limbs. The brain-cavity was extremely small, and insignificant

in comparison to the bodily bulk, which was equal to that

of the largest rhinoceroses. These animals are, in fact,

descendants of the small ancestral ungulates which have

retained all the primitive characters of the latter accompanied

by a huge increase in bodily size. They are confined to

the Eocene period, and occur both in North America and

Europe. The cheek teeth are short crowned (brachyodont),

with the tubercles more or less completely fused into

transverse ridges, or cross-crests (lophodont type); and

the total number of teeth is in one case the typical 44,

but in another is reduced below this. The vertebrae of

the neck unite by nearly flat surfaces, the humerus has

lost the foramen, or perforation, at the lower end, and the

third trochanter to the femur may also be wanting. In the

fore-limb the upper and lower series of carpal bones scarcely

alternate, but in the hind- foot the astragalus overlaps the

cuboid, while the fibula, which is quite distinct from the

tibia (as is the radius from the ulna in the fore-limb),

articulates with both astragalus and calcaneum. The most

generalized type is Coryphodon, representing the family

Coryphodontidae, from the lower Eocene of Europe and North

America, in which there were 44 teeth, and no horn-like excrescences

on the long skull, while the femur had a third trochanter. The

canines are somewhat elongated, and were followed by a short

gap in each jaw, and the cheek-teeth were adapted for succulent

food. The length of the body reached about 6 ft. in some cases.

In the middle Eocene formations of North America occurs the

more specialized Hintatherium (or Dinoceras), typifying

the family Uintatheriidae, which also contains species

sometimes separated as Tinoceras. Uintatheres were huge

creatures, with long narrow skulls, of which the elongated

facial portion caraed three pairs of bony horn-cores,

probably covered with short horns in life, the hind-pair

being much the largest. The dental formula is i. 0/3, c.

1/1, p. $3\over 3\cdot4$, m. 3/3; the upper canines

being long sabre-like weapons, protected by a descending

flange on each side of the front of the lower iaw.

In the basal Eocene of North America the Amblypoda were represented

by extremely primitive, five-toed, small ungulates such as

Periptychus and Pantolambda, each of these typifying a

family. The full typical series of 44 teeth was developed

in each, but whereas in the Periptychidae the upper molars

were bunodont and tritubercular, in the Pantolambdidae

they have assumed a selenodont structure. Creodont

characters (see CREODONTA) are displayed in the skeleton.

See also H. F. Osborn, ``Evolution of the Amblypoda,''

Bull. Amer. Mus. vol x. p. 169. (R. L.*)

AMBO, or AMBON (Gr. ambon, from anabainein, to

walk up, the reading-desk of early Basilican churches,

also called purgos. Originally small and movable, it

was afterwards made of large proportions and fixed in one

place. In the Byzantine and early Romanesque periods it

was an essential part of church furniture; but during the

middle ages it was gradually superseded in the Western

Church by the pulpit and lectern. The gospel and epistle

are still read from the ambo in the Ambrosian rite at

Milan. The position of the ambo was not absolutely uniform;

sometimes in the central point between the sanctuary and the

nave, sometimes in the middle of the church, and sometimes

at one or both of the sides of the chancel. The normal

ambo, when the church contained only one, had three stages

or degrees, one above the other, and it was usually mounted

by a flight of steps at each end. The uppermost stage was

reserved for the deacon who sang the gospel (facing the

congregation); for promulgating episcopal edicts; reciting the

names inscribed on the diptychs (see DIPTYCH); announcing

fasts, vigils and feasts; reading ecclesiastical letters

or acts of the martyrs celebrated on that day; announcing

new miracles for popular edification, professions by new

converts or recantations by heretics; and (for priests and

deacons) preaching sermons, -- bishops as a general rule

preaching from their own throne. The second stage was for

the sub-deacon who read the epistle (facing the altar); and

the third for the subordinate clergy who read other parts of

scripture. The inconvenience of having a single ambo led

to the substitution of two separate ambones, between which

these various functions were divided, one on the south side

of the chancel being for the reading of the gospel, and one

on the north for reading the epistle. In the Russian Orthodox

Church the term ``ambo'' is used of the semicircular steps

leading to the platform in front of the iconostasis (q.v.),

but in Cathedrals the bishop has an ambo in the centre of the

church. In the Greek Church the older form remains, usually

placed at the side. In the Uniate Greek Catholic Church

the ``ambo'' has become a table, on which are placed a

crucifix and lights, before the doors of the iconostasis;

here baptisms, marriages and confirmations take place.

Ambones were made of wood or else of costly marbles, and

were decorated with mosaics, reliefs, gilding, &c.; sometimes

also covered with canopies supported on columns. They were

often of enormous size; that at St Sophia in Constantinople

was large enough for the ceremonial of coronation.

The churches in Rome possess many fine examples of ambones in

marble, of which the oldest is probably that in S. Clemente,

reconstructed in the beginning of the 12th century. Those of

slightly later date are enriched with marble mosaic known as

Cosmati work, of which the examples in S. Maria-in-Ara-Coeli,

S. Maria-in-Cosmedin and S. Lorenzo are those which are best

known. Some early ambones are found in Ravenna, and in the

south of Italy are many fine examples; the epistle ambo in the

cathedral at Ravello (1130), which is perhaps the earliest, shows

a Scandinavian influence in the design of its mosaic inlay, an

influence which is found in Sicilian work and may be a Norman

importation. The two ambones in the Cathedral of Salerno,

which are different in design, are magnificent in effect and

are enriched with sculpture as well as with mosaic. In the

gospel ambo in the cathedral of Ravello (1272), and also in

that of the convent of the Trinita della Cava near Salerno,

the spiral columns inlaid with mosaic stand on the backs of

lions. In the epistle ambo at Salerno and the gospel ambones at

Cava and San Giovanni del Toro in Ravello, the columns support

segmental arches carrying the ambones; the epistle ambo at

Ravello and all those in Rome are raised on solid marble bases.

See the litumical and ecclesiastical dictionaries of Martigny,

Migne, and Smith and Cheetham, sub voce, where all the

scattered references are collected together and summarized.

In Ciampinus, Vetera Monumenta (Rome, 1747), plates

xii., xiii., are several illustrations of actual examples.

AMBOISE, GEORGES D', (1460-1510), French cardinal and minister

of state, belonged to a noble family possessed of considerable

influence. His father, Pierre d'Amboise, seigneur de Chaumont,

was chamberlain to Charles VII. and Louis XI. and ambassador at

Rome. His eldest brother, Charles d'Amboise, was governor

of the Isle of France, Champagne and Burgundy, and councillor

of Louis XI. Georges d'Amboise was only fourteen when his

father procured for him the bishopric of Montauban, and

Louis XI. appointed him one of his almoners. On arriving at

manhood d'Amboise attached himself to the party of the duke

of Orleans, in whose cause he suffered imprisonment, and

on whose return to the royal favour he was elevated to the

archbishopric of Narbonne, which after some time he changed

for that of Rouen (1493). On the appointment of the duke

of Orleans as governor of Normandy, d'Amboise became his

lieutenant-general. In 1498 the duke of Orleans mounted

the throne as Louis XII., and d'Amboise was suddenly raised

to the high position of cardinal and prime minister. His

administration was, in many respects, well-intentioned and

useful. Having the good fortune to serve a king who was

both economical and just, he was able to diminish the

imposts, to introduce order among the soldiery, and above

all, by the ordinances of 1499, to improve the organization of

justice. He was also zealous for the reform of the church,

and particularly for the reform of the monasteries; and it

is greatly to his credit that he did not avail himself of the

extremely favourable opportunities he possessed of becoming a

pluralist. He regularly spent a large income in charity,

and he laboured strenuously to stay the progress of the

plague and famine which broke out in 1504. His foreign

policy, less happy and less wise, was animated by two aims

-- to increase the French power in Italy and to seat himself

on the papal throne; and these aims be sought to achieve by

diplomacy, not by force. He, however, sympathized with,

and took part in, the campaign which was begun in 1499 for

the Conquest of Milan. In 1500 he was named lieutenant-

general in Italy and charged with the organization of the

conquest. On the death of Alexander VI. he aspired to the

papacy. He had French troops at the gates of Rome, by means

of which he could easily have frightened the conclave and

induced them to elect him; but he was persuaded to trust

to his influence; the troops were dismissed, and an Italian

was appointed as Pius III.; and again, on the death of Pius

within the month, another Italian, Julius II., was chosen

(1503). D'Amboise received in compensation the title of

legate for life in France and in the Comtat Venaissin. He

was one of the negotiators of the disastrous treaties of

Blois (1504), and in 1508 of the League of Cambrai against

Venice. In 1509 he again accompanied Louis XII. into

Italy, but on his return he was seized at the city of Lyons

with a fatal attack of gout in the stomach. He died there

on the 25th of May 1510. His body was removed to Rouen,

and a magnificent tomb, on which he is represented kneeling

in the attitude of prayer, was erected to his memory in

the cathedral of that town. Throughout his life he was an

enlightened patron of letters and art, and it was at his

orders that the chateau of Gaillon near Rouen was built.

See Lettres du roi Louis XII. et du cardinal d'Amboise

(Brussels, 1712); L. Legendre, Vie du cardinal d'Amboise

(Rouen, 1726); E. Lavisse, Histoire de France (vol. v. by

H. Lemonnier, Paris, 19O3); J. A. Deville, Tombeaux de la

cathedrale de Rouen (3rd ed., 1881). For a bibliography

of the printed sources see, H. Hauser, Les Sources de

l'histoire de France, KM`siecle, vol. i. (1906). (J. I.)

AMBOISE, a town of central France in the department

of Indre-et-Loire, on the left bank of the Loire, 12

m. E. of Tours by the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906)

4632. Amboise owes its celebrity to the imposing chateau

which overlooks the Loire from the rocky eminence above the

town. The Logis du Roi, the most important portion, was the

work of Charles VIII.; the other wing was built under Louis

XII. and Francis I. The ramparts are strengthened by two

massive towers containing an inclined plane on which horses

and carriages may ascend. The chapel of St Hubert, said to

contain the remains of Leonardo da Vinci, who was summoned

to Amboise by Francis I., king of France, and died there

in 1519, is in the late Gothic style; a delicately carved

relief over the doorway represents the conversion of St

Hubert. The hotel de ville is established in a mansion

of Renaissance architecture; a town gateway of the 15th

century, surmounted by a belfry, is also of architectural

interest. Iron-founding, wool-weaving, and the manufacture

of boots and farm implements are among the industries.

Amboise at the end of the 11th century was a lordship under the

counts of Anjou, one of whom, Hugues I., rebuilt the ancient

castle. Its territory was united to the domain of the crown

of France by Charles VII. about the middle of the 15th

century, and thenceforth the chateau became a favourite

residence of the French kings. The discovery in 1560 of

the ``conspiracy of Amboise,'' a plot of the Huguenots

to remove Francis II. from the influence of the house of

Guise, was avenged by the death of 1200 members of that

party. In 1563 Amboise gave its name to a royal edict allowing

freedom of worship to the Huguenot nobility and gentry.

After that period the chateau was frequently used as a state

prison, and Abd-el-Kader was a captive there from 1848 to

1852. In 1872 it was restored by the National Assembly to the

house of Orleans, to which it had come by inheritance from the

duke of Penthievre in the latter half of the 18th century.

AMBOYNA (Dutch Ambon), the name of a residency, its chief town, and

the island on which the town is situated, in the Dutch East Indies.

The residency shares with that of Ternate the administration of

the Moluccas, the previous government of which was abolished in

1867. It includes a mass of islands in the Banda Sea (2 deg.

30' - 8 deg. 20' S. and 125 deg. 45' - 135 deg. E.), including the

island-belt which surrounds the sea on the north, east

and south; and is divided for administrative purposes into

nine districts (afdeelingen): 1) Amboyna, the island of

that name; (2) Saparua, with Oma and Nusa Laut; (3) Kajeli

(Eastern Burn); (4) Masareti (Western Burn); (5) Kairatu

(Western Ceram); (6) Wahai (the northern part of Mid-Ceram);

(7) Amahai (the southern part of Mid-Ceram); (8) the Banda

Isles, with East Ceram, Ceram Laut and Gorom; (9) the islands

of Aru, Kei, Timor Laut or Tenimber, and the south-western

islands. The total area of the residency is about 19,861 sq.

m., and its population 296,000, including 2400 Europeans.

Amboyna Island lies off the south-west of Ceram, on the north

side of the Banda Sea, being one of a series of volcanic isles

in the inner circle round the sea. It is 32 m. in length, with

an area of about 386 sq. m., and is of very irregular figure,

being almost divided into two. The south-eastern and smaller

portion (called Leitimor) is united to the northern (Hitoe) by

a neck of land a few yards in breadth. The highest mountains,

Wawani (3609 ft.) and Salhutu (4020 ft.), have hot springs

and solfataras. They are considered to be volcanoes, and the

mountains of the neighbouring Uliasser islands the remains of

volcanoes. Granite and serpentine rocks predominate, but the

shores of Amboyna Bay are of chalk, and contain stalactite

caves. The surface is fertile, the rivers are small and not

navigable, and the roads are mere footpaths. Cocoa is one

of the products. The climate is comparatively pleasant

and healthy; the average temperature is 80 deg. F., rarely

sinking below 72 deg. . The rainfall, however, after the

eastern monsoons, is very heavy, and the island is liable to

violent hurricanes. It is remarkable that the dry season

(October to April) is coincident with the period of the west

monsoon. Indigenous mammals are poor in species as well as

few in number; birds are more abundant, but of no greater

variety. The entomology of the island, however, is very

rich, particularly in respect of Lepidoptera. Shells

are obtained in great numbers and variety. Turtle-shell

is also largely exported. The vegetation is also rich,

and Amboyna produces most of the common tropical fruits and

vegetables, including the sago-palm, bread-fruit, cocoa-nut,

sugar-cane, maize, coffee, pepper and cotton. Cloves,

however, form its chief product, though the trade in them

is less important than formerly, when the Dutch prohibited

the rearing of the clove-tree in all the other islands

subject to their rule, in order to secure the monopoly to

Amboyna. Amboyna wood, of great value for ornamental work,

is obtained from the hard knots which occur on certain

trees in the forests of Ceram. The population (about 39,000)

is divided into two classes-- orang burger or citizens,

and orang negri or villagers, the former being a class

of native origin enjoying certain privileges conferred on

their ancestors by the old Dutch East India Company. The

natives are of mixed Malay-Papuan blood. They are mostly

Christians or Mahommedans. There are also, besides the

Dutch, some Arabs, Chinese and a few Portuguese settlers.

Amboyna, the chief town, and seat of the resident and

military commander of the Moluccas, is protected by Fort

Victoria, and is a clean little town with wide streets, well

planted. Agriculture, fisheries and import and export

trade furnish the chief means of subsistence. It lies on

the north-west of the peninsula of Leitimor, and has a safe

and commodious anchorage. Its population is about 8000.

The Portuguese were the first European nation to visit Amboyna

(1511). They established a factory there in 1521, but

did not obtain peaceable possession of it till 1580, and

were dispossessed by the Dutch in 1609. About 1615 the

British formed a settlement in the island, at Cambello,

which they retained until 1623, when it was destroyed by the

Dutch, and frightful tortures inflicted on the unfortunate

persons connected with it. In 1654, after many fruitless

negotiations, Cromwell compelled the United Provinces to

give the sum of L. 300,000, together with a small island,

as compensation to the descendants of those who suffered in

the ``Amboyna massacre.'' In 1673 the poet Dryden produced

his tragedy of Amboyna, or the Cruelties of the Dutch to

the English Merchants. In 1796 the British, under Admiral

Rainier, captured Amboyna, but restored it to the Dutch at

the peace of Amiens in 1802. It was retaken by the British

in 1810, but once more restored to the Dutch in 1814.

AMBRACIA (more correctly AMPRACIA), an ancient Corinthian

colony, situated about 7 m. from the Ambracian Gulf, on a

bend of the navigable river Aracthus (or Aratthus), in the

midst of a fertile wooded plain. It was founded between

650 and 625 B.C. by Gorgus, son of the Corinthian tyrant

Cypselus. After the expulsion of Gorgus's son Periander

its government developed into a strong democracy. The

early policy of Ambracia was determined by its loyalty to

Corinth (for which it probably served as an entrepot in the

Epirus trade), its consequent aversion to Corcyra, and its

frontier disputes with the Amphilochians and Acarnanians.

Hence it took a prominent part in the Peloponnesian War

until the crushing defeat at Idomene (426) crippled its

resources. In the 4th century it continued its traditional

policy, but in 338 surrendered to Philip II. of Macedon. After

forty-three years of autonomy under Macedonian suzerainty it

became the capital of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who adorned

it with palace, temples and theatres. In the wars of Philip

V. of Macedon and the Epirotes against the Aetolian league

(220-205) Ambracia passed from one alliance to the other,

but ultimately joined the latter confederacy. During the

struggle of the Aetolians against Rome it stood a stubborn

siege. After its capture and plunder by M. Fulvius Nobilior in

189, it fell into insignificance. The foundation by Augustus

of Nicopolis (q.v.), into which the remaining inhabitants

were drafted, left the site desolate. In Byzantine times a

new settlement took its place under the name of Arta (q.v.).

Some fragmentary walls of large, well-dressed blocks near

this latter town indicate the early prosperity of Ambracia.

AUTHORITIES. -- Thucydides ii. 68 - iii. 114; Aristotle,

Politics, 1303a sqq.; Strabo p. 325; Polybius xxii. 9-13;

Livy xxxviii. 3-9; G. Wolfe, Journal of Geographical Society

(London), iii. (1833) pp. 77-94; E. Oberhummer, Akarnanien,

Ambrakien, &c. im Altertum (Munich, 1887). (M. O. B. C.)

AMBRIZ, a West African seaport belonging to Portugal, at

the mouth of the Loje River, in 7 deg. 50' S., 13 deg. E., some 70

m. N. of Loanda. It forms a part of the province of Angola

(q.v.). The town is within the free-trade area of the

conventional basin of the Congo river. Its chief exports are

rubber, gum, coffee and copper. Pop. about 2500. Ambriz

was, previously to 1884, the northernmost point of Africa

south of the equator acknowledged as Portuguese territory.

AMBROS, AUGUST WILHELM (1816-1876), Austrian composer

and historian of music, was born at Mauth near Prague. His

father was a cultured man, and his mother was the sister of

R. G. Kiesewetter (1773-1850), the musical archaeologist and

collector. Ambros was well educated in music and the

arts, which were his abiding passion: but he was destined

for the law and an official career in the Austrian civil

service, and he occupied various important posts under

the ministry of justice, music being the employment of his

leisure. From 1850 onwards he became well known as a

critic and essay-writer, and in 1860 he began working on his

magnum opus, his History of Music, which was published

at intervals from 1864 in five volumes, the last two

(1878, 1882) being edited and completed by Otto Kade and

Langhaus. Ambros became professor of the history of music

at Prague in 1869. He was an excellent pianist, and the

author of numerous compositions somewhat reminiscent of

Mendelssohn. He died at Vienna on the 28th of June 1876.

AMBROSE (fl. 1190), Norman poet, and chronicler of the

Third Crusade, author of a work called L'Estoire de la

guerre sainte, which describes in rhyming French verse

the adventures of Richard Coeur de Lion as a crusader. The

poem is known to us only through one Vatican MS., and long

escaped the notice of historians. The credit for detecting

its value belongs to the late Gaston Paris, although his

edition (1897) was partially anticipated by the editors

of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, who published some

selections in the twenty-seventh volume of their Scriptores

(1885). Ambrose followed Richard I. as a noncombatant,

and not improbably as a court-minstrel. He speaks as an

eye-witness of the king's doings at Messina, in Cyprus,

at the siege of Acre, and in the abortive campaign which

followed the capture of that city. Ambrose is surprisingly

accurate in his chronology; though he did not complete his

work before 1195, it is evidently founded upon notes which

he had taken in the course of his pilgrimage. He shows no

greater political insight than we should expect from his

position; but relates what he had seen and heard with a naive

vivacity which compels attention. He is prejudiced against the

Saracens, against the French, and against all the rivals or

enemies of his master; but he is never guilty of deliberate

misrepresentation. He is rather to be treated as a biographer

than as a historian of the Crusade in its broader aspects.

None the less he is the chief authority for the events

of the years 1190-1192, so far as these are connected with

the Holy Land. The Itinerarium Regis Ricardi (formerly

attributed to Geoffrey Vinsauf, but in reality the work of

Richard, a canon of Holy Trinity, London) is little more

than a free paraphrase of Ambrose. The first book of the

Itinerarium contains some additional facts; and the whole

of the Latin version is adorned with dowers of rhetoric

which are foreign to the style of Ambrose. But it is no

longer possible to regard the Itinerarium as a first-hand

narrative. Stubbs's edition of the Itinerarium (Rolls

Series, 1864), in which the contrary hypothesis is maintained,

appeared before Gaston Paris published his discovery.

See the edition of L'Estoire de la guerre sainte by Gaston

Paris in the Collection des documents inedits sur l'histoire

de France (1897); the editor discusses in his introduction

the biography of Ambrose, the value of the poem as a

historical source, and its relation to the Itinerarium.

R. Pauli's remarks (in Monumenta Germaniae Historica.

Scriptores, xxvii.) also deserve attention. (H. W. C. D.)

AMBROSE, SAINT (c. 340-307), bishop of Milan, one of the

most eminent fathers of the church in the 4th century, was

a citizen of Rome, born about 337-340 in Treves, where his

father was prefect of Gallia Narbonensis. His mother was a

woman of intellect and piety. Ambrose was early destined to

follow his father's career, and was accordingly educated in

Rome. He made such progress in literature, law and rhetoric,

that the praetor Anicius Probus first gave him a place in

the council and then made him consular prefect of Liguria

and Emilia, with headquarters at Milan, where he made an

excellent administrator. In 374 Auxentius, bishop of Milan,

died, and the orthodox and Arian parties contended for the

succession. An address delivered to them at this crisis

by Ambrose led to his being acclaimed as the only competent

occupant of the see; though hitherto only a catechumen, he was

baptized, and a few days saw him duly installed as bishop of

Milan. He immediately betook himself to the necessary

studies, and acquitted himself in his new office with ability,

boldness and integrity. Having apportioned his money among

the poor, and settled his lands upon the church, with the

exception of making his sister Marcellina tenant during

life, and having committed the care of his family to his

brother, he entered upon a regular course of theological

study, under the care of Simplician, a presbyter of Rome, and

devoted himself to the labours of the church, labours which

were temporarily interrupted by an invasion of Goths, which

compelled Ambrose and other churchmen to retire to Illyricum.

The eloquence of Ambrose soon found ample scope in the dispute

between the Arians and the orthodox or Catholic party, whose

cause the new bishop espoused. Gratian, the son of the elder

Valentinian, took the same side; but the younger Valentinian,

who had now become his colleague in the empire, adopted the

opinions of the Arians, and all the arguments and eloquence

of Ambrose could not reclaim the young prince to the orthodox

faith. Theodosius, the emperor of the East, also professed

the orthodox belief; but there were many adherents of Arius

scattered throughout his dominions. In this distracted

state of religious opinion, two leaders of the Arians,

Palladius and Secundianus, confident of numbers, prevailed

upon Gratian to call a general council from all parts of the

empire. This request appeared so equitable that he complied

without hesitation; but Ambrose, foreseeing the consequence,

prevailed upon the emperor to have the matter determined

by a council of the Western bishops. A synod, composed of

thirty-two bishops, was accordingly held at Aquileia in the

year 381. Ambrose was elected president; and Palladius, being

called upon to defend his opinions, declined, insisting that

the meeting was a partial one, and that, all the bishops

of the empire not being present, the sense of the Christian

church concerning the question in dispute could not be

obtained. A vote was then taken, when Palladius and his

associate Secundianus were deposed from the episcopal office.

Ambrose was equally zealous in combating the attempt made

by the upholders of the old state religion to resist the

enactments of Christian emperors. The pagan party was led

by Quintus Aurelius Symmachus (q.v.), consul in 391, who

presented to Valentinian II. a forcible but unsuccessful

petition praying for the restoration of the altar of Victory

to its ancient station in the hall of the senate, the proper

support of seven vestal virgins, and the regular observance

of the other pagan ceremonies. To this petition Ambrose

replied in a letter to Valentinian, arguing that the devoted

worshippers of idols had often been forsaken by their deities;

that the native valour of the Roman soldiers had gained

their victories, and not the pretended influence of pagan

priests; that these idolatrous worshippers requested for

themselves what they refused to Christians; that voluntary

was more honourable than constrained virginity; that as the

Christian ministers declined to receive temporal emoluments,

they should also be denied to pagan priests; that it was

absurd to suppose that God would inflict a famine upon the

empire for neglecting to support a religious system contrary

to His will as revealed in the Scriptures; that the whole

process of nature encouraged innovations, and that all

nations had permitted them even in religion; that heathen

sacrifices were offensive to Christians; and that it was the

duty of a Christian prince to suppress pagan ceremonies. In

the epistles of Symmachus and of Ambrose both the petition

and the reply are preserved. They are a strange blend of

sophistry, superstition, sound sense and solid argument.

The increasing strength of the Arians proved a formidable

task for ambrose. In 384 the young emperor and his mother

Justina, along with a considerable number of clergy and laity

professing the Arian faith, requested from the bishop the use

of two churches, one in the city, the other in the suburbs of

Milan. Ambrose refused, and was required to answer for

his conduct before the council. He went, attended by a

numerous crowd of people, whose impetuous zeal so overawed

the ministers of Valentinian that he was permitted to retire

without making the surrender of the churches. The day

following, when he was performing divine service in the

Basilica, the prefect of the city came to persuade him to

give up at least the Portian church in the suburbs. As he

still continued obstinate, the court proceeded to violent

measures: the officers of the household were commanded to

prepare the Basilica and the Portian churches to celebrate

divine service upon the arrival of the emperor and his

mother at the ensuing festival of Easter. Perceiving the

growing strength of the prelate's interest, the court deemed

it prudent to restrict its demand to the use of one of the

churches. But all entreaties proved in vain, and drew

forth the following characteristic declaration from the

bishop: -- ``If you demand my person, I am ready to submit:

carry me to prison or to death, I will not resist; but I

will never betray the church of Christ. I will not call

upon the people to succour me; I will die at the foot of

the altar rather than desert it. The tumult of the people

I will not encourage: but God alone can appease it.''

Many circumstances in the history of Ambrose are strongly

characteristic of the general spirit of the times. The

chief causes of his victory over his opponents were his

great popularity and the superstitious reverence paid to the

episcopal character at that period. But it must also be noted

that he used several indirect means to obtain and support his

authority with the people. He was liberal to the poor; it was

his custom to comment severely in his preaching on the public

characters of his times; and he introduced popular reforms

in the order and manner of public worship. It is alleged,

too, that at a time when the influence of Ambrose required

vigorous support, he was admonished in a dream to search

for, and found under the pavement of the church, the remains

of two martyrs, Gervasius and Protasius. The applause of the

vulgar was mingled with the derision of the court party.

Although the court was displeased with the religious principles

and conduct of Ambrose, it respected his great political

talents; and when necessity required, his aid was solicited

and generously granted. When Maximus usurped the supreme

power in Gaul, and was meditating a descent upon Italy,

Valentinian sent Ambrose to dissuade him from the undertaking,

and the embassy was successful. On a second attempt of the

same kind Ambrose was again employed; and although he was

unsuccessful, it cannot be doubted that, if his advice had

been followed, the schemes of the usurper would have proved

abortive; but the enemy was permitted to enter Italy; and

Milan was taken. Justina and her son fled; but Ambrose remained

at his post, and did good service to many of the sufferers

by causing the plate of the church to be melted for their

relief. Theodosius, the emperor of the East, espoused the

cause of Justina, and regained the kingdom. This Theodosius

was sternly rebuked by Ambrose for the massacre of 7000

persons at Thessalonica in 390, and was bidden imitate

David in his repentance as he had imitated him in guilt.

In 302, after the assassination of Valentinian and the usurpation

of Eugenius, Ambrose fled from Milan; but when Theodosius

was eventually victorious, he supplicated the emperor for

the pardon of those who had supported Eugenius. Soon after

acquiring the undisputed possession of the Roman empire,

Theodosius died at Milan in 395, and two years later (4th

April 397) Ambrose also passed away. He was succeeded by Simplician.

A man of pure character, vigorous mind, unwearying zeal and

uncommon generosity, Ambrose ranks high among the fathers

of the ancient church on many counts. His chief faults were

ambition and bigotry. Though ranking with Augustine, Jerome,

and Gregory the Great, as one of the Latin ``doctors,'' he

is most naturally compared with Hilary, whom he surpasses in

administrative excellence as much as he falls below him in

theological ability. Even here, however, his achievements are

of no mean order, especially when we remember his juridical

training and his comparatively late handling of Biblical

and doctrinal subjects. In matters of exegesis he is, like

Hilary, an Alexandrian; his chief productions are homiletic

commentaries on the early Old Testament narratives, e.g.

the Hexaemeron (Creation) and Abraham, some of the Psalms, and

the Gospel according to Luke. In dogmatic he follows Basil

of Caesarea and other Greek authors, but nevertheless gives

a distinctly Western cast to the speculations of which he

treats. This is particularly manifest in the weightier emphasis

which he lays upon human sin and divine grace, and in the

place which he assigns to faith in the individual Christian

life. His chief works in this field are De fide ad Gratianuni

Augustunn, De Spiritu Sancto, De incarnationis Dominicae

sacramento, De mysteriis. His great spiritual successor,

Augustine, whose conversion was helped by Ambrose's sermons,

owes more to him than to any writer except Paul. Ambrose's

intense episcopal consciousness furthered the growing doctrine

of the Church and its sacerdotal ministry, while the prevalent

asceticism of the day, continuing the Stoic and Ciceronian

training of his youth, enabled him to promulgate a lofty

standard of Christian ethics. Thus we have the De officiis

ministrorum, De viduis, De virginitate and De paenitentia.

Ambrose has also left several funeral orations and ninety-

one letters, but it is as a hymn-writer that he perhaps

deserves most honour. Catching the impulse from Hilary and

confirmed in it by the success of Arian psalmody, Ambrose

composed several hymns, marked by dignified simplicity,

which were not only effective in themselves but served

as a fruitful model for later times. We cannot certainly

assign to him more than four or five (Deus Creator Omnium,

Aeterne rerum conditor, Jam surgit hora tertia, and

the Christmas hymn Veni redemptor gentium) of those

that have come down to us. Each of these hymns has eight

four-line stanzas and is written in strict iambic tetrameter.

On the Ambrosian ritual see LITURGY; on the Ambrosian library

see LIBRARIES; on the church founded by him at Milan in 387 see

MILAN. Editions: The Benedictine (4 vols., Venice, 1748 ff.);

Migne, Patrol. Lat. xiv.-xvii.; P. A. Ballerini (6 vols.,

Milan, 1875 ff.). LITERATURE: Th. Forster, Ambrose, B. of

Mailand (Halle, 1884), and art. in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk.,

where the literature is cited in full; A. Ebert, Glesch. der

christlich-latein. Litt. (2nd ed., 1889); O. Bardenhewer,

Patrologic (2nd ed., 1891); A. Harnack, Hist. of Dogma,

esp. vol. v.; W. Bright, Age ofthe Fathers. (A. J. G.)

AMBROSE (ANDREY SERTIS-KAMENSKIY) (1708-1771), archbishop

of Moscow, was born at Nezhine in the government of Chernigov,

and studied in the school of St Alexander Nevskiy, where

he afterwards became a tutor. At the age of thirty-one

he entered a monastery, where he took the name of Ambrose.

Subsequently he was appointed archimandrite of the convent

of New Jerusalem at Voznesensk. From this post he was

transferred as bishop, first to the diocese of Pereyaslav,

and afterwards to that of Krusitsy near Moscow, finally

becoming archbishop of Moscow in 1761. He was famous not

only for his interest in schemes for the alleviation of

poverty in Moscow, but also as the founder of new churches and

monasteries. A terrible outbreak of plague occurred in Moscow

in 1771, and the populace began to throng round an image

of the Virgin to which they attributed supernatural healing

power. Ambrose, perceiving that this crowding together

merely enabled the contagion to spread, had the image secretly

removed. The mob, suspecting that he was responsible for

its removal, attacked a monastery to which he had retired,

dragged him away from the sanctuary, and, having given him

time to receive the sacrament, strangled him. Ambrose's

works include a liturgy and translations from the Fathers.

AMBROSE (AMBROISE), AUTPERT (d. 778), French Benedictine

monk. He became abbe of St Vincent on the Volturno ``in

the time of Desiderius, king of the Lombards.'' He wrote

a considerable number of works on the Bible and religious

subjects generally. Among these are commentaries on

the Apocalypse (see Bibl. Patrum, xiii. 403), on the

Psalms, on the Song of Solomon; Lives of SS. Paldo, Tuto

and Vaso (according to Mabillon); Assumption of the

Virgin; Combat between the Virtues and the Vices.

See Mabillon, Acta sanct. Bolland. III. ii. 259, 266;

Georg Lommel, Der ostrsankische Reformator Ambrosius

(Giessen, 1847); Bollandist Bibl. hag. lat. (1898), 61.

AMBROSE, ISAAC (1604-1663/4), English Puritan divine,

was the son of Richard Ambrose, vicar of Ormskirk, and was

probably descended from the Ambroses of Lowick in Furness,

a well-known Catholic family. He entered Brazenose College,

Oxford, in 1621, in his seventeenth year. Having graduated

B.A. in 1624 and been ordained, he received in 1627 the

little cure of Castleton in Derbyshire. By the influence

of William Russell, earl of Bedford, he was appointed one

of the king's itinerant preachers in Lancashire, and after

living for a time in Garstang, he was selected by the Lady

Margaret Hoghton as vicar of Preston. He associated himself

with Presbyterianism, and was on the celebrated committee

for the ejection of ``scandalous and ignorant ministers

and schoolmasters'' during the Commonwealth. So long as

Ambrose continued at Preston he was favoured with the warm

friendship of the Hoghton family, their ancestral woods and

the tower near Blackburn affording him sequestered places

for those devout meditations and ``experiences'' that give

such a charm to his diary, portions of which are quoted

in his Prima Media and Ultima (1650, 1659). The immense

auditory of his sermon (Redeeming the Time) at the funeral

of Lady Hoghton was long a living tradition all over the

county. On account of the feeling engendered by the civil

war Ambrose left his great church of Preston in 1654, and

became minister of Garstang, whence, however, in 1662 he

was ejected with the two thousand ministers who refused to

conform. His after years were passed among old friends and

in quiet meditation at Preston. He died of apoplexy about

the 20th of January 1663/4. As a religious writer Ambrose

has a vividness and freshness of imagination possessed by

scarcely any of the Puritan Nonconformists. Many who have

no love for Puritan doctrine, nor sympathy with Puritan

experience, have appreciated the pathos and beauty of his

writings, and his Looking to Jesus long held its own in

popular appreciation with the writings of John Bunyan.

AMBROSE THE CAMALDULIAN, the common name of AMBROGIO

TRAVERSARI (1386-1439), French ecclesiastic, born near

Florence at the village of Portico. At the age of fourteen

he entered the Camaldulian Order in the monastery of Sta Maria

degli Angeli, and rapidly became a leading theologian and

Hellenist. In Greek literature his master was Emmanuel

Chrysoloras. He became general of the order in 1431, and

was a leading advocate of the papacy. This attitude he

showed clearly when he attended the council of Basel as

legate of Eugenius IV. So strong was his hostility to

some of the delegates that he described Basel as a western

Babylon. He likewise supported the pope at Ferrara and

Florence, and worked hard in the attempt to reconcile

the Eastern and Western Churches. Though this cause was

unsuccessful, Ambrose is interesting as typical of the new

humanism which was growing up within the church. Voigt says

that he was the first monk in Florence in whom the love of

letters and art became predominant over his ecclesiastical

views. Thus while among his own colleagues he seemed merely

a hypocritical and arrogant priest, in his relations with his

brother humanists, such as Cosimo de Medici, he appeared as

the student of classical antiquities and especially of Greek

theological authors. His chief works are: -- Hodoeporicon,

an account of a journey taken by the pope's command, during

which he visited the monasteries of Italy; a translation of

Palladius' Life of Chrysostom; of Nineteen Sermons

of Ephraem Syrus; of the Book of St Basil on

Virginity. A number of MSS. remain in the library of

St Mark at Venice. He died on the 20th of October 1439.

See G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des klass. Altertums (2

vols., 3rd ed., 1893); his Epistolae were published by

Cannato (Florence, 1759 with a life by Menus; Bollandist

Bibl. hag. lat. (1898), 65; A. Masius, Uber die Stellung

des Kamaldulensers Amborgio Traversari zum Papst Eugen

IV. und zum Basler Konzil (Dobeln, 1888); Savigny,

Geschichte rom. Rechts, Mittel. (1850), vi. 422-424.

AMBROSIA, in ancient mythology, sometimes the food,

sometimes the drink of the gods. The word has generally been

derived from Gr. a, not, and mbrotos, mortal; hence the

food or drink of the immortals. A. W. Verrall, however,

denies that there is any clear example in which the word

ambrosios necessarily means ``immortal,'' and prefers

to explain it as ``fragrant,'' a sense which is always

suitable; cf. W. Leaf, Iliad (2nd ed.), on the phrase

ambrosios upuos (ii. 18). If so, the word may be derived

from the Semitic ambar (ambergris) to which Eastern nations

attribute miraculous properties. W. H. Roscher thinks that both

nectar and ambrosia were kinds of honey, in which case their

power of conferring immortality would be due to the supposed

healing and cleansing power of honey (see further NECTAR).

Derivatively the word Ambrosia (neut. plur.) was given to

certain festivals in honour of Dionysus, probably because

of the predominance of feasting in connexion with them.

The name Ambrosia was also applied by Dioscorides and Pliny

to certain herbs, and has been retained in modern botany

for a genus of plants from which it has been extended to

the group of dicotyledons called Ambrosiaceae, including

Ambrosia, Xanthium and Iva, all annual herbaceous

plants represented in America. Ambrosia maritima and

some other species occur also in the Mediterranean region.

There is also an American beetle, the Ambrosia beetle,

belonging to the family of Scolytidae, which derives its name

from its curious cultivation of a succulent fungus, called

ambrosia. Ambrosia beetles bore deep though minute galleries

into trees and timber, and the wood-dust provides a bed for the

growth of the fungus, on which the insects and larvae feed.

AMBROSIANS, the name given to several religious brotherhoods

which at various times since the 14th century have sprung

up in and around Milan; they have about as much connexion

with St Ambrose as the ``Jeromites'' who were found chiefly

in upper Italy and Spain have with their patron saint. Only

the oldest of them, the Pratres S. Ambrosii ad Nemus, had

anything more than a very local significance. This order

is known from a bull of Gregory XI. addressed to the monks

of the church of St Ambrose outside Milan. These monks, it

would appear, though under the authority of a prior, had no

rule. In response to the request of the archbishop, the

pope had commanded them to follow the rule of Augustine and

to be known by the above name. They were further to recite

the Ambrosian office. Subsequently the order had a number of

independent establishments in Italy which were united into

one congregation by Eugenius IV., their headquarters being at

Milan. Their discipline afterwards became so slack that an

appeal was made to Cardinal Borromeo asking him to reform their

houses. By Sixtus V. the order was amalgamated with the

congregation of St Barnabas, but Innocent X. dissolved it in 1650.

The name Ambrosians is also given to a 16th-century Anabaptist

sect, which laid claim to immediate communication with God

through the Holy Ghost. Basing their theology upon the

words of the Gospel of St John i. 9 -- ``There was the true

light which lighteth every man, coming into the world'' --

they denied the necessity of any priests or ministers to

interpret the Bible. Their leader Ambrose went so far as

to hold further that the revelation which was vouchsafed

to him was a higher authority than the Scriptures. The

doctrine of the Ambrosians, who belonged probably to that

section of the Anabaptists known as Pneumatici, may be

compared with the ``Inner Light'' doctrine of the Quakers.

See Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie, i. 439.

AMBROSIASTER. A commentary on St Paul's epistles, ``brief

in words but weighty in matter,'' and valuable for the

criticism of the Latin text of the New Testament, was long

attributed to St Ambrose. Erasmus in 1527 threw doubt on

the accuracy of this ascription, and the author is usually

spoken of as Ambrosiaster or pseudo-Ambrose. Owing to the

fact that Augustine cites part of the commentary on Romans

as by ``Sanctus Hilarius'' it has been ascribed by various

critics at different times to almost every known Hilary. Dom

G. Morin (Rev. d'hist. et de litt. religiouses, tom. iv. 97

f.) broke new ground by suggesting in 1899 that the writer was

Isaac, a converted Jew, writer of a tract on the Trinity and

Incarnation, who was exiled to Spain in 378-380 and then

relapsed to Judaism, but he afterwards abandoned this theory

of the authorship in favour of Decimus Hilarianus Hilarius,

proconsul of Africa in 377. With this attribution Professor

Alex. Souter, in his Study of Ambrosiaster (Cambridge

Univ. Press, 1905), agrees. There is scarcely anything

to be said for the possibility of Ambrose having written

the book before he became a bishop, and added to it in later

years, incorporating remarks of Hilary of Poitiers on Romans.

The best presentation of the case for Ambrose is by P. A.

Ballerini in his complete edition of that father's works.

In the book cited above Professor Souter also discusses the

authorship of the Quaestiones Veteris et Novi Testamenti, which

the MSS. ascribe to Augustine. He concludes, on very thorough

philological and other grounds, that this is with one possible

slight exception the work of the same ``Ambrosiaster.'' The

same conclusion had been arrived at previously by Dom Morin.

AMBROSINI, BARTOLOMEO (1588-1657), Italian naturalist,

was born and died at Bologna. He was a pupil of Aldrovandi,

several of whose works he published, and whom he succeeded

eventually as director of the university botanical garden.

He studied at the university, and became successively

professor of philosophy, of botany and of medicine; and

during the plague of 1630 in Bologna he worked assiduously

for the relief of the sufferers. He was the author of

several medical works of some importance in their day.

His brother, GIACINTO AMBROSINI (1605-1672), was a distinguished

botanist, who succeeded Bartolomeo as professor of botany

and director of the university garden in 1657. He published

a catalogue of its plants and also a botanical dictionary.

AMBROSIUS AURELIANUS, leader of the Britons against the

Saxons in the 5th century, was, according to the legends

preserved in Gildas and the Historia Brittonum, of Roman

extraction. There are signs of the existence of two parties in

the national opposition to the invaders, but as Pascent, son of

Vortigern, is said by Nennius to have held his dominions in the

west by leave of Ambrosius, the Roman element seems to have

triumphed. Some measure of success appears to have attended the

efforts of Ambrosius, and it has been suggested that Amesbury in

Wiltshire is connected with Emrys, the Celtic form of his name.

See Bede, Eccl. Hist. (Plummer), i. 16; Nennius, Hist.

Britt. sec. 31; Gildas, De excidio Brittarum, sec. 25;

J. Rhys, Celtic Britain (1884), pp. 104, 105, 107.

AMBULANCE (from the Fr. ambulance, formerly hopital

ambulant, derived from the Lat. ambulare, to move about),

a term generally applied in England and America to the wagon

or other vehicle in which the wounded in battle, or those

who have sustained injuries in civil life, are conveyed to

hospital. More strictly, in military parlance, the term

imports a hospital establishment moving with an army in the

field, to provide for the collection, treatment and care of

the wounded on the battlefield, and of the sick, until they

can be removed to hospitals of a more stationary character.

In 1905-1906 the term ``field ambulance'' was adopted in

the British service to denote this organization, the former

division of the ambulance service into ``bearer companies''

and ``field hospitals'' being done away with. The description

of the British service given below applies generally to

the system in vogue in the army after the experience gained

in the South African War of 1899-1902; but in recent years

the medical arrangements in connexion with the British army

hospitals have been altered in various details, and the

changes in progress showed no sign of absolute finality.

Some of these, however, were rather of nomenclature than of

substance, and hardly affect the principles as described below.

History.

The ambulance organization which, variously modified in

details, now prevails in all civilized armies, only dates

from the last decade of the 18th century. Before that time

wounded soldiers were either carried to the rear by comrades

or left unattended to and exposed until the fighting was

over. Surgical assistance did not reach the battlefield till

the day after the engagement, or even later; and for many of

the wounded it was then too late. In 1792 Baron Dominique

Jean Larrey (1766-1842) of the French army introduced his

system of ambulances volantes, or flying field hospitals,

capable of moving with speed from place to place, like

the ``flying artillery'' of that time. They were adapted

both for giving the necessary primary surgical treatment

and for removing the wounded quickly from the sphere of

fighting. Napoleon warmly supported Larrey in his efforts

in this direction, and the system was soon brought to a high

state of efficiency in the Grande Armee. About the same

time another distinguished surgeon in the French army, Baron

Pierre Francois Percy (1754-1825), organized a corps of

brancardiers, or stretcher-bearers. These were soldiers

trained and equipped for the duty of collecting the wounded

while a battle was in progress, and carrying them to a place of

safety, where their wounds and injuries could be attended to.

Geneva Convention.

Animportant step towards the amelioration of the condition

of the wounded of armies in the field was the European

Convention signed at Geneva in 1864, by the terms of

which, subject to certain regulations, not only the

wounded themselves but also the official staff of ambulances

and their equipment were rendered neutral, the former,

therefore, not being liable to be retained as prisoners of

war, nor the latter to be taken as prize of war. This

convention has greatly favoured the development of ambulance

establishments, but as all combatants have not the same

knowledge of the conditions of this convention, or do not

interpret them in the same way, charges of treachery and abuse

of the Red Cross flag are but too common in modern warfare.

The American Civil War marked the beginning of the modern

ambulance system. The main feature, however, of the hospital

organization throughout that war was the railway hospital

service, which provided for the rapid conveyance of the sick

and wounded to the rear of the contending armies. Hospital

carriages, equipped with medical stores and appliances,

for the transport of cases from the front to the base, were

rapidly introduced into other armies, and played a great

part in the ambulance service of the Franco-German War.

German system.

The German hospital service as existing at the time of the

Franco-German War of 1870-71 was modified and extended by the

Kriegs Sanitats Ordnung of 1878 and the KriegsEtappen

Ordnung of 1887, which completed the organization by the

addition in time of war of numerous subordinate offices and

departments. The main divisions of the ambulance organization

of the German army in the field fall into: (1) sanitary

detachments, (2) field hospitals, (3) flying hospitals,

(4) hospital reserve depots, (5) ``committees for the

transport of the sick,'' and (6) railway hospital trains.

The whole administration of the ambulance service of the

grand army in the field is in the hands of the chief of the

ambulance sanitary staff, who is attached to headquarters.

Next in command come surgeons- general of armies in the

field, surgeons-general of army corps, and under them again

surgeons-in-chief of divisions and regiments. Civil consulting

surgeons of eminence, and professors from the universities,

are also attached to the various armies and divisions to

co-operate with and act as advisers to the surgeons of the

standing military surgical staff. The hospital transport

service on the lines of communication is highly organized

and the hospital railway carriages are elaborately equipped.

French system. The French ambulance system, finally settled

by the reglement of 1884, is organized on almost identical

lines with the German; one of the principal peculiarities of

the former being the ambulances volantes already referred

to. The peace organization of the German and French systems

does not materially differ from that of the British service.

Japanese system.

In the Japanese army a special feature is the sanitary corps,

whose duty is the prevention of disease among the troops; it

has been brought to a great pitch of perfection, with the

result that in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) the immunity

of the troops from all forms of preventable disease surpassed

all previous experience. Not only was the army accompanied

by sanitary experts who advised on all questions of camping

grounds, water supply, &c., but before the war began the

Intelligence Department collected information as to the

diseases of the country likely to be the scene of operations,

unhealthy places to be avoided, and precautions to be taken.

British army system.

Coming now to the ambulance system of the British army, in

which are comprised the arrangements and organization of the

medical department for the care and treatment of the sick and

wounded from the time they are injured or taken ill, till they

are able to return to duty or are invalided home, we will trace

the progress of a wounded man from the field of battle to his

home; remembering that, as British troops are usually engaged

overseas, hospital ships as well as land transport are necessary.

First field dressing.

When a soldier falls wounded in action he is attended by

the regimental surgeon and stretcher-bearers, who apply

some extemporized method of stopping bleeding and dress

the wounds with the ``first field dressing'' -- a packet of

antiseptic material which every officer and man on active

service carries stitched to some part of his clothing, and

which contains everything necessary for dressing an ordinary

gunshot wound. Recent wars have demonstrated that in all

uncomplicated cases it is better to leave this dressing

undisturbed, as the wounds made by modern projectiles heal up

at once if left alone, if air and dirt have been thus excluded.

Collecting station.

From the field he is carried on a stretcher by bearers (formerly

of the ``Bearer Companies'') of the Royal Army Medical Corps

to the collecting station, where he is placed on an ambulance

wagon of the first line of assistance and taken to the dressing

station. Here his would will be examined if considered

necessary, but as on the field the first medical officer who

examined him has already attached a ``specification tally''

to the patient, giving particulars of the wound, it will

probably not be disturbed unless complicated by bleeding,

splintering of bone or some other condition requiring

interference. Any operation, however, which is urgently

called for will be here performed, nourishment, stimulants

and opiates administered if required, and the patient moved

to the field hospital in an ambulance wagon of the second

line of assistance. From the field hospital he is transferred

as soon as possible by the ambulance train to the general

hospital at the advanced base of operations, and from there

in due time in another train to the base of operations at

the coast, from which he is ultimately either returned to

duty or sent home in a hospital ship. The organization by

which these requirements are fulfilled is the following: --

Regimental arrangements.

Every regiment and fighting unit has posted to it, on

proceeding on active service, a medical officer who looks

after the health of the men and advises the commanding

officer on sanitary matters. When the regiment goes into

action he takes command of the regimental stretcher-bearers

who, to the number of two per company have been in peace time

instructed in first aid and in the carrying the wounded on

stretchers. These men leave their arms behind and wear

the Red Cross armlets, to indicate their non-combatant

functions, but in these days, when a battle is often fought

at long ranges, it is not to be wondered at, or attributed

to disregard of the red cross flag by the enemy, if medical

officers and stretcher-bearers are hit. The bearer company

into whose charge the wounded man next passes is composed

of men of the Royal Army Medical Corps, with a detachment

of the Army Service Corps for transport duties. In future,

bearer sections of the Field Ambulances will perform the

duties of the bearer company. Its function is to collect and

succour the wounded on the battlefield and to hand them over

to the field hospitals, with which these bearer companies

are closely associated, though separately organized. In

the Indian army the bearer company is provided from the

personnel of the field hospital when there is a battle,

and reverts to the hospital again after it is over. The

war in South Africa of 1899- 1902 clearly demonstrated

the superiority of the Indian plan; for after the action

the bearer company staff should be available to give the

much-needed help in the field hospital, and some amalgamation

of the two organizations, or something after the plan of the

ambulance volante of the French, is necessary. The bearers

afford the wounded any treatment required, supply water and

sedatives, and then carry them back on stretchers to the

collecting station in the rear, whence they are conveyed to

the dressing station in the wagons or other form of transport.

At the dressing station, which ought to be out of range

of the firing, and should have a good water supply, the

patient is made as comfortable as possible, nourishment and

stimulants are administered, and he is then taken to the field

hospital. In times of great stress, when it is desirable to

remove the wounded quickly from the field, and there are no

roads or wheeled transport is not available, large numbers of

bearers are employed to carry them on stretchers, &c. These

men are engaged locally and are soon given the slight training

necessary. This was done in Natal after the battles on the

Tugela (1899), in which there were some thousands of wounded

to be conveyed; also in Egypt, where the local troops not

required for the fighting line were requisitioned; the Japanese

in Mongolia employed hundreds of Chinese coolies for this

purpose, the general use of sedan-chairs in China having

accustomed the poorer class of natives to this kind of labour.

Indian bearers.

In India, the rank and file of the Royal Army Medical

Corps not being employed, the bearer work is carried

out by natives specially enlisted and organized into a

corps. These men are bearers by caste -- a reminiscence

of the system which prevailed generally a hundred years

ago, and is still met with in out-of-the-way places, of

conveyance of travellers in dhoolies, which are closed

wooden carriages fixed on long poles and carried on men's

shoulders. The bearers convey the wounded in dandies, similar

to dhoolies, but made mostly of canvas, so that they are much

lighter. The courage of these bearers on the battlefield has

often been praised. The old bearer caste is, however, rapidly

dying out owing to the general discontinuance of the use of

dhoolies. Thus the ambulance organization in India is

entirely different from that in other parts of the British

empire. The rank and file of the Royal Army Medical Corps

are not employed there, although the medical officers

are. The warrant and non-commissioned ranks are replaced by

a most useful body of men of Anglo-Indian or Eurasian (half

caste) birth, called the Subordinate Medical Department, the

members of which, now called assistant surgeons (formerly

apothecaries), receive a three years' training in medical work

at the Indian medical schools and are competent to perform

the compounding of medicines and to deal with all but the

most serious cases of injury and illness. In the hospitals

the men of the Royal Army Medical Corps are replaced by the

Native Army Hospital Corps, subdivided into ward-servants,

cooks, water- carriers, sweepers and washermen. The caste

system necessitates this division of labour, and the men are

not so efficient or trustworthy as the white soldiers whose

places they take. The bearers of the wounded are a separate

and distinct class, partly attached to regiments, &c., as

part of the regimental transport, and partly organized into

bearer companies, attached to field hospitals. The dandies in

which they carry the wounded are much more comfortable than

stretchers, being fitted with roofs and sides of canvas to

keep off sun and rain, thus being collapsible so that the

dandy is quite flat when not in use. Still they are heavy,

clumsy, and cannot be folded up into a small compass for

transport like a stretcher; they also take up a good deal

of room in wagons and can scarcely be carried on the backs

of animals owing to the length of the pole. Hence riding

ponies and mules are much used in Indian warfare, especially

in the mountains, for the carriage of less seriously wounded

men. In India separate hospitals are necessary for white

and native troops, and the latter have accommodation for the

large numbers of non-combatant camp-followers, mule-drivers,

cooks, officers' servants, &c., &c., which constitute one of

the most remarkable features of the Indian army organization.

Field hospitals.

Field hospitals, under the new scheme furnished by tent

sections of the Field Ambulances, are each supposed to provide

accommodation for 100 patients, who live on their field

rations suitably cooked and supplemented by various medical

comforts. The patients are not supplied with hospital clothing,

nor do they have beds, but he on straw, which is spread on the

ground and covered with waterproof sheets and blankets; of these

latter a considerable reserve is carried. These hospitals can

and must at times accommodate more than the regulation number

of patients, but in the South African War their resources were

at times considerably overtaxed, with consequent discomfort

and hardship to the patients, the medical equipment proving

insufficient for unexpectedly heavy calls upon its resources.

Hospitals on the lines of communication.

These hospitals are supposed to move with the army, and

therefore it is imperative to pass the wounded quickly

back from these to the stationary hospitals on the lines

of communication (which vary according to the length of

these lines) and thence to the general hospitals at the

base. The size of the lines of communication hospitals

varies according to circumstances, and they are as a rule

``dieted,'' that is to say proper hospital diets and not

field rations are issued to the patients, who also are

supplied with beds and proper hospital clothing. In these

hospitals also there may be nursing sisters, who of course

are unsuited for the rough work and life nearer the front.

Sisters are also employed on the hospital trains, which were

found most useful and brought to great perfection in the South

African War, being fitted with beds, kitchens, dispensaries,

&c., so that patients were moved long distances in comfort.

General hospitals.

Arrived at the base of operations the wounded are admitted to

the general hospitals, of which the numbers and situation vary

with circumstances, but each is supposed to have an officers'

ward. In the South African War, owing to the inability of the

comparatively small Royal Army Medical Corps to meet all the

requirements of the enormous force which was ultimately employed,

many of the doctors were drawn from the civil profession, and

the rank and file from the St John's Ambulance Association and

the Volunteer Medical Staff Corps, while many nursing sisters

belonged to the Army Nursing Reserve, ordinarily employed

in civil hospitals but liable to be drafted out during war.

Civil general hospitals.

In the South African War the patriotism and liberality

of the British public furnished several large general

hospitals, perfectly equipped, and officered by some of the

most eminent members of the medical profession in the United

Kingdom. Among others may be mentioned the Princess Christian,

the Imperial Yeomanry (both field and general hospitals),

the Langman, the Portland, the Scottish, Irish and Welsh

hospitals. These were staffed entirely by civilians, except

that an officer of the Royal Army Medical Corps was attached

to each as administrator and organizer; and their personnel

was made up of physicians, surgeons, nurses, dressers (medical

students and in some cases fully qualified surgeons) and

servants; the numbers, of course, varying with the size of the

hospitals. In addition to the staff of these hospitals

several eminent civil surgeons, including Sir William

Maccormac and Sir F. Treves, went out to the seat of war

as consultants: an innovation in the British service, but

in accordance with the system long in vogue in Germany.

To the Army Medical organization is affiliated in war

time that of the Red Cross Society and other charitable

associations, which during the South African War aided

the Army Medical Service greatly by gifts of clothing,

money and numerous luxuries for the sick and wounded.

Hospital ships.

Lastly, the wounded man is transferred to a hospital ship,

which is fitted up with comfortable swinging cots in airy

wards, with refrigerators for preserving provisions and the

supply of ice, punkahs for hot weather, &c. Each division

of an army corps is supposed to have one such ship, with

from 200 to 250 beds and the same staff of doctors, nurses,

&c., as a hospital of similar size on shore, when necessary.

Red Cross societies.

Different regulations are made by various powers as to

the work of the Red Cross societies under the Geneva

flag. Whereas in Germany and France such aid is officially

recognized and placed under direct military control, the

English Red Cross societies have acted side by side with,

but independently of, the military ambulance organization.

In the South African War (1899-1902), however, the bonds

of union were drawn considerably closer, and cordial

co-operation was brought about to prevent overlapping and

waste of money. In Germany the volunteer organization is

presided over by an imperial commission or inspector-general

appointed in peace time, who in time of war is attached to

the headquarters staff. His functions are to control the

relations of the various Red Cross societies and secure

harmonious co-operation. Delegates appointed by him are

attached to the various corps and transport commissions. No

volunteer assistance can be utilized which is not entirely

subordinate to the military control, and has not already in

peace time received official recognition and been organized

on a skeleton footing. Moreover, only persons of German

nationality can be employed under it with the armies in the

field. In case of base hospitals situated in Germany itself,

the services of foreigners may be employed when specially

authorized by the war office. In France, in the main, the

same rules obtain in the case of volunteer hospital service.

St. John's Ambulance Association.

Great attention has been paid to civil ambulance organization in

England. In 1878 the British ambulance association of St

John of Jerusalem was founded. Its object was to render

first aid to persons injured in accidents on the road,

railway, or in any of the occupations of civil life. As the

result of the initiative taken by this society, ambulance

corps have been formed in most large towns of the United

Kingdom; and police, railway servants and workmen have been

instructed how to render first aid pending the arrival of a

doctor. This samaritan work has been further developed

and extended to most parts of the British empire, notably

Canada, Australia and India, and there is no doubt that many

lives are saved annually by the knowledge, diffused by this

association, as to how to stop bleeding, resuscitate the

apparently drowned, &c. Moreover, during the South African

War this association provided a most valuable reserve for

the Royal Army Medical Corps, and drafted out some hundreds

of partially trained men whose assistance was most valuable

to the Army Medical Service in dealing with the enormous

numbers of sick and wounded who came upon their hands.

Civil ambulance in America.

In America each city has its own system and organization of civil

ambulance service. In some, as in Boston, the service is worked

by the police; in others, notably New York, by the hospitals,

while Chicago has an admirable service under municipal control.

In most of the capitals of Europe similar systems prevail.

Ambulance wagons.

British ambulance wagons are built very strongly to stand

rough roads, and are of several patterns; those used in the

war in South Africa were reported on as heavy, uncomfortable,

and so unwieldy as to be incapable very often of keeping

up with the troops; but a new and more mobile vehicle, to

convey four patients lying down as well as six seated, or

fourteen all seated (whereas the old pattern wagons only

accommodated two lying-down cases), has been introduced.

All patterns of wagons weigh from 17 1/2 to 18 1/3 cwt., while

the Boers and the British Colonial auxiliaries used much

lighter-carts, which were taken at a gallop over almost any

country. The Indian ambulances are small two-wheeled

carts, called tongas, drawn by two bullocks or mules;

very strongly made, they are capable of holding two men

lying down, or four sitting up, besides the native driver.

Various other forms of transport are found, such as mule

litters in mountainous districts, where wheeled carriages

cannot go, camel litters in the Sudan, dhoolies in India,

hammocks on the west coast of Africa, or sedan-chairs in

China. In the Russo-Japanese War an ingenious form of mule

litter for serious cases was made by fixing the ends of

two long springy poles about 15 ft. long into each side of

the pack saddles of two mules, one in front of the other,

so as to support a bed for the patient between them; the

length and resiliency of the poles prevented jolting of

the wounded man, and the mules were able to carry him long

distances over any kind of ground. The ordinary mule or

camel litter provides for a wounded man (lying down) being

carried on a sort of stretcher on either side of the animal,

or in cacolets in which the less serious cases are slung

in seats (one on each side of the animal), sitting up.

Mobilization.

In Great Britain, the material and equipment required are

stored in times of peace at the various headquarters stations

and carefully examined twice a year; and on orders for

mobilization being issued, the doctors and various ranks

of attendants, who have previously been told off to each

unit, repair to the allotted station, draw the equipment and

transport, and embark with the brigade to which they are

attached. The tendency of the present day is towards

reduction in bulk and concentration of strength of drugs,

points which simplify the question of transport of ambulance

material. As the fighting man can carry concentrated

nourishment enough for thirty-six hours, in the form of

an emergency ration, in a tin the size of an ordinary

cigar-case, and enough sweetening material in the form of

saccharine to last a fortnight in a bottle smaller than an

ordinary watch, so the medical department can take their

drugs in the form of compressed tabloids, each the correct

dose, and each occupying about one-tenth of the space

the drug ordinarily would; while the medical officers

can carry hypodermic cases, not so large as an ordinary

cigarette-case, containing a syringe and hundreds of doses of

highly concentrated remedies. Again, the traction engines

which now accompany an army can also supply electricity for

X-ray work, electric-lighting, ice-making, &c. (J. R. D.)

AMBULATORY (Med. Lat. ambulatorium, a place for walking,

from ambulare, to walk), the covered passage round a cloister;

a term applied sometimes to the procession way round the east

end of a cathedral or large church and behind the high altar.

AMBUSH (older form, ``embush,'' O. Fr. embusche,

from the Ital. imboscata, in and bosco, a wood),

the hiding of troops, primarily in a wood, and so

any concealment for the purpose of a sudden attack.

AMEDEO FERDINANDO MARIA DI SAVOIA, duke of Aosta (1845-1890),

third son of Victor Emmanuel II., king of Italy, and of Adelaide,

archduchess of Austria, was born at Turin on the 30th of May

1845. Entering the army as captain in 1859 he fought through

the campaign of 1866 with the rank of major-general, leading

his brigade into action at Custozza and being wounded at Monte

Torre. In May 1867 he married the princess Maria Carlotta

del Pozzo della Cisterna. In 1868 he was created vice-admiral

of the Italian navy, but, two years later, left Italy to

ascend the Spanish throne, his reluctance to accept the

invitation of the Cortes having been overridden by the Italian

cabinet. On the 16th of November 1870 he was proclaimed

king of Spain by the Cortes; but, before he could arrive at

Madrid, Marshal Prim, chief promoter of his candidature, was

assassinated. Undeterred by rumours of a plot against his own

life, Amedeo entered Madrid alone, riding at some distance

from his suite to the church where Marshal Prim's body lay

in state. His efforts as constitutional king were paralysed

by the rivalry between the various Spanish factions, but with

the approval of his father he rejected all idea of a coup

d'etat. Though warned of a plot against his life (August

18, 1872) he refused to take precautions, and, while returning

from Buen Retiro to Madrid in company with the queen, was

repeatedly shot at in Via Avenal. The royal carriage was

struck by several revolver and rifle bullets, the horses

wounded, but its occupants escaped unhurt. A period of

calm followed the outrage. On the 11th of February 1873,

however, Amedeo, abandoned by his partisans and attacked

more fiercely than ever by his opponents, signed his

abdication. Upon returning to Italy he was cordially welcomed

and reinstated in his former position. His consort, whose

health had been undermined by anxiety in Spain, died on

the 3rd of November 1876. Not until the 11th of September

1888 did Amedeo contract his second marriage, with his niece

Princess Letitia Bonaparte. Less than two years later

(January 18, 1890) he died at Turin in the arms of his elder

brother, King Humbert I., leaving four children -- the duke

of Aosta, the count of Turin, the duke of the Abruzzi (issue

of his first marriage), and the count of Salemi. (H. W. S.)

AMELIE-LES-BAINS, a watering-place of south-western

France, in the department of Pyrenees-Orientales, at the

junction of the Mondony with the Tech, 28 1/2 m. S.S.W. of

Perpignan by rail. Pop. (1906) 1247. It has numerous sulphur

springs (68 deg. -145 deg. F.) used as baths by sufferers from

rheumatism and maladies of the lungs. The town is situated

at a height of 770 ft. and has both a winter and summer

season. There are two bathing establishments, one of which

preserves remains of Roman baths, and a large military thermal

hospital. The town, formerly called Arles-les-Bains,

is named after Queen Amelia, wife of Louis Philippe.

AMELOT DE LA HOUSSAYE, ABRAHAM NICOLAS (1634-1706), French

historian and publicist, was born at Orleans in February

1634, and died at Paris on the 8th of December 1706. Little

is known of his personal history beyond the fact that he

was secretary to an embassy from the French court to the

republic of Venice. In his Histoire du gouvernement de

Venise he undertook to explain, and above all to criticize,

the administration of that republic, and to expose the

causes of its decadence. The work was printed by the

king's printer and dedicated to Louvois, which points to

the probability that the government did not disapprove of

it. It appeared in March 1676, and provoked a warm protest

from the Venetian ambassador, Giustiniani. The author was

sent to the Bastille, where he remained, however, only six

weeks (Archives de la Bastille, vol. viii. pp. 93 and 94).

A second edition with a supplement, published immediately

after, drew forth fresh protestations, and the edition was

suppressed. This persecution gave the book an extraordinary

vogue, and it passed through twenty-two editions in three

years, besides being translated into several languages; there

is an English translation by Lord Falconbridge, son-in-law

of Oliver Cromwell. Amelot next published in 1683 a

translation of Fra Paolo Sarpi's History of the Council of

Trent. This work, and especially certain notes added by the

translator, gave great offence to the advocates of unlimited

papal authority, and three separate memorials were presented

asking for its repression. Under the pseudonym of La Motte

Josseval, Amelot subsequently published a Discours politique

sur Tacite, in which he analysed the character of Tiberius.

AMEN, a Hebrew word, of which the root meaning is

``stability,'' generally adopted in Christian worship as a

concluding formula for prayers and hymns. Three distinct

biblical usages may be noted. (a) Initial Amen, referring

back to words of another speaker, e.g. 1 Kings i. 36; Rev.

xxii. 20. (b) Detached Amen, the complementary sentence

being suppressed, e.g. Neh. v. 13; Rev. v. 14 (cf. 1 Cor.

xiv. 16). (c) Final Amen, with no change of speaker, as

in the subscription to the first three divisions of the

Psalter and in the frequent doxologies of the New Testament

Epistles. The uses of amen (``verily'') in the Gospels form a

peculiar class; they are initial, but often lack any backward

reference. Jesus used the word to affirm his own utterances,

not those of another person, and this usage was adopted by the

church. The liturgical use of the word in apostolic times

is attested by the passage from 1 Cor. cited above, and

Justin Martyr (c. A.D. 150) describes the congregation as

responding ``amen,'' to the benediction after the celebration

of the Eucharist. Its introduction into the baptismal formula

(in the Greek Church it is pronounced after the name of each

person of the Trinity) is probably later. Among certain Gnostic

sects Amen became the name of an angel, and in post-biblical

Jewish works exaggerated statements are multiplied as to the

right method and the bliss of pronouncing it. It is still

used in the service of the synagogue, and the Mahommedans

not only add it after reciting the first Sura of the Koran,

but also when writing letters, &c., and repeat it three

times, often with the word Qimtir, as a kind of talisman.

AMENDMENT (through the O. Pr. amender, to correct, from bat.

mendum, a fault), an improvement, correction or alteration

(nominally at least) for the better. The word is used either

of moral character or, more especially, in connexion with

``amending'' a bill or motion in parliament or resolution at a

meeting; and in law it signifies the correction of any defect

or error in the record of a civil action or on a criminal

indictment. All written constitutions also usually contain

a clause providing for the method by which they may be

amended. Another noun, in the plural form of ``amends,''

is restricted in its meaning to that of the penalty paid

for a fault or wrong committed. In its French form the

amende, or amende honorable, once a public confession

and apology when the offender passed to the seat of justice

barefoot and bareheaded, now signifies in the English phrase

a spontaneous and satisfactory rectification of an error.

AMENTIFERAE, or AMENTACEAE, a name which has been used to

include in one class several natural orders of plants which

bear their flowers in catkins (amenta). They are trees

and shrubs chiefly of temperate climates, and include many

common British trees. It comprised the following orders: --

Salicaceae, willows and poplars; Corylaceae, hazel, hornbeam;

Betulaceae, birch, alder; Fagaceae, oak, beech, chestnut;

Casuarinaceae, Casuarina (beefwood); Platanaceae, plane;

Juglandaceae, walnut; Myricaceae, bog myrtle. This class

is not retained in the most modern systems of classification.

AMERCEMENT, or AMERCIAMENT (derived, through the Fr.

a merci, from Lat. merces, pay), in English law, an

arbitrary pecuniary penalty, inflicted in old days on an

offender by the peers or equals of the party amerced.

The word has in modern times become practically a poetical

synonym for fine or deprivation. But an amercement differed

from a fixed fine, prescribed by statute, by reason of its

arbitrary nature; it represented a commutation of a sentence of

forfeiture of goods, while a fine was originally a composition

agreed upon between the judge and the prisoner to avoid

imprisonment. The fixing or assessment of an amercement was

termed an affeerment. In the lower courts the amercement was

offered by a jury of the offender's neighbours (affoerors);

in the superior courts by the coroner, except in the case

of officers of the court, when the amount was affeered by

the judges themselves. All judgments were entered on the

court roll as ``in mercy'' (sit in misericordia), and

the word misericordia, or some contracted form of it,

was written on the margin. Articles twenty to twenty-two

of Magna Carta regulated the assessment of amercements.

See Stephen, History of Criminal Law; Pollock and Maitland,

History of English Law; W. S. McKechnie, Magna Carta (1905).

AMERIA (mod. Amelia), a city of Umbria, situated about 65 m.

N. of Rome on the Via Amerina (which approached it from the S.

starting from Falerii and passing through Castellum Amerinum,

probably mod. Orte, where it crossed the Tiber). It has a

fine position, 1332 ft. above sea-level, and still retains

considerable remains of the city wall, built in polygonal masonry

of carefully jointed blocks of limestone, some 12 ft. in total

thickness, and showing traces of reconstruction at different

periods. Various remains of the Roman period exist between

the walls, including a large water reservoir divided into ten

chambers. The lofty campanile of the cathedral was erected

in 1050 with fragments of Roman buildings. Ameria is not

mentioned in the history of the Roman conquest of Umbria,

but is alluded to as a flourishing place, with a fertile

territory extending to the Tiber, by Cicero in his speech in

defence of Sextus Roscius Amerinus, and its fruit is often

extolled by Roman writers. Augustus divided its lands among

his veterans, but did not plant a colony here. The bishopric

of Ameria was founded in the middle of the 4th century.

AMERICA. I. Physical Geography. -- The accidental use

of a single name, America, for the pair of continents that

has a greater extension from north to south than any other

continuous land area of the globe, has had some recent

justification, since the small body of geological opinion

has turned in favour of the theory of the tetrahedral

deformation of the earth's crust as affording explanation

of the grouping of continents and oceans. America,

broadening in the north as if to span the oceans by reaching

to its neighbours on the east and west, tapering between

vast oceans far to the south where the nearest land is in

the little-known Antarctic regions, roughly presents the

triangular outline that is to be expected from tetrahedral

warping; and although greatly broken in the middle, and

standing with the northern and southern parts out of a

meridian line, America is nevertheless the best witness

among the continents of to-day to the tetrahedral theory.

There seems to be, however, not a unity but a duality in

its plan of construction, for the two parts, North and South

America, resemble each other not only in outline but, roughly

speaking, in geological evolution also; and the resemblances

thus discovered are the more remarkable when it is considered

how extremely small is the probability that among all the

possible combinations of ancient mountain systems, modern

mountain systems and plains, two continents out of five should

present so many points of correspondence. Thus regarded, it

becomes reasonable to suppose that North and South America

have in a broad way been developed under a succession of

somewhat similar strains in the earth's crust, and that they

are, in so far, favourable witnesses to the theory that

there is something individual in the plan of continental

growth. The chief points of correspondence between these

two great land masses, besides the southward tapering, are

as follows: -- (1) The areas of ancient fundamental rocks

of the north-east (Laurentian highlands of North America,

uplands of Guiana in South America), which have remained

without significant deformation, although suffering various

oscillations of level, since ancient geological times;

(2) the highlands of the south-east (Appalachians and

Brazilian highlands) with a north-east south-west crystalline

axis near the ocean, followed by a belt of deformed and

metamorphosed early Palaeozoic strata, and adjoined farther

inland by a dissected plateau of nearly horizontal later

Palaeozoic formations -- all greatly denuded since the ancient

deformation of the mountain axis, and seeming to owe their

present altitude to broad uplifts of comparatively modern

geological date; (3) the complex of younger mountains along

the western side of the continents (Western highlands, or

Cordilleras, of North America; Andean Cordilleras of South

America) of geologically modern deformation and upheaval,

with enclosed basins and abundant volcanic action, but

each a system in itself, disconnected and not standing in

alignment; (4) confluent lower lands between the highlands,

giving river drainage to the north (Mackenzie, Orinoco),

east (St Lawrence, Amazon), and south (Mississippi, La

Plata). Differences of dimension and detail are numerous,

but they do not suffice to mask what seems to be a resemblance

in general plan. Indeed, some of the chief contrasts of the

two continents arise not so much from geological unlikeness

as from their unsymmetrical situation with respect to the

equator, whereby the northern one lies mostly in the temperate

zone, while the southern one lies mostly in the torrid

zone. North America is bathed in frigid waters around its

broad northern shores; its mountains bear huge glaciers

in the north-west; the outlying area of Greenland in the

north-east is shrouded with ice; and in geologically recent

times a vast ice-sheet has spread over its north-eastern

third; while warm waters bring corals to its southern shores.

South America has warm waters and corals on the north-east,

and cold waters and glaciers only on its narrowing southern

end. If the symmetry that is so noticeable in geological

history had extended to climate as well, many geographical

features might now present likenesses instead of contrasts.

The relation of the Americas to each other and to the rest

of the world, as the home of plants and animals, is greatly

affected by the breadth of the adjacent oceans, and also by

the geologically recent changes of altitude whereby the breadth

of the narrower parts of the lands and the oceans has been

significantly altered. Between the parallels of 60 deg. and 70 deg.

N. the east and west widening of North America forms more than

a third of the almost continuous land ring around a zone of

sub-Arctic climate, through the middle of which runs the Arctic

circle. As a result there is a remarkable community of

resemblance of plant and animal life in the high northern

latitudes of North America and Eurasia. In strong contrast

with this relation of close fellowship is the exceptional

isolation of far southern South America. Excepting the

barren lands of the Antarctic regions, with which Patagonia

is somewhat associated by a broken string of islands, the

nearest continental lands of a more habitable kind are South

Africa and New Zealand. In contrast to the sub-Arctic land

ring, here is a sub-Antarctic ocean ring, and as a result

the land flora and fauna of South America to-day are strongly

unlike the life forms of the other south-ending continents.

For further treatment of the physical geography of the

American continents. see NORTH AMERICA, SOUTH AMERICA.

(W. M. D.)

II. General Historical Sketch. -- The name America was derived

from that of Amerigo Vespucci (q.v.). In Waldseemuller's

map of 1507 the name is given to a body of land roughly

corresponding to the continent of South America. As discovery

revealed the existence of another vast domain to the north, the

name spread to the whole of the pair of continents by customary

use, in spite of the protests of the Spaniards, by whom it was

not officially used of North America till the 18th century.

The discovery of America is justly dated on the 12th (N.S.

21st) of October 1492, when Christopher Columbus (q.v.),

the Genoese, made his landfall on the island of Guanahani,

now identified with Watling Island in the Bahamas. In the

10th and 11th centuries Norse sea-rovers, starting from

Iceland, had made small settlements in Greenland and had

pushed as far as the coast of New England (or possibly

Nova Scotia) in transient visits (see VINLAND and LEIF

ERICSSON). But the Greenland colony was obscure, the country

was believed to form part of Europe, and the records of the

farther explorations were contained in sagas which were only

rediscovered by modern scholarship. Throughout the middle

ages, legendary tales of mythical lands lying in the western

ocean -- the Isle of St Brandan, of Brazil and Antilia -- bad

been handed down. Scholars, guessing from isolated passages

in classic writers, or arguing on general principles, had

held that the ``Indies'' could be reached by sailing due

west. But the venture was beyond the resources of the ships

and the seamanship of the time. The opinions of scholars,

and the fantasies of poets, became an enthusiastic belief

in the mind of Columbus. After many disappointments he

persuaded the Catholic sovereigns Ferdinand and Isabella

of Spain to furnish him with a squadron of three small

vessels. With it he sailed from Palos in Andalusia on

the 3rd of August 1492, reached Guanahani on the 12th of

October, touched on the coast of Cuba and Hispaniola,

established a small post on the latter, and returned to

Lisbon on the 4th of March 1493, and thence to Spain.

It was the belief of Columbus and his contemporaries that he

had reached the islands described by Marco Polo as forming the

eastern extremity of Asia. Hence he spoke of the ``Indies,''

and ``las Indias'' continued to be the official name given

to their American possessions by the Spaniards for many

generations. His feat produced a diplomatic controversy

with Portugal which was destined to have important political

consequences. In 1454 Pope Nicholas V. had given the

Portuguese the exclusive right of exploration and conquest

on the road to the Indies. His bull contemplated only the

use of the route by the coast of Africa to the south and

east. In 1488 the Portuguese Bartholomeu Diaz had rounded

the Cape of Good Hope. After the return of Columbus

and his supposed demonstration that the Indies could be

reached by sailing west, disputes might obviously arise

between the two powers as to their respective ``spheres

of influence.'' The Catholic sovereigns applied to Pope

Alexander VI., a Spaniard, for a confirmation of their

rights. The pope drew a line from north to south one hundred

leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands, and gave

the Spaniards the claim to all to the west (May 4, 1493)

. The Portuguese thought the division unfair to them, and

protested. A conference was held between the two powers

at Tordesillas in 1494, and by common consent the line was

shifted to three hundred and seventy leagues west of the

Cape Verde Islands. The boundary line corresponded to the

50th 1 degree of longitude west of Greenwich, which strikes

the mainland of South America about the mouth of the Amazon.

Thenceforward the Spaniards claimed the right to exclude all

other peoples from trade or settlement ``beyond the line.''

Between September 1493 and the time of his last voyage (May

1502 to November 1504), Columbus explored the West Indies,

reached the mainland of South America at the mouth of the

Orinoco and sailed along the coast of Central America from

Cape Honduras to Nombre de Dios (near Colon). Henry VII. of

England allowed the Bristol merchants to fit out a western

voyage under the command of another Genoese, John Cabot

(q.v.), in 1497. The history of the venture is very

obscure, but Cabot is thought to have reached Newfoundland

and the mainland. Between 1500 and 1503 a Portuguese family

of the name of Cortereal carried out voyages of exploration

on the eastern coast of North America, with the consent of

their government, and with little regard for the treaty of

Tordesillas. In 1500 the Portuguese Pedro Alvarez Cabral,

while on his way to the East Indies, sighted the coast of

Brazil at Monte Pascoal in the Aimores, and took formal

possession. The belief that the eastern extremity of Asia had

been reached died slowly, and the great object of exploration

in America continued for some years to be the discovery of a

passage through to the Spice Islands, in order to compete with

the Portuguese, who had reached them by the Cape route. The

first Spanish settlement in Hispaniola spread to the mainland

by the adventure of Alonso de Ojeda and Diego de Nicuesa in

Darien in 1509. Cuba was occupied by Diego de Velazquez in

1511. In 1512 (or 1513) Juan Ponce de Leon made the first

recorded exploration of the coast of Florida and the Bahama

Channel. In 1513, Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the

isthmus of Darien and saw the South Sea (Pacific). The

hope that a passage through to the Spice Islands would

be found near existing Spanish settlements was now given

up. One was sought farther south, and in November 1520

Ferdinand Magellan (q.v.) passed through the strait which

bears his name and sailed across the Pacific. At last the

existence of a continent divided by a vast stretch of ocean

from Asia, and mostly lying within the sphere of influence

assigned to Spain by the pope, was revealed to the world.

The first aim of the Spaniards had been trade with the Indies.

The Casa de Contratacion, a committee for the regulation of

trade, was established at Seville in 1503. European plants

and animals were introduced into Hispaniola and Cuba, and

sugar plantations were set up. But the main object of the

Spaniards, who could not labour in the tropics even if they

had wished to do so, was always gold, to be won by slave

labour. As the surface gold of the islands was exhausted,

and the feeble island races perished before the invaders,

the Spaniards were driven to go farther afield. In 1510

Pedrarias Davila transferred the Darien settlement to Panama.

In that and the following year the coasts of Yucatan and of

the Gulf of Mexico were explored successively by Francisco

Hernandez Cordova and Juan de Grijalva, who both sailed from

Cuba. From Cuba it was that Hernan Cortes (q.v.) sailed

on the 10th (or 18th) of February 1519 for the conquest of

Mexico. Hitherto the Spaniards had met only the weak

islanders, or the more robust cannibal Caribs, both alike pure

savages. In Mexico they found ``pueblo'' or town Indians who

possessed an organized government and had made some progress in

civilization. The hegemony of the Aztecs, who dominated

the other tribes from the central valley of Mexico, was

oppressive. Cortes, the most accomplished and statesmanlike

of the Spanish conquerors, raised the subject peoples against

them. His conquest was effected by 1521. His example

stimulated the settlers at Panama, who had heard of a great

people owning vast quantities of gold to the south of them.

Between 1524 and 1535 Francisco Pizarro (q.v.) and Diego

de Almagro had completed the conquest of Peru, which was

followed, however, by a long period of strife among the

Spaniards, and of rebellions. The country between Peru and

Panama was subdued before 1537 by the conquest of Quito by

Sebastian de Benalcazar and of New Granada by Jimenez de

Quesada. From Peru the Spaniards advanced southwards to

Chile, which was first unsuccessfully invaded (1535-37)

by Diego de Almagro, and afterwards occupied (1540-53) by

Pedro de Valdivia. Their advance to the south was checked

by the indomitable opposition of the Araucanians, but

from the southern Andes the Spaniards overflowed on to the

great plains which now form the interior of the Argentine

Republic. The first permanent settlement at the mouth

of the river Plate at Buenos Aires dates from 1580.

In its main lines the Spanish conquest was complete by

1550. What the Spaniards had then overrun from Mexico to

Chile is still Spanish America. Brazil, after a period of

exploration which began in 1510, was gradually settled by

the Portuguese, though its bounds on the south remained a

subject of dispute with the Spaniards till the 18th century.

The vast territories acquired by Spain in this brief period

were held to be, by virtue of the pope's bull, the peculiar

property of the sovereign. When the wide and dangerous powers

granted to Columbus by his patent were confiscated, Ferdinand

first imposed Bishop Fonseca on him as a check. In 1509

the council of the Indies was established, but it did not

take its final form till 1524. It consisted of a president,

with a board of advisers, who possessed legislative and

administrative powers, and who varied in number at different

times. There was an appeal to it from all colonial governors

and courts. The Casa de Contratacion, another hoard,

regulated the trade. In America the crown was represented by

governors. After the preliminary period of conquest the

whole of the Spanish possessions were divided into the two

``kingdoms'' of New Spain, -- consisting of Venezuela and

the Spanish possessions north of the isthmus -- and of New

Castile, a title soon changed to Peru, which included the

Central American isthmus and all of South America except

Venezuela and Brazil. Each was ruled by a viceroy. As the

Spanish dominions became more settled, the viceroyalty of

Peru was found to be unwieldy. New Granada (which included

the present republics of Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador) was

created a viceroyalty in 1718 (soon abolished, but re-created in

1740). A fourth viceroyalty for the river Plate was formed in

1778. Other governments known as captain-generalships were cut

out of the viceroyalties at different periods -- Guatemalain

1527, Venezuelain 1773, Cubain 1777 and Chile in 1778. The

captains-general corresponded directly with the council of the

Indies, and were independent of the viceroys except in war

time. The administrative powers of the viceroys were very

great. They were, however, checked by the audiencias,

or law courts, of which there were eleven from the reign of

Philip IV. -- Santo Domingo, Mexico, Panama, Lima, Guatemala,

Guadalajara, Bogota, La Plata, Quito, Chile, Buenos Aires.

They acted as councils to the governors, and had civil and

criminal jurisdiction with an appeal to the council of

the Indies at Seville. The towns had municipal franchises,

exercised by a governing body comprised of Spaniards, either

immigrants from Old Spain, or Creoles, i.e. descendants

of Spanish settlers. The places were often sold, and were

objects of ambition to the richer merchants. In practice

the selling of a seat in the town councils, or cabildos,

did not have the bad consequences which might have appeared

inevitable. In the earlier stages of Spanish colonial history

meetings of delegates (procurators) of the town councils,

in imitation of the national cortes of Spain, were not

uncommon. The kings of Spain had obtained from the popes

Alexander VI. and Julius II. the right of levying the tithe,

and of naming the holders of all ecclesiastical benefices.

These immense concessions, made when the development of the

Spanish settlements could not be foreseen, were regretted by

later popes, but the crown adhered firmly to its regalities.

The government of Spain administered its dominions from the

beginning in the strictest spirit of the ``colonial system.''

The Indies were expected to supply precious metals and raw

materials, and to take all manufactures from the mother

country. In order to facilitate the regulation of the

trade by the Casa de Contratacion, it was concentrated

first in Seville, and when the Guadalquivir was found

to be becoming too shallow for the growing tonnage of

ships, at Cadiz. Merchant vessels were required for their

protection to sail in convoy. The convoys or flotas

sailed in October first to Cartagena in South America, and

from thence to Nombre de Dios or, in later times, Porto

Bello. The yearly fairs at these places received the

imports from Europe and the colonial trade of the Pacific

coast, first collected at Panama and then carried over the

isthmus. From Nombre de Dios or Porto Bello the convoys went

to La Vera Cruz for the trade of New Spain, and returned home

in July by the Florida straits. One-fifth of the produce

of the mines belonged to the crown. The collection of this

bullion was at all times a main object with the Spanish

government, and more especially so after the discovery of the

great silver deposits of Potosi in Bolivia. Forced labour

was required to work them and the natives were driven to the

toil. The excesses of the earliest Spanish settlers have

become a commonplace, largely through the passionate eloquence

of Bartolome de Las Casas (see LAS CASAS). The Spanish

government made strenuous attempts to regulate forced labour

by limiting the rights of the masters. An encomienda was

required by anyone who wished to exact labour, i.e. the

Indians of a district were given to him ``in commendam'' with

the power to demand a corvee from them and a small yearly

payment per head. The laws endeavoured to check abuses, but

there can be no doubt that they were often defeated by the

greed of the colonists -- more especially in the viceroyalty

of Peru, which was always less well governed than Mexico.

But the bulk of the inhabitants of the Spanish possessions

were of pure or mixed Indian blood, and many Indians were

prosperous as traders, manufacturers, farmers and artisans.

The Portuguese settlement in Brazil was more purely colonial

than the Spanish possessions. Until 1534 little was done to

regulate the activity of private adventures. In that year

the coast was divided into captaincies, which were united

under a single governor-general in 1549. Between 1555 and

1567 the Portuguese had to contend with the French Huguenot

invaders who seized Rio, and whom they expelled. Between

1572 and 1576 there were in Brazil the two governments

of Rio de Janeiro and Bahia, but its history is of little

importance till the occupation of Portugal by Philip II.

drew the country into the wars of the Spanish monarchy.

The claim of the Peninsula powers to divide the American

continent between them, based as it was on an award given in

entire ignorance of the facts, would in no case have been

respected. In the great upheaval of the Renaissance and

the Reformation it was certain to be defied. As England was

in general alliance with the sovereigns of Spain during the

early 16th century, Englishmen turned their attention at

first towards the discovery of a route to the Spice Islands

round the north of Asia. But the rivalry of Francis I. and

Charles V. gave France a strong motive for assailing the

Spaniards in the New World now revealed to the ambition of

Europe. King Francis encouraged the ill-recorded and disputed

voyages of the Florentine Giovanni da Verrazano in 1524,

and the undoubted explorations of Jacques Cartier. Between

1534 and 1542 this seaman, a native of St Malo, explored the

Strait of Belle Isle and the Gulf of St Lawrence, and visited

the Indian village of Hochelaga, now Montreal. The claims

of France to the possession of a great part of the northern

half of America were based on the voyages of Verrazano and

Cartier. The death of King Francis, and the beginning of the

wars of religion, suspended colonial enterprise under royal

direction. But the Huguenots, under the inspiration of

Coligny, made three attempts to found colonies to the

south -- at Rio de Janeiro in 1555-1567, near the present

Beaufort, South Carolina, in 1562, and in Florida in 1565.

These ventures were ruined partly by the hostility of the

Spaniards and Portuguese, partly by the dissensions of the

colonists. Meanwhile French corsairs from St Malo and

Dieppe had been active in infesting the West Indies and

the trade route followed by the Spanish convoys. After

the accession of Queen Elizabeth, and the beginning of the

breach between England and Spain, they were joined by English

sea-rovers. The English claimed the right to trade with all

Spanish possessions in or out of Europe by virtue of their

treaty of trade and amity made in the reign of Charles V.

The Spaniards disputed this interpretation of the treaty, and

maintained that there was ``no peace beyond the line,'' i.e.

Pope Alexander's line as finally fixed by the conference at

Tordesillas. The English retaliated by armed smuggling voyages.

It was, however, not till late that they attempted to found

permanent settlements. In 1578 Sir Humphrey Gilbert obtained

a patent for discovery and settlement. In 1583 he perished

in an effort to establish a colony in Newfoundland. His

work was taken up by his half-brother Sir Walter Raleigh in

1584. Between 1586 and 1603 Sir Walter made successive efforts

to settle a colony in the wide territory called Virginia, in

honour of Queen Elizabeth, a name of much wider significance

then than in later days. His colony at Roanoke, in what

is now the state of North Carolina, was unsuccessful, and

after his fall his patent reverted to the crown, but the new

Virginia Company carried on his schemes. In 1607 the first

lasting settlement was made in Virginia, and after a period

of struggle began to flourish by the cultivation of tobacco.

In 1620 another settlement was made. A small body of

religious dissentients, one hundred and one men, women and

children, including some who had fled to Holland to escape

the discipline of the church of England, secured leave from

the Virginia Company to plant themselves within its bounds.

They sailed in a single ship, the ``Mayflower,'' and landed

near Cape Cod, where they founded the colony of Plymouth,

afterwards (1621) obtaining a patent from the council for New

England. From these two centres, and from later settlements,

arose the ``Plantations'' of the English, which gradually

increased to the number of thirteen and were destined to

become the United States of America. Two strongly contrasted

types were found among them. The Virginian or southern

type, which may be said to have prevailed from Maryland

southward, were for the most part planters producing tobacco,

Indian corn, rice, indigo and cotton, largely by the labour

of negro slaves. They had no very pronounced religious

leaning, though Maryland was founded as a Roman Catholic

refuge, but they had a prevailing leaning to the church of

England. The northern or New England element began by

endeavouring to establish a Puritan theocracy which broke

down. But the tendency was towards ``Independency,'' and

the New Englanders were farmers tilling their own land,

traders and seafaring men. In the middle region between

them religion had a large share in promoting the formation of

Pennsylvania, which was founded by the Quaker William Penn.

The English colonies, though divided by interest or

character, were all alike jealous to defend, and eager to

extend, their freedom of self-government, based on charters

granted by, or extorted from, the crown. The settlers by

degrees threw off the control of the proprietors who had

received grants from the crown and had promoted the first

settlements. It was a marked characteristic of the English

colonists, and a strong element in their prosperity, that

they were hospitable in welcoming men of other races, --

Germans from the Palatinate, and French Huguenots driven

out by persecution who brought with them some capital,

more intelligence and an enduring hatred of Roman Catholic

France. Though the British government gave, more or less

unwillingly, a large measure of self-government to the

Plantations, it was no less intent than the Spanish crown

on retaining the whole colonial trade in British hands, and

on excluding foreigners. Like the Spaniards it held that

this trade should be confined to an exchange of colonial

raw produce for home manufactures. Two foreign settlements

within the English sphere -- the Dutch colony of New

Netherland, now New York, and the Swedish settlement on the

Delaware -- were absorbed by the growing English element.

While the English plantations were striking root along the

coast, by somewhat prosaic but fruitful industry, and were

growing in population with rapid strides, two other movements

were in progress. To the south, the English, French and

Dutch, though often in rivalry with one another, combined to

break in on the monopoly of the Spaniards. They turned the

maxim that ``there is no peace beyond the line'' against its

inventors. They invaded the West Indies, seized one island

after another, and formed the freebooting communities known

as the Brethren of the Coast and the Buccaneers (q.v).

After the renewal of the war between Spain and Holland in

1621, the Dutch invaded the Portuguese colony of Brazil,

and seized Bahia. A long period of struggle followed,

but, after the declaration of Portuguese independence

in 1640, local opposition, and the support given to the

Portuguese by the French, led to the retreat of the Dutch.

To the north, to the west and to the south of the English

settlements on the mainland, a most characteristic French

colonial policy was being carried out. No sooner were the wars

of religion over than the French again set about making good

their claim to Canada, and to whatever they could represent

as arising naturally out of Canada. In 1599, under the

encouragement of Henry IV., speculators began to frequent the

St Lawrence in pursuit of the fur trade. Their settlements

were mainly trading posts. Their colonists were not farmers

but trappers, woodrangers, coureurs du bois, who married

Indian women, and formed a mixed race known as the bois

brules. Not a few of the leaders, notably Samuel de Champlain

(q.v.), who founded Quebec in 1608, were brave ingenious

men, but the population provided no basis for a lasting

colony. It was adventurous, small, scattered and unstable.

The religious impulse which was so strong both in the Spanish

and the English colonies was prominent in the French, but in

the most fatal form. Pious people were eager to bring about

the conversion of the Indians, and were zealously served by

missionaries. The Jesuits, whose first appearance in New

France dates from 1611, were active and devoted. Their aim was

to reduce the fierce Red men to a state of childlike docility

to priests, and they discouraged all colonization in their

neighbourhood. It was true that the most active French colonial

element, the trappers, were barbarized by the natives, and

that the pursuit of the fur trade and other causes had brought

the French into sharp collision with the most formidable

of the native races, the confederation known as the Five

(or Six) Nations. During the reign of Louis XIV., after

1660, the French government paid great attention to Canada,

but not in a way capable of leading to the formation of a

colony. The king was as intent as the rulers of Spain had

been to keep the American possessions free from all taint of

heresy. Therefore he carried on the policy of excluding

the Huguenots -- the only colonizing element among his

subjects, -- and drove them into the English plantations.

A small handful of obedient peasants, priest-ridden and

over-administered, formed the basis of the colony. On

this narrow foundation was raised a vast super- structure,

ecclesiastical, administrative and military. His priests,

and his officials civil and military, gave the French king

many daring explorers. While the English colonies were

slowly digging their way, taking firm hold of the soil, and

growing in numbers, from the sea to the Alleghanies, French

missionaries and explorers had ranged far and wide. In 1682

Robert Cavelier, sieur de la Salle, who had already explored

the Ohio, sailed down the Mississippi and took possession

of the region at the mouth by the name of Louisiana.

The problem which was to be settled by a century of strife

was now posed. On the one hand were the English plantations,

populated, cultivated, profitable, stretching along the

east coast of North America; on the other were the Canadian

settlements, poverty-stricken, empty, over-officialled,

a cause of constant expense to the home government, and,

at a vast distance, those of Louisiana, struggling and

bankrupt. The French remedy for an unsuccessful colony has

always been to annex more territory, and forestall a possible

rival. Therefore the French government strove to unite the

beggarly settlements in Canada and Louisiana by setting up

posts all along the Ohio and the Mississippi, in order to

confine the English between the Alleghanies and the sea.

The political history of North America till 1763 is mainly

the story of the pressure of the English colonies on this

paper barrier. As regards Spanish America, England was

content to profit by the Asiento (q.v.) treaty, which gave

her the monopoly of slave- hunting for the Spanish colonies

and an opening for contraband trade. In the river Plate

region, where the dissensions of Spaniards and Portuguese

afforded another opening, English traders smuggled. The

Spaniards, with monstrous fatuity, refused to make use of

the superb waterways provided by the Parana and Paraguay,

and endeavoured to stifle all trade. England's main struggle

was with France. It was prolonged by her entanglement in

European disputes and by political causes, by the want of

co-operation among the English colonies and their jealousy

of control by the home government. The organization of

the French colonies, though industrially ruinous, gave them

Illustrations representative of the primitive cultures of Central

America, Mexico and Peru (q.q.v.) selected and arranged by

Dr Walter Lehmann of the Royal Ethinographical Museum, Munich.

Fig. 1. -- Stone Sculpture, from Teotihuacan

Mexico. Prae-Mexican culture (? Totonacan).

Fig. 2. -- View of the Giant Pyramid of the Sun. Teotihuacan.

Plateau region, Mexico. Prae-Mexican culture (? Totonacan).

(Figs. 2 and 6 from photos by Waite, Mexico.)

Fig. 3. -- Alabaster Vessel, with carved lizard as

handle. Teotihuacan, Mexico. Proto-Mexican culture.

Fig. 5. -- Carved Stone Figure of the god of sports and

dancing (Xochipilli- Miacuilxochitl, ``five flowers''),

squatting on a stool, decorated with flowers and tonallo

emblems. Plateau region, Mexico. Mexican culture.

Fig. 6. -- Sculptured Frieze of the Temple of Xochicalco. Plateau

region, Mexico. Mexican culture with Mayan influence.